Airport Strategic Planning

Unit- 1

Growth of Air Transportation

Growth of Air Transport

Over the period 1950-2016, air passenger and air freight traffic grew systematically faster than
gross world product as the unique ability of air transportation to collapse space and time drew more
traffic. Correlation analysis reveals significant associations; 0.65 (R square) for passengers-km and GWP
(Gross World Product) and 0.75 for tons-km and GWP. Thus, each unit of economic growth is associated
with a corresponding level of growth in passenger and cargo air transportation.

Air transportation endured a strong period of growth during the 1960s with passengers and
freight growth systematically in the 10%-20% range. Airports were being increasingly congested and
airline companies were looking for jet planes with higher capacities. The surge of passengers-km in 1970
(+31.1%) is mainly attributed to the introduction of the 747, a large capacity airplane that revolutionized
air transportation by offering lower fares, high capacity and a longer range of operation (thus more
passengers-km). The setback for air transportation came in 1973 with the Arab oil embargo and the
subsequent recession (1974-1975). The 1981-1984 recession, the Gulf War (1991) and the Asian
Financial Crisis (1997) were also economic setbacks that impacted air transportation. However,
September 11, 2001, events, linked with a recession had considerable impacts on air transportation
which experienced a global loss of 35 million passengers between 2000 and 2001. This was the second
time in history that passenger air transport experienced a year of negative growth. The third occurrence
of negative growth took place in 2009, the outcome of a major financial crisis and an issuing recession.
The industry experienced a drop of 9 million passengers between 2008 and 2009.

International air transport grew at double-digit rates from its earliest post-1945 days until the
first oil crisis in 1973. Much of the impetus for this growth came from technical innovation. The
introduction of turbo-propeller aircraft in the early 1950s, transatlantic jets in 1958, wide-bodied
aircraft and high by-pass engines in 1970 and later, advanced avionics were the main innovations. They
brought higher speeds, greater size, better unit cost control and, as a result, lower real fares and rates.
Combined with increased real incomes and more leisure time, the effect was an explosion in demand for
air travel.

Airport Organization and Associations

Airport Organizations

www.icao.int International Civil Aviation Organisation

www.iata.org International Air Transport Association
www.aci.org Airports Council International
www.canso.org Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation
www.eurocontrol.int EUROCONTROL – European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation
www.easa.europa.eu European Aviation Safety Agency
www.jaato.com Joint Aviation Authorities Training Organisation
www.iata.org/ighc IATA Ground Handling Council
Civil Aviation Agencies

www.faa.gov Federal Aviation Administration (USA)

www.aeronav.faa.gov National Aeronautical Navigation Services (AeroNav Services)
www.nfdc.faa.gov National Flight Data Center (FAA)
www.caa.co.uk Civil Aviation Authority (UK)
www.casa.gov.au Civil Aviation Safety Authority (Australia)
www.anac.gov.br Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil (Brazil)
www.tc.gc.ca Transport Canada (Canada)
www.caac.gov.cn Civil Aviation Administration of China (China)
www.aviation-civile.gouv.fr Direction Générale de Aviation Civile (France)
www.bmvbs.de Directorate General for Civil Aviation and Aerospace (Germany)
www.dgca.nic.in Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India)
www.enac-italia.it Ente Nazionale per l’Aviazione Civile (Italy)
www.mlit.go.jp Civil Aviation Bureau (Japan)
www.favt.ru Federal Air Transport Agency (Russia)
www.fomento.es Dirección General de Aviación Civil (Spain)

Airport Associations

www.nbaa.org National Business Aviation Association (USA)

www.ebaa.org European Business Aviation Association
www.meba.aero Middle East Business Aviation
www.asbaa.org Asian Business Aviation Association
www.iaha.info International Aviation Handlers’ Association
www.iatp.com International Airlines Technical Pool
www.euaca.org European Airport Coordinators Association
www.iaopa.org International Council of Aircraft Owner and Pilot Associations
www.tiaca.org
Classification of Airport Airfield Components

Components of Airport
1. Runway
2. Taxiway
3. Apron
4. Terminal Building
5. Control tower
6. Hanger
7. Parking

Runway
Runway is a paved land strip on which landing and takeoff operations of aircrafts takes place.
It is in leveled position without any obstructions on it. Special markings are made on the runway to
differ it from the normal roadways. Similarly, after sunset, specially provided lightings are helped the
aircrafts for safe landing. Many factors are considered for design of runway. The direction of runway
should be in the direction of wind. Sometimes cross winds may happen, so, for safety considerations
second runway should be laid normal to the main runway. The number of runways for an airport is
depends upon the traffic. If the traffic is more than 30 movements per hour, then it is necessary to
provide another runway. Runway can be laid using bitumen or concrete. Bitumen is economic but
concrete runways have long span and requires less maintenance cost. The width of runway is dependent
of maximum size of aircrafts utilizing it. The length of runway is decided from different considerations
like elevation of land, temperature, take off height, gradients etc.

There are different runway patterns are available and they are

 Single runway
 Two runways
 Hexagonal runway
 45-degree runway
 60-degree runway
 60-degree parallel runway

Single Runway
Single runway is the most common form. It is enough for light traffic airports or for occasional
usages. This runway is laid in the direction of wind in that particular area.
Two Runway
Two runway contains two runway which are laid in different directions by considering cross
winds or wind conditions in that particular area. The runways may be laid in the form of L shape or T
shape or X shape.

Hexagonal Runway
This is the modern pattern of system of runway laying. In which the takeoff and landing
movements of aircrafts can be permitted at any given time without any interference. This is most
suitable for heavy traffic airports or busiest airports.

45 Degree Runway
45 degree run way is opted when the wind coverage for same airfield capacity is greater. This is
also termed as four-way runway.

60 Degree Runway
When the wind in that area is prevailing in many directions, so, it is difficult to decide the
direction in which runway is to be laid. In that case, 60-degree runway is opted which looks like
triangular arrangement of runways.

60 Degree Parallel Runway

It is the extension of 60-degree runway, which is opted when the wind coverage is greater in
other two directions then it is obvious that the third runway is to be chosen. But if the air traffic is more,
then it is difficult to control the operations. Hence, another runway is required parallel to the using one.
For that purpose, 60-degree parallel runway is suitable.

Taxiway
Taxiway is path which connects each end of the runway with terminal area, apron, hanger etc.
These are laid with asphalt or concrete like runways. In modern airports, taxiways are laid at an angle of
30 degree to the runway so that aircrafts can use it to change from one runway to other easily. The
turning radius at taxiway and runway meets should be more than 1.5 times of width of taxiway.
Apron
Apron is a place which is used as parking place for aircrafts. It is also used for loading and
unloading of aircrafts. Apron is generally paved and is located in front of terminal building or adjacent to
hangers. The size of area to be allotted for apron and design of apron is generally governed by the
number of aircrafts expected in the airport. The aircraft characteristics also considered while design.
Proper drainage facilities should be provided with suitable slope of pavement. Sufficient clearances
must be provided for aircrafts to bypass each other.
Terminal Building
Terminal building is a place where airport administration facilities takes place. In this building,
pre-journey and post journey checking’s of passengers takes place. Lounges, cafes etc. are provided for
the passengers. Passengers can directly enter the plane from terminal buildings through sky bridge
(Aerobridge), walkways etc. Similarly, the passengers from plane also directly enter into the terminal
building.

Control Tower
The control tower is a place where aircrafts under a particular zone is controlled whether they
are in land or in air. The observation is done by the controller through radars and information is carried
through radio. The controller from the control tower observes all the aircrafts with in that zone and
informs pilots about their airport traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details, etc.
based on which the pilot decides and attempts safe landing. So, control tower is like nerve system of an
airport.
Hanger
Hanger is a place where repairing and servicing of aircrafts is done. Taxiway connects the
hanger with runway so, when a repair needed for an aircraft it can be moved to hanger easily. It is
constructed in the form of large shed using steel trusses and frames. Large area should be provided for
Hanger for comfortable movement of aircrafts.

Parking
This is a place provided for parking the vehicles of airport staff or passengers which is outside
the terminal building or sometimes under the ground of terminal building.
Aerodrome Traffic Zone

Definition

An aerodrome traffic zone (ATZ) is defined as: An airspace of defined dimensions established
around an aerodrome for the protection of aerodrome traffic.

This definition is used in ICAO Annex 2 "Rules of the air" and Regulation (EU) No. 923/2012
"Standardised European Rules of the Air (SERA)".

Description

The ATZ is intended to protect the aerodrome traffic, i.e. the traffic on the maneuvering area
and the traffic in the immediate vicinity of an aerodrome. This includes, but is not limited to, the aircraft
in the aerodrome traffic circuit. There are no worldwide-accepted definitions about the size of ATZs in
terms of lateral or vertical limits. Generally, the ATZ is considered to be a "small-volume" airspace,
usually a cylinder extending from the surface up to a few thousand feet with a radius of a few miles.
The centre of the ATZ may be the Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP), the centre of the (longest)
runway, or another suitable point.

The airspace within the ATZ may be either controlled (and served by an aerodrome control
tower) or uncontrolled (in which case e.g. aerodrome flight information service (AFIS) is offered).

The precise form and dimensions of the ATZ may vary from country to country. For instance, the
following policy is adopted in the UK:

 A zone extending from the ground up to 2000 feet with a radius of 2.5 NM around the
midpoint of the longest runway for aerodromes where the longest runway is longer than
1850 m.

 A zone extending from the ground up to 2000 feet with a radius of 2.0 NM around the
midpoint of the longest runway for aerodromes where the longest runway is shorter than
1850 m.

 A zone extending from the sea level up to 2000 feet with a radius of 1.5 NM around an
offshore installation.

Approach Area

Approach Zone means an area having dimensions of 500 feet in width at a point 200 feet from
the end of the landing strip and 2,500 feet in width as a distance of 10,200 feet. The center line of this
area shall coincide with the center line of the landing strip extended.

Approach Zone means all that land which lies directly under an imaginary approach surface
centered on the extended centerline at each end of a runway. The inner edge of the approach surface is
at the same width and elevation as, and coincides, with the end of the primary surface. The approach
surface is applied to each end of each runway based upon the type of approach available or planned for
that runway end.

Airport System Planning

Given the high cost and long lead time for building or improving airports, planning is key in
determining what facilities will be needed and in creating programs for providing them in a timely
manner, while making wise use of resources. Planning for airport development requires more than
simply scheduling the capital improvements to be made. Airports are public entities, whose managers
interact with many other public and private stakeholders. Airport development plans affect other
aspects of community life—e.g., through the land dedicated to aviation use or the noise or automobile
traffic that the airport generates. The need for aviation development must thus be weighed against
other societal needs and plans. Further, planning cannot be done for one airport in isolation; each
airport is part of a network which is itself part of the national transportation system. For these reasons,
airport planning involves government at all levels, as well as other public and private organizations.

Determining need and programming development at individual airports has become

formalized in a process called Airport Master Planning. While master planning in the full sense is
practiced primarily by large airports, even the smallest must make use of some elements of the process
to prepare for future change. At a level above airport master planning is regional system planning, which
is concerned with development of all airports in a metropolitan area. It often involves difficult political
decisions on development priorities among competing airports. In some cases, this responsibility is
assumed by a regional or metropolitan planning agency, but many State governments have also taken
on the task of developing a coordinated system plan for airports serving not only major metropolitan
regions but also outlying small communities and rural areas within the State. In some cases, State
agencies prepare these plans themselves; in others, they provide technical assistance and review for
local planning bodies. The role of the Federal Government in airport planning includes a broad range of
activities. The most comprehensive activity is the National Airport System Plan of the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), which summarizes the development needs of roughly 3,200 airports across the
country. At the other extreme, FAA has responsibility to approve, on a project-by-project basis, specific
development projects for which airport sponsors are seeking Federal funds.

This chapter describes airport planning at various levels, with emphasis on the planning process
and the problems facing airport planners in general. The final part of the chapter looks more closely at
airport system planning from a national perspective and addresses issues that FAA will need to consider
in preparing a new comprehensive planning document—National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems—
called for in the Airport and Airway Improvement Act of 1982.
Airport system planning

Given the high cost and long lead time for building or improving airports, planning is key in
determining what facilities will be needed and in creating programs for providing them in a timely
manner, while making wise use of resources. Planning for airport development requires more than
simply scheduling the capital improvements to be made. Airports are public entities, whose managers
interact with many other public and private stakeholders. Airport development plans affect other
aspects of community life—e.g., through the land dedicated to aviation use or the noise or automobile
traffic that the airport generates. The need for aviation development must thus be weighed against
other societal needs and plans. Further, planning cannot be done for one airport in isolation; each
airport is part of a network which is itself part of the national transportation system. For these reasons,
airport planning involves government at all levels, as well as other public and private organizations.

Determining need and programming development at individual airports has become formalized
in a process called airport master planning. While master planning in the full sense is practiced primarily
by large airports, even the smallest must make use of some elements of the process to prepare for
future change. At a level above airport master planning is regional system planning, which is concerned
with development of all airports in a metropolitan area. It often involves difficult political decisions on
development priorities among competing airports. In some cases, this responsibility is assumed by a
regional or metropolitan planning agency, but many State governments have also taken on the task of
developing a coordinated system plan for airports serving not only major metropolitan regions but also
outlying small communities and rural areas within the State. In some cases, State agencies prepare these
plans themselves; in others, they provide technical assistance and review for local planning bodies. The
role of the Federal Government in airport planning includes a broad range of activities. The most
comprehensive activity is the National Airport System Plan of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),
which summarizes the development needs of roughly 3,200 airports across the country. At the other
extreme, FAA has responsibility to approve, on a project-by-project basis, specific development projects
for which airport sponsors are seeking Federal funds.

This chapter describes airport planning at various levels, with emphasis on the planning process
and the problems facing airport planners in general. The final part of the chapter looks more closely at
airport system planning from a national perspective and addresses issues that FAA will need to consider
in preparing a new comprehensive planning document—National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems—
called for in the Airport and Airway Improvement Act of 1982.

Airport Planning Process Philosophy

Purpose Of Airport System Planning Process

a. The main purpose of the airport system planning process is to determine the type, extent,
location, timing, and cost of the airport development needed in a state or metropolitan area to
establish a viable system of airports. The aviation planning agency and the FAA should use the
findings of the planning process to guide them in making informed decisions regarding which
local airport development proposals to consider for future review and support.

b. Other purposes of the airport system planning process vary by state or metropolitan area and
depend on a multitude of factors and the planning agency’s commitment of resources to
aeronautical activities and airport development. One key factor in the process is the nature of
existing state or local laws related to aviation, because these define the planning agencies’
responsibilities, authority, functions, and funding for airport activities. Other important factors
include the state and regional goals and objectives regarding transportation, land use, and
environmental matters.

c. The airport system planning process is an examination of system dynamics that leads to the
effective use of federal, state, metropolitan, and local aviation resources in developing an
efficient network of airports for current and projected needs. The product of the process is a
cost-effective plan of action to develop airports consistent with established goals and objectives.
The process also results in the establishment of perspectives on aviation priorities, such as
airport roles, funding, policy strategies, and system trends in activity level. The process ensures
that aviation plans remain responsive to the overall air transportation needs of the state or
metropolitan area, while identifying the roles and characteristics of existing and recommended
new airports, and describing the overall development required at each, including timeframes
and estimated project costs. More detailed design, and capital and environmental planning are
accomplished under an individual airport’s master plan.

GOALS OF PROCESS

a. The overall goal of any airport system planning process is to ensure that the air transportation
needs of a state or metropolitan area are adequately served by its system of airports, both now
and in the future.

b. Airport system planning processes should result in products that can be used by the planning
organization or individual airport owner or the FAA in determining future airport development
needs. Planning agencies, along with the FAA, should enter into the process committed to the
goal of developing useable end products that will result in implementation of an aviation system
that effectively meets user and community needs. The process should focus on the
development of a thoughtful, well coordinated, and practical plan, including project scheduling,
as well as on the interagency and public coordination needed to successfully put the plan into
effect. An airport system plan should outline the organizational structure, authority, and
 responsibility for implementation and should provide a realistic assessment of needs and
resources. The plan should also provide guidance and input for the preparation of airport
master plans and airport capital improvement plans and serve as an important contribution to
the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems.

It involves planning, designing, and construction of terminals, runways, and other Ancillary
Facilities for airlines to operate. Developing an airport requires huge amount of capital and
anticipation of future growth of airlines and passengers. AAI is responsible for the
development of airports in India.

Airport Design

Airport projects are involved with many considerations and issues hence they are highly
collaborative. Designing of airport is taken up by architectural firms. The architects work in
collaboration with civil engineers to come up with the Airport Layout Plans. The experts come
up with master plans which is referred to for further developments.

Planning an Airport

To plan an airport the AAO is concerned for three approvals:

1. Technical approvals

a. Review and approve airport layout plan

b. Review and acceptance of forecast
c. Airspace and procedure changes
d. Land acquisition

2. Financial approvals

a. Funding for the airport is approved once the project gets clearance for safety,
security, capacity and airport access systems

3. Environmental approvals

a. Review and assess environmental issues

b. Find out solutions to address the environmental problems

Airport planning is vital to understand problems and potential environmental issues. Out of the reactive
and proactive planning methods and appropriate planning method is selected depending upon the
requirement.
Airport development

It includes the development of the land to build the terminals and base, and building the infrastructure
for the ancillary facilities. All the infrastructural development is done in accordance with the ICOA
standards.

Airport terminal planning

The following criteria need to be considered while planning and designing a terminal-

 Passenger flow and traffic peaking

 Minimum walking distance
 Level of service for passengers and sophistication
 Performance standards
 Area for retailer- duty free shops, food joint and spas
 Area for facility point such restrooms, ATM machines and kiosks
 Easy access to retail area and facility points
 Compatibility of facilities with aircraft characteristics
 Ability to handle changes in technology and automation
 Expandability for future growth
 Area and processing time for checking-in immigration customs clearance baggage security
screening and baggage delivery

Airport Terminal Configurations

The following configurations are adapted while designing the airport terminals-
Pier Concept of Airport Terminal

Advantages:
 Centralized resources, economies of scale (human, facilities, amenities)
 Facilitates pax management
 Economical to build
 Efficient use of land

Disadvantages:

 Long walking distances

 Kerb side congestion
 Limited expansion capability
 Reduced aircraft circulation &
 Maneuverability
 Limited compatibility of future aircraft design development

Satellite Concept of Airport Terminal

Advantages:
  Centralized resources (human, facilities and amenities)
 Facilitates pax management
 Additional satellites can be designed to accommodate future aircraft design
developments

Disadvantages:

 Requires high technology, underground transportation system

 High capital, maintenance & operating cost
 Kerbside congestion
 Limited expansion capability at main terminal
 Increases minimum connecting times
 Early closed-out times

Decision Making in Airlines

In travel industry, many organizations use decision support systems to improve decision
making. In Airline Industry, companies even calculate the value of passengers who will miss a connection
because of a flight delay and they determine the impact of booking the passenger on the next flight
(Stair & Reynolds, 2013). In aviation area, there are studies that has examined the aspects of decision
making processes such as airline profitability, revenue management, airline service quality performance
and so on (Bruce, 2016; Wu & Cheng, 2013; Hung & Chen, 2013). A good example would be ‘’the
decision making based on passenger self-tagging.’’ Self-Service kiosks, web based check in and mobile
boarding passes are actually a part of a larger term which is known as the passenger self-tagging.
Compared to past, today airline companies offer more through web check-in and self-service kiosk
check-in. In addition to that, depending on the airline and/or flight passengers can even enter their meal
preferences by choosing one of the options or they can simply pay for improvements in the service they
will experience during the flight.

Check-ins are crucial since at check-in, the customer comes contact with the airline for the first
time on the journey. “It is here that perceptions of quality can be communicated” (Edwards, 2005). A
simplified passenger check-in procedures help airline companies by saving time therefore reducing the
costs and in the meantime customers getting charged with extra fees depending on their luggage,
therefore reducing the number of baggage subject to handling (Gross & Schröder, 2007). Additionally,
the airline self-service technologies are also very effective at minimising company labour costs,
occupancy of space, time and queues. On the contrary, the studies have shown that customers often
accept the use of self-service technologies but they make customers anxious when the kiosks
malfunction (Lee et al., 2012; Lin & Hsieh, 2006).
Passenger Behavior

Passenger behaviour needs to be predicted before all else. Because if passengers do not want
to use self-service, there will be a problem. According to Ueda & Kurahashi (2014) attaining higher
cognition of self-service is a necessity because reducing hesitation of passengers is possible by using
lobby service agents as they can urge passenger to use self-service kiosks.

Technology readiness is an important factor when it comes to prediction of customer behaviour

(Parasuraman, 2000). In their research, Lin & Hsieh (2006) confirmed that the more satisfaction
customers experience while using self-service technologies, the more likely they are going to use it again
and going to recommend others. Therefore, firms need to understand the customer readiness to use
self-service technology services. Additionally, the role between customer and self-service check-in kiosks
must be assessed frequently so the effectiveness of IT investment strategies can be calculated by the
airline

Airport Operations

Outside the terminal, there is a large team of people who work in collaboration to ensure
aircraft can land, take off, and move around quickly and safely. These processes are largely invisible to
passengers, but have extraordinary complexity at large airports.

Air Traffic Control

Air traffic control (or ATC) is system whereby ground-based controllers direct aircraft
movements, usually via push-to-talk VHF radio. This coordinated oversight facilitates safety and speed in
complex operations where traffic moves in all three dimensions. Air traffic control responsibilities at
airports are usually divided into two main areas: ground and tower.

Ground Control is responsible for directing all ground traffic in designated "movement areas,"
except the traffic on runways. This includes planes, baggage trains, snowplows, grass cutters, fuel trucks,
and a wide array of other vehicles. Ground Control will instruct these vehicles on which taxiways to use,
which runway they will use (in the case of planes), where they will park, and when it is safe to cross
runways. When a plane is ready to take off it will stop short of the runway, at which point it will be
turned over to Tower Control. After a plane has landed, it will depart the runway and be returned to
Ground Control.

Tower Control controls aircraft on the runway and in the controlled airspace immediately
surrounding the airport. Tower controllers use radar to identify and accurately locate an aircraft's
position in three-dimensional space. They coordinate the sequencing of aircraft in the traffic pattern and
direct aircraft on how to safely join and leave the circuit. Aircraft which are only passing through the
airspace must also contact Tower Control in order to be sure that they remain clear of other traffic and
do not disrupt operations.
Traffic Pattern vs. Scheduled Operations

Smaller airports and military airfields use a traffic pattern to assure smooth traffic flow between
departing and arriving aircraft. Generally, this pattern is a circuit consisting of five "legs" that form a
rectangle (two legs and the runway form one side, with the remaining legs each form another side).
Each leg is named (see diagram), and ATC directs pilots on how to join and leave the circuit. Traffic
patterns are flown at one specific altitude, usually 1000 ft AGL. Most traffic patterns are left-handed,
meaning all turns are made to the left. Right-handed patterns do exist, usually because of obstacles such
as a mountain or to reduce noise for local residents. The predetermined circuit helps pilots look for
other aircraft, and helps reduce the chance of a mid-air collision.

At large airports, a circuit is not usually used. Rather, ATC schedules aircraft for landing while
they are still hours away from the airport. Airplanes can then take the most direct approach to the
runway and land without worrying about interference from other aircraft. While this system keeps the
airspace free and is simpler for pilots, it requires detailed knowledge of how aircraft are planning to use
the airport ahead of time and is therefore only possible with large commercial airliners on pre-
scheduled flights. The system has recently become so advanced that controllers can predict whether an
aircraft will be delayed on landing before it even takes off; that aircraft can then be delayed on the
ground, rather than wasting expensive fuel waiting in the air.

Airport - Navigational Aids

Before takeoff, pilots check the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) for information
about airport conditions where they exist. The ATIS contains information about weather, which runway
and traffic patterns are in use, and other information that pilots should be aware of before boarding the
aircraft and entering the movement area and the airspace.

When flying, there are a number of aids available to pilots, though not all airports are equipped
with them. A Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) helps pilots fly a perfect approach for landing once
they have found the airport. Some airports are equipped with a VHF omni directional range (VOR) to
help pilots find the direction to the airport. VORs are often accompanied by a Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME) to determine the distance to the airport. In poor weather, pilots will use an
Instrument Landing System to find the runway and fly the correct approach, even if they cannot see the
ground.

Larger airports sometimes offer Precision Approach Radar (PAR). The aircraft's horizontal and
vertical movement is tracked via radar, and the controller tells the pilot his position relative to the
approach slope. Once the pilots can see the runway lights, they may continue with a visual landing.

Guidance Signs

Airport guidance signs provide direction and information to taxiing aircraft and airport vehicles
and assist in safe and expedient movement of aircraft. Smaller airports may have few or no signs, relying
instead on airport diagrams and charts.

There are two classes of signage at airports, with several types of each:
  Location signs - yellow on black background. Identifies the runway or taxiway currently on or
entering.
 Direction/Runway Exit signs - black on yellow. Identifies the intersecting taxiways the aircraft is
approaching, with an arrow indicating the direction to turn.
 Other - Many airports use conventional traffic signs such as stop and yield signs throughout the
airport.

Mandatory instruction signs are white on red. They show entrances to runways or critical areas. Vehicles
and aircraft are required to stop at these signs until the control tower gives clearance to proceed.

 Runway signs - White on a red. These signs simply identify a runway intersection ahead.
 Frequency Change signs - Usually a stop sign and an instruction to change to another frequency.
These signs are used at airports with different areas of ground control.
 Holding Position signs - A single solid yellow bar across a taxiway indicates a position where
ground control may require a stop. If a two solid yellow bars and two dashed yellow bars are
encountered, this indicates a holding position for a runway intersection ahead; runway holding
lines must never be crossed without permission. At some airports, a line of red lights across a
taxiway is used during low visibility operations to indicate holding positions.

Lighting

Many airports have lighting that help guide planes using the runways and taxiways at night or in
rain or fog.

On runways, green lights indicate the beginning of the runway for landing, while red lights
indicate the end of the runway. Runway edge lighting is white lights spaced out on both sides of the
runway, indicating the edge. Some airports have more complicated lighting on the runways including
lights that run down the centerline of the runway and lights that help indicate the approach. Low-traffic
airports may use Pilot Controlled Lighting to save electricity and staffing costs.

Along taxiways, blue lights indicate the taxiway's edge, and some airports have embedded
green lights that indicate the centerline.

Wind Indicators

Planes take-off and land into the wind in order to achieve maximum performance. Wind speed
and direction information is available through the ATIS or ATC, but pilots need instantaneous
information during landing. For this purpose, a windsock is kept in view of the runway.
 Unit – 2

Airport Characteristics Related

to
Airport Design
Components Size

1. Runway

A runway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in length is usually adequate for aircraft weights below
approximately 200,000 lb (91,000 kg). Larger aircraft including wide bodies will usually require at least
8,000 ft (2,400 m) at sea level. International wide body flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel
and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) or more and
takeoff requirements of 13,000 ft (4,000 m). The Boeing 747 is considered to have the longest takeoff
distance of the more common aircraft types and has set the standard for runway lengths of larger
international airports.

 No. of runways depends on volume of aircraft movements.

 Orientation of runway depends on direction of prevailing winds.
 Runway length is influenced by temperature, runway slope, airport altitude, MTOW, runway pa
vement condition, visibility.
 Airspace around airport should remain free of obstacles to permit safe aircraft operations

2. Taxi way

Taxiways are defined paths on the airfield surface which are established for the taxiing of aircraft
and are intended to provide a linkage between one part of the airfield and another. The term “dual
parallel taxiways” refers to two taxiways parallel to each other on which airplanes can taxi in opposite
directions. An apron taxiway is a taxiway located usually on the periphery of an apron intended to
provide a through taxi route across the apron. A taxilane is a portion of the aircraft parking area used for
access between the taxiways and the aircraft parking positions. ICAO defines an aircraft stand taxilane
as a portion of the apron intended to provide access to the aircraft stands only.

A taxiway is a path for aircraft at an airport connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminals and
other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although smaller general
aviation airports sometimes use gravel or grass.
Most airports do not have a specific speed limit for taxiing (though some do). There is a general rule
on safe speed based on obstacles. Operators and aircraft manufacturers might have limits. Typical taxi
speeds are 20–30 knots (37–56 km/h; 23–35 mph)

 Taxiways to be arranged to minimize interference between landing aircraft and aircraft taxiing
to takeoff.
 Parallel taxiways increase runway capacity.
 Shortest taxi distance from passenger terminal apron to runway ends.

3. Apron

 Minimum taxiing distance to and from runways.

 Avoid locations under aircraft approach or departure paths.
 4. Hangar

A hangar is a closed building structure to hold aircraft or spacecraft. Hangars are built of metal, wood,
or concrete.

Airbus Industries

AIRCRAFT MODEL WINGSPAN HEIGHT LENGTH

A300 147' 2" 54' 6" 177' 3"
A300-600R & 600F 147.1' 54.7' 177.4'
A310-200 & A310-300 144' 51.10' 153.1'
A318 111.11' 41.2 (Tail) 103.2'
A320
A320-200 111' 10" 38' 7" 123'
A330-200 41,37' 57' 192.98'
A330-300 41.37' 55' 208.89'
A340-200 197.83' 55.86' 194.85'
A340-300 197.83' 55.72' 208.96'
A340-500 208.17' 57.51' 222.87'
A340-600 208.17' 58.84' 247.24'
A350-1000 64.75 M 17.08 M 73.79 M
A350-900 64.75m 18.27m 66.8m
A380-8 261.8' 79' 238.7'

ATR

AIRCRAFT MODEL WINGSPAN HEIGHT LENGTH

ATR 42-300 / 400/ 500/600 80.7' 24.11' 74.5'
ATR 72-600 88.9' 25.1' 89.2'
 Boeing Industries

AIRCRAFT MODEL WINGSPAN HEIGHT LENGTH

707 145' 9" 42' 5" 152' 11"
727 108' 34' 108'
737 93' 44' 6" 102' 6"
737 MAX 10 117.10' ? 143.8'
737 MAX 7 117.10' ? 116.8'
737 MAX 8 117.10' ? 129.8'
737 MAX 9 117.10' ? 138.4'
737-100 93' 37' 94'
737-200 93' 37' 100.2'
737-300/400/500 94.9' 36.6' 102-120'
112.7/117.5'
737-600/700/800/900 41' 102-138'
(Winglets)
747-100 195.8' Tail: 63.5' 231.10'
747-200B 195.8' Tail: 63.5' 231.10'
747-300 195.8' Tail: 63.5' 231.10'
747-400ER 211.5' Tail: 63.8' 231.10'
747-8 224.7' Tail: 63.6' 250.2'
747-SP 195.8' Tail: 65.5' 184.9'
757-200 124' 10" 44' 6" 155' 3"
757-300 124' 10" 44' 6" 178' 7"
757-300 124.10' 44.6' 178.7'
767 156' 1" 52' 159' 2"
767-300 156.1' ? 180.3'
767-400ER 170.4' ? 201.4'
777-200LR 212.7' 61.1' 209.1'
777-300ER 212.7' 60.8' 242.4'
777-8 Dreamliner 235.5' Tail: 64' 229'
777-9 Dreamliner 235.5" Tail: 64.7' 251.9'
B767-200ER 156.1' 17.9' 159.2'
Turning Radius

Whenever there is change in direction of a taxiway, a horizontal curve is provided. The curve is
so designed that the aircraft can negotiate it without significantly reducing the speed. Circular curve
with larger radius is suitable for this purpose

Turning Radius

 Where R is the radius of curve in m, V is their speed in kmph and f is the coefficint of friction
between the tyre and pavement surface the value of f may be assumed as 0.13.
 For airport serving large subsonic jet transports, minimum value of redius of curvature is 120 m
whatever be the speed.
 For supersonic transports, a minimum radius at 180 m is suggested.
 Horonieff equation

Airport Characteristics

It is the characteristics of an airport that define its attractiveness to commercial development,

to private investment and to users. Airports may be classified into three broad types:

The originator airport is preoccupied with exploiting the airport catchment area. This
catchment area is defined by the airline routes available from the airport. Long-haul routes can
generate wide catchment areas. It is fair to say for example that Dublin, for flights to Australia, is within
the catchment area of Heathrow, Amsterdam and Paris, as these are alternative options. Equally, short-
haul flights have small catchment areas, particularly where there are high speed train options, since
railway stations are frequently more accessible and central to a wider catchment area than the airports.

Hubs’ basic rationale, it should be recognised, is to suit the operational convenience of airlines,
allowing them to centralise facilities and administration in an efficient manner. These do allow however
the hub airport to provide non-stop access to many more destinations than a non-hub airport, however
frequent air links are; as such they are a powerful incentive to locate business headquarter facilities
within that city.

Destination airports are much the more difficult to quantify as by definition the world is their
catchment area. Dublin is a classic destination airport. Despite its small population, its many and varied
attractions, coupled with it being the base for one of Europe’s premier low-cost airlines, make it a very
attractive destination for the European short-break holiday. The throughput of the airport is therefore
almost certainly only limited by the economy’s ability to generate tourist demand.

An airport consists of a movement area and a manoeuvring area. The movement area consists
of parking spaces (gates, ramps) and manoeuvring area; the manoeuvring area consists of taxi ways and
runways. Regarding the runway is worth to mention that its longitudinal slope must not be above 1% for
runways code number 3 and 4, and not above 2% for a runway that is code number 1 or 2, while the
transversal slope must not be above 1.5% for a runway that is code letter C, D, E, F and not above 2% for
runways code letter A or B. Moreover, regarding runways, is worth to say that there are instrument
runways and non instrument runways; the instrument runways are divided in precision runways and non
precision runways; moreover, depending on the ILS system (Instrument Landing System) available, a
precision runway can be of one of the following categories: 1, 2, 3A, 3B, 3C.

Capacity and Delay

Factors effecting capacity

Following are the various factors which affect the airport operating capacity:

 Characteristics of the aircrafts using the airports.

 Sizes and number of gates used in the apron area.
 Number and location of the taxiways, configuration and runway exits.
 Availability and structure of the air-space for the purpose of arrival and departure routes.
 Nature and existence of the navigational aids.
 Noise abatement procedure,
 Runway occupancy time for operation of arrival and departure of aircraft.
 Weather conditions and wind conditions
 Techniques used by the controller to operate the runway system
 Frequency and existence of occurrence of wake vortices.
 Number of arrival with respect to the number of departure.

Determination of Runway Capacity related to Delay

There are five main factors for runway capacity related delays:

1. Separation Standards

These are the separations (which may be specified in terms of time or distance) imposed
between aircraft manoeuvring on the runways or in the adjacent airspace. The fundamental rule is that
an aircraft landing or taking-off must havethe runway ahead of it free of other aircraft. In order to
ensure that this rule is never violated certain other separations must be maintained so that. in thevent
of an accident, afollowing aircraft may take timely evasive action. In poor visibility, when aircraft
operate under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), air traffic control (ATC) is responsible for the maintenance
of the separations which are formalised and precisely laid down. In good visibility aircraft may operate
more flexibly under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) with pilots assuming partial responsibility for obeying the
single occupancy rule. The actual separations achieved then tend to be smaller than under IFR and
subject to greater variation.

2. Aircraft Characteristics

The most important ones are weight, speed and instrumentation. Weight is relevant to the
wake turbulence separation while speed governs the times required to fly certain standard separations.
The ability to operate in conditions of poor visibility depends on the aircraft being equipped with the
appropriate instrumentation which operates in conjunction with the complementary, ground based.
equipment installed on certain runways. Both weight and speed determine runway occupancy times;
and all three may be required to determine whether an aircraft can use a particular runway.

3. Runway Configuration

This is essentially the information contained in a plan of the runway lay-out. The most
important points are the separations between runways and the location of intersections and exit
taxiways. Runway lengths and strengths and information about neighboring obstructions are also
necessary if they are limiting for any aircraft types.

4. Movement Mix

A movement will be defined by the type of aircraft, whether it is landing or taking off and the
runway on which it occurs. The movement mixs the set of proportions (positive fractions which sum to
one) of all movements represented by each type.

5. Air Traffic Control Strategies

This covers such discretionary policies as the choice of runway operating mode, the granting of
priority to certain movement types and the decision to alternate landings and take-offs or to treat
aircraft on a first come, first served basis.

The claim that these five factors cover everything which may affect runway capacity is of course
open to challenge; it may however be illustrated in the case of a number of particular aspects of airport
operations.

Safety. This is of course a prime consideration in airport operation, and the separation
standards are designed to achieve safe operations. As circumstances change and new risks arise the
separations may be altered. This is what occurred following the introduction of wide bodied heavy jets
in the late 1960s and led to the adoption of the wake turbulence separations (FAA 1977).

Weather. This is taken into account via the separation standards which depend on visibility
conditions, as well as via the runway configuration if strong winds or lack of instrumentation prevent
the use of certain runways. In addition, if certain aircraft types cannot operate in adverse weather
conditions this will be reflected in the movement mix.

Noise. Regulations designed to reduce noise exposure generally forbid certain movement types
on certain runways. They will therefore be taken into account via the runway configuration or the
movement mix.
Determination of Gate Capacity related to Delay

Introductions

The runways (and associated constraints) are usually the limiting resource in the flow through
the airport. This is because various separation requirements limit the maximum number of operations
that can be safely handled in a given time interval. Once an airplane has landed and has taxied to its
gate, it can often pull directly into the gate. But if the gate is unavailable, the arriving aircraft may have
to wait. If the expected waiting time is long, the aircraft may be sent to a “penalty box” until a suitable
gate becomes available

At a high level, we can view this problem from the perspective of queuing theory.

Delays are fundamentally related to one of several issues:

 higher scheduled demand than capacity or over-scheduling

 a larger arrival rate than scheduled,
 a lower service rate than scheduled, or
 a smaller number of servers than scheduled.

Effects of Gate-waiting Delay

Gate waiting affects airline operations in many ways. First, gate-waiting delay increases the cost
of operating a flight, including fuel burn, crew cost, aircraft life and engine life. Gate waiting can also
affect surface operations if airports do not have enough space to hold aircraft waiting for a gate. For
example, BOS does not have holding pads where aircraft can wait for gates, so held aircraft may
contribute to surface congestion.

Gate-waiting Delay Reasons

Over-scheduling can be a reason for gate-waiting delay. For example, “observations at Logan
Airport showed that despite the limited gate capacity, some airlines over schedule their gates and
consequently have simultaneously more aircraft on the ground than the number of available gates.”6
But, in general, gate capacity is not overscheduled. “Airlines normally schedule gates for only up to 80%
occupancy, knowing that they will need extra facilities to cope with random occurrences.”

High aircraft arrival rates and long gate occupancy times (compared with scheduled
operations) can also be a reason for gate-waiting delay. “A ‘gate occupied’ delay may occur because an
arrival aircraft is early; however, it is often caused by departure delays from leaving the gate on
schedule, due to gate operations or due to other constraints such as absorbing ground delays.”
Determination of Taxiway Capacity related to Delay
Discussions with the airport manager and members of the Airport Advisory Board indicate that
during periods of normal activity the runways at Parlin are capable of handling the demand of 20
aircraft operations per hour. During peak periods Parlin Field can experience demand for as many as 30
aircraft per hour. At peak periods runway capacity is limited due to lack of an adequate taxiway system.
Pilots must back taxi when departing Runway 36 and, as winds are predominately from the northwest,
back taxiing operations occur quite often. Typical time to back taxi is approximately 3 minutes which
adds to the runway occupancy time thereby reducing the runway’s capacity.
 Unit – 3

Airport Planning
and
Surveys
Runway Length

Definition:

According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a "defined

rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft". Runways may
be a man-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface
(grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand or salt). Runways, as well as taxiways and ramps, are sometimes referred to
as "tarmac", though very few runways are built using tarmac. Runways made of water for seaplanes are
generally referred to as waterways. Runway lengths are now commonly given in meters worldwide,
except in North America where feet are commonly used.

To determine the length of a runway, several factors are considered, including airport
elevation, temperature, wind velocity, aircraft operating weights, take-off and landing flap settings and
runway surface condition (dry or wet). Length isn't the only consideration. The runway surface itself is
normally thicker than usual highway surfaces to handle the extra weight and impact forces of modern
aircraft.

Whether a runway is bigger or smaller is not a trivial matter. It affects the types of aircraft that
can use it, safety margins in adverse conditions, construction costs, maintenance, ancillary services, etc.
Its design must therefore be adapted to each specific case. But how do you determine what the correct
length is?

There are several major technical factors involved in deciding the required runway length,
including aircraft type, surface type, longitudinal slope, altitude and climate.

The aircraft type is the type of aircraft that will operate at the airport most frequently, and thus
defines the ideal length of the runway. Every aircraft has specifications that indicate how many metres
are necessary to carry out each of its operations in different situations. However, it is prudent to
consider that there will be other aircraft with greater requirements that may use that aerodrome, and it
is therefore logical to use these values in order to determine the runway’s dimensions.

This factor is very interesting because, not only is it necessary to bear in mind the length
required by a particular aircraft model, but we must also use values for less than ideal conditions
(especially adverse weather conditions), as we will discuss later on.

Several examples could be given depending on the nominal characteristics of some fully loaded
aircraft. At one end, we have the Boeing 747-8, which requires around 3,090 metres for take-off, and
the Airbus A380-900, which requires 3,100 metres. However, the most common aircraft found in most
airports need much less runway. This is the case for the Boeing 737-800, which requires 2,450 metres
for take-off, and the Airbus A319, which can take off in just 1,950 metres.

A second factor to consider is the longitudinal slope of the runway. Ideal design conditions
would have a 0.0% slope, but sometimes geomorphological constraints force the construction of
runways with a significant slope. In these cases, and bearing in mind the prevailing winds, whether the
slope is positive or negative will affect whether the aircraft requires more or less runway for its
operations.
Runway Orientation

• For runway orientation wind data is utilized

• Wind data comprises of:

– wind intensity,
– duration of movement of wind
– direction of movement of wind
Runway Width

Looking at aerial views of runways can lead some to the assumption that they are all uniform,
big and appropriate for any plane to land. This couldn’t be further from the truth. A given aircraft type
has its own individual set of requirements in regards to these dimensions. The classic 150’ wide runway
that can handle a wide-body plane for a large group charter flight isn’t a guarantee at every airport.
Knowing the width of available runways is important for a variety of reasons including runway illusion
and crosswind condition. Runways also have different approach categories based on width, and have
universal threshold markings that indicate the actual width.

Runway Width Number of Stripes

60 feet 4
75 feet 6
100 feet 8
150 feet 12
200 feet 16

 Depends upon the type of airport and largest aircraft in operation

 Biggest aircraft or largest aircraft is basically in terms of the wingspan

 In case of a large aircraft, the central 30 meter width of therunway pavement is observed to tak
e more concentrated air-traffic load

 It also requires additional space on the two sides of this 30

meter width, so as to protect the possible damage to the farthest machinery that is engines,
from ingestion of loose material of shoulders

Sight Distance

The FAA requirement for sight distance on individual runways requires that the runway profile
permit any two points 5 ft above the runway centerline to be mutually visible for the entire runway
length. If, however, the runway has a full length parallel taxiway, the runway profile may be such that an
unobstructed line of sight will exist from any point 5 ft above the runway centerline to any other point 5
ft above the runway centerline for one-half the runway length.

The FAA recommends a clear line of sight between the ends of intersecting runways. The
terrain must be graded and permanent objects designed and sited so that there will be an unobstructed
line of sight from any point 5 ft above one runway centerline to any point 5 ft above an intersecting
runway centerline within the runway visibility zone. The runway visibility zone is the area formed by
imaginary lines connecting the visibility points of the two intersecting runways.
The visibility points are defined as follows:

1. If the distance from the intersection of the two runway centerlines is 750 ft or less, the visibility
point is on the centerline at the runway end designated by point .

2. If the distance from the intersection of the two runway centerlines is greater than 750 ft but
less than 1500 ft, the visibility point is on the centerline 750 ft from the intersection of the
centerlines designated by point b.

3. If the distance from the intersection of the two runway centerlines is equal to or greater than
1500 ft, the visibility point is on the centerline equidistant from the runway end and the
intersection of the centerlines designated by points c and d.

The ICAO requirement for sight distance on individual runways requires that the runway profile
permit an unobstructed view between any two points at a specified height above the runway centerline
to be mutually visible for a distance equal to at least one-half the runway length. ICAO specifies that the
height of these two points be 1.5 m (5 ft) above the runway for aerodrome code letter A runways, 2 m
(7 ft) above the runway for aerodrome code letter B runways, and 3 m (10 ft) above the runway for
aerodrome code letter C, D, or E runways.

Longitudinal Sight distance

The ICAO requires that the distance between the points of intersection of two successive curves
should not be less than the sum of the absolute percentage values of change in slope multiplied by 50 m
(165 ft) for aerodrome code number 1 and 2 runways, 150 m (500 ft) for aerodrome code number 3
runways, and 300 m (1000 ft) for aerodrome code number 4 runways. ICAO also specifies that the
minimum distance in all cases is 45 m (150 ft).

Transverse gradient:
For quick disposal of the surface water, it is necessary to provide the transverse gradient for the taxiway.
The ICAO recommends the following maximum transverse gradients:

 For A, B and C types of airport'1.5%

 For D and E types of airport2%

Intersecting Runways

Two or more runways that cross or meet within their lengths. An intersecting runway configuration is uti
lized when there are relatively strong winds during the year from more than one direction. In strong win
d conditions, only one runway is normally used. On the other hand, in light wind conditions, both runwa
ys may be used simultaneously. Normally, the runway, which is in use for the greater part of the year, is
nominated as the instrument runway.

Taxiway

A taxiway is a path or aircraft at an airport connecting runways with

aprons, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly have a hard surface such
as asphalt or concrete, although smaller general aviation airports sometimes use gravel or grass.

Most airports do not have a specific speed limit for taxiing (though some do). There is a general rule on
safe speed based on obstacles. Operators and aircraft manufacturers might have limits. Typical taxi
speeds are 20–30 knots (37–56 km/h; 23–35 mph).
Clearance

Practically in air traffic services the term “Air Traffic Control Clearance” is abbreviated to
“Clearance”. The logic behind using abbreviations is keeping communication short and concise to avoid
perceptual errors and saving time for observation and other activities. Clearance is given based on the
known conflicting traffic and known physical airport conditions that may affect aircraft operations and
its safety.

We can define air traffic control clearance as” Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under
conditions specified by an air traffic control unit.”

When a clearance is given to an aircraft pertaining to “taxi”, “take-off”, “departure”, “en-route”,

“approach” or “landing”, the abbreviated term “clearance” may be prefixed by these words.

For example, an aircraft has landed and required maneuver for stand and now we have to give it
directions to that stand. For it we give the aircraft Taxi Clearance, indicating clearance for a taxi.

BAW 15 Cleared to stand No 7 via taxiway Alpha (A), Bravo (B), Charlie (C), Delta (D).

 A clearance issued by ATC is predicated on known traffic and known physical airport conditions.
An ATC clearance means an authorization by ATC, for the purpose of preventing collision
between known aircraft, for an aircraft to proceed under specified conditions within controlled
airspace. IT IS NOT AUTHORIZATION FOR A PILOT TO DEVIATE FROM ANY RULE, REGULATION,
OR MINIMUM ALTITUDE NOR TO CONDUCT UNSAFE OPERATION OF THE AIRCRAFT.

 “The pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to,
the operation of that aircraft.” If ATC issues a clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from
a rule or regulation, or in the pilot's opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy, IT IS THE
PILOT'S RESPONSIBILITY TO REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE. Similarly, if a pilot prefers to
follow a different course of action, such as make a 360 degree turn for spacing to follow traffic
when established in a landing or approach sequence, land on a different runway, takeoff from a
different intersection, takeoff from the threshold instead of an intersection, or delay operation,
THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC ACCORDINGLY. When the pilot requests a different
course of action, however, the pilot is expected to cooperate so as to preclude disruption of
traffic flow or creation of conflicting patterns. The pilot is also expected to use the appropriate
aircraft call sign to acknowledge all ATC clearances, frequency changes, or advisory information.

 Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a Traffic Alert and Collision
Avoidance System resolution advisory must notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible.

 When weather conditions permit, during the time an IFR flight is operating, it is the direct
responsibility of the pilot to avoid other aircraft since VFR flights may be operating in the same
area without the knowledge of ATC. Traffic clearances provide standard separation only
between IFR flights.
Apron

The airport apron, apron, flight line, ramp, or tarmac is the area of an airport where aircraft are
parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled, boarded, or maintained. Although the use of the apron is covered
by regulations, such as lighting on vehicles, it is typically more accessible to users than
the runway or taxiway. However, the apron is not usually open to the general public and a permit may
be required to gain access. By extension, the term apron is also used to identify the air traffic control
position responsible for coordinating movement on this surface at busier airports
Runway Numbering

How are Runway Numbers Assigned?

Plainly put, airport runways are numbered according to compass bearings. This means runway numbers
are based on the compass with 360 representing north, 90 representing east, 180 representing south,
and 270 representing west. Runways are numbered between 01 and 36.

For runway headings, the last number is dropped and each individual number is pronounced. For
instance, a compass heading of 310 degrees would read 31 and be pronounced as three one.
For the sake of simplicity, the FAA rounds headings to the nearest ten so even if the heading is 308
degrees, the runway would be called three one instead.

Since most runways are oriented to take advantage of prevailing winds to assist in takeoffs and landings,
they can be used either direction. This is why most runways have two numbers. The second number
differs by 18 or 180 degrees.

Busy Airports and Runway Numbering

Some airports are busier than others. Airports that have two parallel runways going in the same
direction, they are designated as the left or right runway with an L or R. In this case, runway 31 would be
called 31R or 31L. If there are three parallel runways, the designation of C will be assigned to the runway
in the center. In this case you would have 31L, 31R, and 31C.

Exceptionally busy airports like ATL in Atlanta and LAX in Los Angeles may have more than three
runways parallel to each other. In these instances, even though all runways have the same heading, the
number for some of the runways is shifted by ten degrees, making for a one-digit difference.
Holding Apron:

 It’s the portion of an airport usually paved in front of terminal building for parking
loading and unloading of aircraft.
 Holding bays are also known as holding aprons, there are provided at busy airports near
the runways
 They hold aircraft before take-off to wait till the runway is cleared.

Types of Aprons

1. Terminal apron
2. Cargo apron
3. Parking apron
4. Service and hanger apron
5. General aviation apron

1. Terminal apron

 The area designed for aircraft maneuvering and parking adjacent to passengers
terminal facilities.
 From terminal apron passengers board the aircraft.

2. Cargo apron

 Aircrafts that carry only freight and mail may be provided a separate cargo apron
adjacent to cargo terminal building.

3. Parking apron

 Parking apron is the apron where aircrafts can be parked for specific period of
time
 It may be used for light periodic servicing and maintenance
 Parking aprons are located as close to the terminal apron as possible

4. Service and hanger apron

 It is an apron where maintenance and repairing of an aircraft is carried out under

a hander

5. General aviation apron

 General aviation aircraft’s used for business or private flying which requires
several categories of aprons to support different general aviation activities.
 Unit – 4
Planning and Design
of the
Terminal Area
 3.1 Operational Concepts

The Integrated Plan’s discussion of operational concepts describes the performance of the future air
transportation system in five areas:

Safety and security are best achieved when they are viewed as inherent in each operational
phase, when they are integrated into each phase from the beginning, and when they are considered an
integral component of system reliability and efficiency. Safety and security are less effective when they
are patched onto technologies and processes by an outside group after the process of developing
operational technologies and processes is well under way. In addition, just as safety is enhanced through
the use of multiple, redundant systems, security can be enhanced through the use of a layered system in
which multiple security features are connected and provide backup for one another (NRC, 2002).
Layered security is effective, however, only if it is guided by a risk-based approach that quantifies the
cost of each layer and its contribution to overall goals for the mitigation of security risks.

The other three performance areas described in the Integrated Plan—airports, aircraft, and ATM—
reflect how responsibilities for the manufacture, ownership, and operation of physical assets are
distributed among different organizations, but they do not correspond to distinct phases of operation.
As discussed further in the next chapter, implementation of NGATS would be easier if each IPT
corresponded to one group of operational concepts. With such an approach, each set of operational
concepts would encompass integrated operations by pilots, air traffic controllers, and all of the other
people and equipment involved in a particular phase of operation.

 Centralized Concepts – in centralized terminals ticketing, baggage claim and other passenger
processing area are located centrally in one main terminal block with respect to all the gates.

 Decentralized Concepts – in this concept each gate position has its own passenger processing
facility. This concept increases the operating cost of the terminal. Relatively short walking
distances for arriving and departing passengers decrease the passenger inconvenience. But
this type of operation may cause inconvenience to the transferring passengers.

 Semi-Centralized Concepts- separate passenger processing facilities are provided to groups of

aircraft gates. This type of terminals may consist of single or several terminal blocks depending
on the degree of decentralized.

3.2 Space Relationships and Area Requirements

GENERAL. This chapter provides guidance on spatial requirements for functions carried out in an airport
terminal building. The guidance is indicative of the design range in use at U.S. airports to accommodate
domestic scheduled passenger operations. Adjustments may be necessary for international, charter,
nonscheduled, or third level operations. Airport terminals should be designed for a capacity to meet the
projected needs of the community being served. This guidance should only be applied after consultation
with the airlines, FAA, other users, and tenants. Modifications to the guidance may be warranted after
such discussions.
 SPACE ALLOCATIONS. The terminal building area is comprised of both usable and unusable
space. Unusable space involves those areas required for building columns and exterior and interior
walls, about 5 percent of the total gross area. The usable space can be classified into the two broad
categories of rentable and nonrentable space. Usually, 50 to 55 percent is allocated to rentable
space and 45 to 50 percent to nonrentable space.

3.3 Noise Control

ICAO Current initiatives on Aircraft Noise

Continuous work is being conducted by ICAO to ensure the currency of the technical basis
underpinning the ICAO Standards, guidance and policies associated with reducing aircraft noise. This
work includes, among several topics, investigations into emerging noise reduction technologies, noise
impacts from new aircraft concepts (e.g. UAV-Unmanned Air Vehicles), and the development of SARPs
for future supersonic aeroplanes. ICAO is also working on the environmental aspects of airport land-use
planning, and good practices on airport community engagement.

As part of the ICAO Global Environmental Trends, ICAO has been assessing trends in global exposure to
aircraft noise which provide a basis for sound discussion and decision-making on aircraft noise policies.
Additionally, noise technology goals have been developed, in a with the purpose of providing stretch yet
reasonable targets for industry R&D to aim at, in cooperation with States. More details on these ICAO
initiatives on aircraft noise are provided in the following pages:

 Noise Trends
 Technology Goals
 Noise Reduction Technologies
 Community engagement for aviation environmental management
 Supersonic Aircraft Noise Standards Development
 New aircraft concepts (Remotely piloted aircraft, urban air mobility, drones)

Noise

The National Airspace System helps people and goods travel safely and freely. While there are
many benefits to air travel, aviation noise can be a concern for communities. The FAA is limited by the
simple reality that aircraft make noise. Addressing this concern requires collaboration among the FAA,
air carriers, airports, aircraft manufacturers, research universities, other stakeholders and industry
partners, local communities, and elected officials. Decisions about flight times, number of operations,
and aircraft type are in the scope of private industry. Airport location is a function of local land use
planning. Runway alignment is determined by the prevailing winds at that specific location. The FAA
strives to reduce noise in ways within our purview, including conducting noise research and working
with aviation stakeholders and local communities.
 Aviation Noise

Almost 2.6 million passengers fly in and out of U.S. airports every day. Aviation supports 10.6 million
American jobs, and moved 39.9 billion pounds of freight in 2016.

Along with these benefits, the airplanes that move all these people and products may also disturb those
living or working near airports by exposing them to noise.

Over the last 40 years, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has been working to reduce the
number of Americans exposed to aviation noise around airport communities. By one measure, it has
been a success: over the last four decades, the number of people in the U.S. exposed to aviation noise
has dropped substantially, even as the number of flights has soared.

However, even with this success, aviation noise is and remains a concern for many communities. To
promote ways in which to better balance the benefits and adverse effects of aviation on airport
communities, FAA continues work to improve its means of understanding and reducing the effects of
aircraft noise exposure.

The goal of this website is to inform you about aviation noise and the FAA's ongoing work to improve
our understanding of the ways aviation noise may affect communities.

Fundamentals of Noise and Sound

Sound is energy transferred through the air that our ears detect as small changes in air pressure. The
more energy put into making a sound, the louder it will be. Try whispering. Then yell. You can feel how
much more energy goes into yelling.

Noise is sound that is unwanted. Some sounds, like a distant train whistle, can be a pleasant sound for
some, while being considered noise by others. Other sounds, like a neighbor's barking dog in the middle
of the night, are more universally found to be annoying. Even sounds that are pleasant at one volume
can become noise to us as they get louder. Noise, then, has both an objective, physical component; as
well as a subjective component that takes account of a person's individual perception, or reaction, to a
sound.

The decibel (db) is the unit used to measure the intensity of a sound. The human ear hears sound
pressures over a wide range. Decibels, which are measured on a logarithmic scale, correspond to the
way our ears interpret sound pressures.
The human ear also responds to different pitches or frequencies of sound differently. We are less able to
hear low frequencies like the rumble of thunder but hear high frequencies like the cry of a baby more
strongly.

To account for differences in how people respond to sound, the "A-weighted" scale (dBA) is used. This
scale most closely approximates the relative loudness of sounds in air as perceived by the human ear
and provides a more useful way to evaluate the effect of noise exposure on humans by focusing on
those parts of the frequency spectrum where we hear most. The A weighted noise level has been
adopted by the FAA as the accepted measure to consider aircraft noise.

For noise sources in motion, like aircraft, noise levels can change over time. For example, the sound
level of a plane increases as it approaches, and then as it flies away the sound level decreases. It can be
useful to measure the maximum sound level, abbreviated as Lmax, of a particular noise "event." While
Lmax notes the moment of maximum sound level, it does not account for the duration of a sound event.
The maximum sound level of a gun firing a bullet is high but very brief; a freight train can have the same
maximum sound level, if you are very close to it, but the sound has a long duration.

To account for the differences in duration and loudness of sounds, different metrics are used. These
metrics are used to compare individual noise events as well as many events that take place over an
extended period of time.
Noise Contours

Noise levels can be computed at individual locations of interest, but to shown how noise can vary over
extended areas, noise metric results like DNL are often drawn on maps in terms of lines connecting
points of the same decibel (dBA). Similar to topographical maps showing the elevation of terrain in an
area, these noise "contours" are useful for comparing aircraft noise exposure throughout an airport
community. The shape of noise contours depends on many factors, but are influenced by things like
whether more arriving or departing aircraft are flying over an area.

3.4 Vehicular Traffic and Parking at airports

Airport curbside, where travelers and their baggage enter and exit the terminal, and the designated
parking area are important components in airport land-side facilities. Passengers expect safe and
efficient roadway operations even as volumes increase, but the design and capacity of the curbside are
often constrained by the terminal building and the proximity of on-airport land-side infrastructure. The
operating characteristics of airport terminal curbside differ significantly from those of most other
roadways due to several reasons such as vehicle dwell time, maneuver vehicles to and from adjacent
lane, variation in demand etc. The capacity of a curbside roadway is defined both by the number of
vehicles that can be accommodated while stopping to pick up or drop off passengers and the number
that can be accommodated while traveling past the curbside in the through lanes. Therefore a study of
operations at curbside and parking area is important to identify issues related to existing and future
demand levels. The main focus of the paper is on the evaluation of vehicle operations and passenger
behavior at the BIA terminal access roadway, weaving segment, arrival and departure curbside
roadways and terminal car park. Analysis of vehicular traffic, travel mode choices, and curbside roadway
vehicle queues, vehicle dwelling times, passenger occupancy time at curbs and passenger processing
and walking times will provide useful information for developing plans for operational improvements as
well as for future expansions. Using the available data, the demand and the capacity at these facilities
are evaluated to estimate the existing level of service. In addition, measures were identified to improve
the operational efficiency of these facilities and design improvements are proposed to ensure good
operational efficiency for the forecast future demand.

Modern airport parking management

 Stress-free and convenient parking for your customers

 Revenue maximization using e-commerce options such as booking and reservation platforms
 Target group-adjusted marketing using reports and analyses of passenger behavior
 Efficient and cheap operation due to the highest level of reliability
 Easy integration into airport systems and structures
 Use of various data carriers such as customer loyalty cards by airlines
 Integration of frequent flyer programs
 Renumeration solutions for purchases in airport shopping areas
 Additional services such as security parking or the charging of electronic cars

1 INTRODUCTION

Airport passenger terminals are typically very crowded with thousands of passengers, well-
wishers, greeters, employees, and vendors entering or leaving the terminal through some mode of
ground transportation. The terminal curbside, used by all ground transportation modes, is one of the
most congested areas of an airport. Most major airports have experienced significant traffic congestion
problems and therefore require improvements in their ground transportation access systems.
Simulation has been a useful technique in modeling vehicular traffic at terminal curbside to analyze the
impact of changes in operating conditions (Carson, 1997; Bender and Chang, 1997). We present an
airport roadway simulation application and describe the methodology in modeling the curbside
vehicular traffic. The simulation model provides a platform for what-if type analysis and is used to
evaluate several design scenarios to identify a good curbside transportation mode allocation. In this
paper, we also share our experiences as to the unique nature of roadway modeling using discrete event
simulation. In the next section, we specify the purpose of the modeling effort. We then describe the
roadway system that is modeled in this study, followed by the identification of simulation model
architecture. The model input parameters and output measures are then presented followed by a brief
discussion on the results. Throughout this project we faced many challenges and we discuss these
issues. We end this paper by highlighting our conclusions.
2 PURPOSE OF THE MODELING

The City of Austin is redeveloping a former Air Force Base into its new International Airport. As
such, the property is being completely transformed and there does not exist operational data on how
the new facilities will perform at the new airport. The city wants to be sure that facilities will be
sufficient for opening day and beyond and this is a primary motivation for the modeling.

Additionally, there exists a Ground Transportation Coordinating Committee which advises the city on
technical matters relating to ground transportation facilities at the existing and new airport. The
committee raised questions about the allocation of various transportation segments to available curb
parking areas and indicated a general level of concern about the operational capability of the facilities as
designed. To address these concerns, the city initiated the modeling and will include alternative
scenarios to directly answer the questions of the committee.

The SABRE Group (SABRE) was contracted by the Austin airport authorities to develop a computer
simulation model of the curbside roadways, including vehicular traffic as well as the pedestrian flow
entering and exiting the terminal building and the parking garage.

3 THE MODEL

We now describe the roadway system, present the simulation model architecture, specify the model
input parameters, identify the model performance measures, and discuss our findings.

a. System Description

The Austin-Bergstrom International Airport (ABIA) is being constructed on the site of the old
Bergstrom Air Force base. It is scheduled to open in 1999, and will serve over 20,000 passengers
daily. With an annual passenger volume growth of 4.5%, it is estimated that in summer 2004,
the airport will serve over 27,000 passengers daily. The terminal has two levels with a separate
access roadway for each one.

By far, the largest mode of travel to the airport in Austin is by private vehicle. As the dominant
mode, this creates a high demand for curb parking adjacent to the terminal building and
strongly influences the overall traffic patterns in the curbside area. Although the city is
considering encouraging other modes of travel to the airport, there is no guarantee that these
modes will substantially reduce the demand for private vehicle space at the curb.

The upper level –is dedicated to departing passengers who are leaving the airport via their
outbound flights. Ticketing and security access to gates are located at the upper level. Departing
passengers as well as their well-wishers use the upper roadway to access the terminal. There is
one entry to and one exit from the upper roadway with one-way vehicular traffic flow. All
parking garage traffic is diverted to the garage before the entrance and ramp to the upper
roadway. There are two curbs on the upper roadway. The inner curb, which consists of four
lanes, is primarily dedicated to the use of private vehicles although other modes of
transportation are allowed. The outer curb, called the median, is dedicated solely to commercial
traffic, and is served by three lanes. The total length of the upper curb is 675 feet, of which 75
feet is allowed for crosswalks. With an average vehicle size of 25 feet, there are 24 curbside
parking positions.
 The lower level is dedicated to arriving passengers who are coming to the airport via their
inbound flights. Baggage claim is located at the lower level. Arriving passengers as well as their
greeters use the lower roadway. There is one entry to and one exit from the lower roadway with
one-way vehicular traffic flow. There are two curbs on the lower roadway. The inner curb, which
consists of four lanes, is primarily dedicated to the use of private vehicles although other modes
of transportation are allowed. The outer curb is dedicated solely to commercial traffic, and is
served by three lanes. No parking is allowed on the outer most lanes of inner curb and the
median curb. There are 24 curbside parking positions at both the inner and the outer curbs.

Pedestrians use the four crosswalks to reach the median and the two crosswalks to reach to the
parking garage. Crosswalks are currently unregulated, pedestrians have immediate right-of-way
and all vehicular traffic yields to pedestrians.

b. Simulation Model Architecture

The curbside roadway simulation model includes five major logic components. ƒ

Vehicle Movement – Moves vehicles forward while checking for any blockages or interference
from other vehicular or pedestrian traffic. Necessary lane changes are performed, provided that
enough vehicle separation is maintained for safety reasons. ƒ

Parking Space Selection – Determines the parking position of vehicles based on the desired
parking zone and availability. Vehicles are assumed to park at the available zone closest to their
desired terminal entrances. If no single-lane parking position is available, vehicles are allowed to
double-park and triple-park to drop-off and pick-up passengers. ƒ

Passenger Drop-off – Ensures that passengers are dropped-off at designated zones. The
unloading time delay is sampled from the corresponding unloading time distributions based on
the transportation modes. ƒ

Passenger Pick-up – Matches deplaning passengers with their corresponding transportation

modes, and samples from the corresponding loading time distributions. ƒ

Pedestrian Crossing – Ensures that roadway traffic yields to pedestrians crossing to and from the
parking garage.

The curbside model is developed using the simulation modeling tool ARENA. The run time of
one replication of the model is slightly under 5 minutes on Intel Pentium 200 megahertz
machine running Windows NT operating system.
c. Model Inputs

The model is driven by a number of parameters which include:

− Flight schedules
− Commercial vehicle access frequencies
− Distribution of − passenger group size
− number of well-wishers
− number of bags per passenger
− pedestrian walking speed
− passenger arrival time pattern
− loading/unloading times for vehicles
− Parking garage usage percentages
− Transportation mode split and curbside allocation of
− Private autos
− Taxicabs
− Limousines
− Hotel/Motel courtesy shuttles
− Shared ride
− City buses
− Charter busses
− Parking shuttles
− Maximum passenger occupancy by vehicle types
− Airline zone identification at curbside

These input parameters together with several rules that control the vehicle and
pedestrian movement define the input space for the simulation model.

We collected data on-site to estimate the distribution of loading/unloading times for

different modes of transportation. Other model input parameters were obtained from previous
studies. These include the passenger group size, number of well-wishers, number of bags per
passenger, pedestrian walking speed, and passenger arrival pattern distributions. The current
flight schedules were obtained from the Official Airline Guides and future demand for the year
2004 is estimated based on a 4.5% annual growth. Other model parameters have been provided
by the New Airport Project Team of the City of Austin.
 Unit – 5
Air Traffic Control
and Aids
 Runway and Taxiway Markings

Introduction

Correctly marking the paved surfaces of an airport is fundamental in operating an airport safely
and effectively. Making sure these markings stay visible is equally as important. The Federal Aviation
Administration’s (FAA) Advisory Circular AC 150/5340-1J “Standards for Airport Markings” describe the
standards for paved area marking used on airports. This chapter will provide information on marking
paved runways, taxiways, and closed or hazardous areas. The FAA’s Advisory Circular AC 150/5340-1J
“Standards for Airport Markings”, which includes the figures and diagrams, is attached on the enclosed
CD for reference.

Runways

Runways are defined rectangular surfaces, on an airport, prepared or suitable for the landing or
takeoff of airplanes. The colors of markings on runways are white. A runway should be marked
according to its usage. The three classifications of runways are Visual Runways, Non-precision
Instrument Runways, and Precision Instrument Runways. A Visual Runway does not have an existing or
planned straight-in instrument approach procedure. A Non-precision Instrument Runway has an existing
instrument approach procedure which uses navigational aids with only horizontal or lateral guidance to
the airport or runway. A Precision Instrument Runway has an existing instrument approach procedure
using a precision instrument landing system, which provides both lateral and vertical guidance to a
runway end.

Marking Precedence

Where multiple runways intersect, the markings on the runway of the higher classification
continue through the intersection, while the markings of the lower classification are interrupted. The
one exception is that the runway threshold marking, designation, marking, and touchdown zone
markings are relocated along the lower classification runway to avoid the intersection area. For
intersections of runways of the same classification, the preferred runway (lowest approach minimums
or most often used) is considered to be of a higher precedence order. For marking purposes, the
classifications, in descending order is as follows:

1. Precision instrument runway, Category III

2. Precision instrument runway, Category II
3. Precision instrument runway, Category I
4. Non-precision instrument runway
5. Visual runway
 Runway Designation Marking

Runways are identified by the white numbers painted on the end of each runway. These
numbers also represent the runway centerline’s compass heading to the nearest 10-degree increment.
The runway centerline’s compass heading is measured clockwise from the magnetic north when viewed
from the direction of approach. For example, where the compass heading of a runway is 174 degrees,
the runway designation would be “17”; and for a compass heading of 87 degrees, the runway
designation would be “9” (rounded up). For a compass heading ending in “5”, such as 185, the runway
designation marking could either be “18” or “19.” A single-digit runway designation number should not
be preceded by a zero. For parallel runways, the runway designation will have the same number but
they must be followed by “L” or “R” designating the left or right position of the runways when viewed
from the direction of the approach. The size of the painted runway designation numbers should be 60
feet tall and 20 feet wide.

Runway Centerline Markings

Centerline markings on runways identify the physical center of the runway and provides
alignment guidance during landing and takeoff. The runway centerline markings are white and are
located along the centerline of the runway between the runway designation markings. These markings
consist of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. The stripes are 120 feet long and have gaps that
are 80 feet in length. Any adjustments to the length and gaps of the stripes that may be needed
because of runway length are to be made near the runway midpoint. The minimum width of each stripe
is 12 inches for visual approach runways, 18 inches for non-precision instrument runways, and 36 inches
for precision instrument runways.

Runway Threshold Marking

A threshold marking identifies the beginning of the runway that is available and suitable for
landing. The runway threshold markings consist of eight white longitudinal stripes of uniform dimension
arranged evenly about the runway centerline. These markings start 20 feet from the runway threshold.
The stripes must be 150 feet long, 5.75 feet wide, and spaced 5.75 feet apart except the center space
which is 11.5 feet apart.

The stripes extend sideways to within 10 feet from the edge of the runway or to a distance of 90
feet on either side of a runway centerline, whichever is the smaller lateral distance. (See table next
page.)

RUNWAY WIDTH NUMBER OF STRIPES

60 feet 4
75 feet 6
100 feet 8
150 feet 12
200 feet 16
 Runway Aiming Point Marking

An aiming point marking provides jet aircraft a visual aiming point for landing operations. The
aiming points are white and the beginning of these markings are located 1,020 feet from the threshold.
The aiming points consist of two rectangular markings, 150 feet in length, located on each side of the
runway centerline. The width of each marking is 30 feet for a runway with a width of 150 feet or greater.
The spacing between the inner sides of the markings is 72 feet for a runway width of 150 feet or greater.
For runways that are less than 150 feet wide, the width of the markings and the space between the
inner sides of the markings is decreased in proportion to the decrease in the width of the runway.
Where there are touchdown zone markings, the space between the inner sides of the markings should
be the same as that of the touchdown markings.

Runway Touchdown Zone Marking

The touchdown zone markings identify the touchdown zone for landings and are coded to
provide distance information. These markings are white and consist of groups of one, two, and three
rectangular bars evenly arranged in pairs along the runway centerline. For runways less than 150 feet in
width, the markings and spaces are reduced proportionally, but the lengths remain the same. On
runways having touchdown zone markings at both ends, the pairs of markings which extend to within
900 feet of the runway midpoint are eliminated. The fixed distance markings are a part of the
touchdown zone markings but are used alone on non-precision instrument runways and visual runways
4,000 feet in length or longer used by jet aircraft. Touchdown zone markings are required on runways
with precision instrument approaches.
 Runway Side Strip Marking

Runway side stripe markings provide a visual distinction between the runway and the
surrounding terrain and also outline the runway width. Runway side stripes are white and consist of
continuous stripes located along each side of the runway. The maximum distance between the outer
edges of the stripes is 200 feet. The stripes have a minimum width of 36 inches for precision instrument
runways and are at least equal to the width of the runway centerline stripes on other runways. The
stripes extend to the end of displaced threshold areas which are used for takeoffs and rollouts. Side
stripes are required on precision instrument runways.

Runway Threshold Bar

A threshold bar identifies the beginning of the runway that is available for landing when there is
pavement aligned with the runway on the approach side of the threshold. A threshold bar is white and is
located on the landing runway at the threshold. The threshold bar is 10 feet wide and extends across the
width of the runway.

Demarcation Bar

A demarcation bar identifies a runway with a displaced threshold from a blast pad, stopway or
taxiway that precedes the runway. The demarcation bar is yellow and is located on the blast pad,
stopway or taxiway at the point where the runway intersects. The demarcation bar is 3 feet wide and
extends across the width of the blast pad, stopway or taxiway.

Arrows and Arrowheads

Arrows are used to identify a displaced threshold area and are useful for centerline guidance for
takeoffs and/or rollouts. Arrowheads are used in connection with a threshold bar to highlight the
beginning of a runway where the use of chevrons is not appropriate. Arrows and arrowheads used in a
displaced threshold area are white. Arrowheads used on taxiway prior to a runway threshold are yellow.

When a runway threshold is permanently displaced, the rows and arrowheads are located in the
portion of the runway before the displaced threshold. Where the pavement area before a runway is
used as a taxiway, arrowheads are located prior to the threshold bar. Please refer to the FAA Advisory
Circular AC 150/5340-1J, “Standards for Airport Markings”, for dimensions and spacing of arrows and
arrowheads.

Chevrons

Chevrons are used to identify pavement areas unusable for landing, takeoff, and taxiing.
Chevrons are yellow and are located on pavement areas that are aligned with and adjacent to the
runway. Please refer to the FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5340-1J, “Standards for Airport Markings”, for
dimensions and spacing of chevrons.
 Markings For Blast Pads And Stopways

A runway blast pad is a surface near the ends of runways provided to reduce the erosive effect
of jet blast and propeller wash. A runway stopway is a defined surface beyond the end of the runway
that was designed to be suitable for supporting an aircraft, without damaging that aircraft, during an
aborted takeoff. All markings on blast pads and stopways are painted yellow.

Taxiways

Taxiways are defined as the paths that are used for the taxiing of aircraft from one part of an
airport to another. All taxiway markings are yellow.

The different types of taxiway markings are as follows:

• Taxiway Centerline Marking

• Taxiway Edge Marking
• Holding Position Markings
• Markings for a Taxiway in Front of a Runway

Taxiway Centerline Marking

Taxiway centerlines are marked to provide a visual identification of the designated taxiing path.
Taxiway centerlines are yellow and consist of a continuous stripe along the centerline of the designated
taxiway. On a taxiway curve, the markings continue from the straight portion of the taxiway at a
constant distance from the outside edge of the taxiway. A width of between 6 inches and 12 inches wide
is acceptable provided the width selected is uniform for its entire length. The centerline will be
continuous in length except where it intersects a holding position marking or runway marking element.
For taxiway intersections designed for the straight thorough method of taxiing, the centerline markings
continue straight through the intersection.

At taxiway intersections with a runway end, the taxiway centerline marking is terminated at the
runway edge, (with the exception of the situation where there is a displaced threshold, in which case
the taxiway centerline may be extended onto the runway displaced area). On taxiways used as an
entrance or exit to a runway, the taxiway centerline marking curves onto the runway and extends
parallel to the runway centerline marking for 200 feet past the point where the two markings become
parallel. For taxiways crossing a runway, the taxiway centerline marking may continue across the runway
but must be interrupted for the runway markings.
 Taxiway Edge Marking

Taxiway edge markings are used to delineate the edge of the taxiway. They are used when the
taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the pavement and where the full strength pavement
of the taxiway is not readily visible. Taxiway edge markings are yellow and can either be continuous or
dashed. Continuous taxiway edge markings are used to identify the taxiway from the shoulder or some
other surface not intended to be used by aircraft. Dashed taxiway edge markings are used when the
aircraft would need to cross the lines, for example when a taxiway enters or crosses aprons. Continuous
taxiway edge markings consist of a continuous double yellow line, each being at least 6 inches in width
and spaced 6 inches apart. Dashed taxiway edge markings consist of a broken double yellow line, each
being at least 6 inches wide spaced at 6 inches apart from edge to edge. The lines are 15 feet in length
with 25 foot gaps.

There are two types of markings depending upon whether the aircraft is supposed to cross the
taxiway edge:

Continuous Markings. These consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line being at least 6
inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart. They are used to define the taxiway edge from
the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intended for use by aircraft.

Dashed Markings. These markings are used when there is an operational need to define the edge of a
taxiway or taxilane on a paved surface where the adjoining pavement to the taxiway edge is intended
for use by aircraft (for example, an apron). Dashed taxiway edge markings consist of a broken double
yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width, spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge
to edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with 25 foot (7.5 m) gaps.

Runway Shoulder Markings

Usually the runway side stripes will indicate the edges of the full strength pavement. However,
conditions may exist, such as exceptionally wide runways, where there is a need to indicate the area not
intended for aircraft use. In such cases, runway shoulder markings are used as a supplement to runway
side stripes. Runway shoulder markings are located between the runway side stripes and the pavement
edge. Runway shoulder markings consist of white stripes of 3 feet in width and spaced 100 feet apart.
The stripes start at the runway midpoint and are slanted at an angle of 45 degrees to the runway
centerline.

Runway Holding Position Markings On Taxiways

Holding position markings identify the location on a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to
stop while awaiting clearance to proceed onto the runway. Holding position markings should be located
on all taxiways that intersect runways based upon the most critical aircraft using the runway.

There are four types of holding position markings. These markings are outlined with black lines
and black interim spaces if needed for improved visibility on light colored (such as Portland cement)
pavement areas.
 They are as follows:

• Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Runway Intersections

• Holding Position Markings for Runway/Runway Intersections
• Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections
• Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS) Critical Areas

Holding Positions Markings For Taxiway/Runway Intersections

Holding position markings for taxiway/runway intersections are indicated with two solid lines
followed by two broken lines. The solid lines are always on the side where the aircraft is to hold. The
markings are installed perpendicular to the taxiway centerline.

Holding Positions Markings For Runway/Runway Intersections

Holding position markings for runway/runway markings are identical to the holding position
markings for taxiway/runway intersections. The solid lines of these markings are also always on the side
where the aircraft is to hold. However, these markings should only be installed on a runway where that
portion of the runway is used as a taxiway or used for “land and hold short” operations.

Holding Positions Markings For Taxiway/Taxiway Intersections

Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections are indicated with a single line of
dashes and spaces. These markings should only be installed at taxiway/taxiway intersections where
there is an operational need to hold aircraft at this point, and are often not necessary. These markings
are installed perpendicular to the taxiway centerline.

Holding Positions Markings For ILS Critical Areas

The holding position markings for ILS critical areas are indicated with a set of two parallel lines
spaced four feet apart, in between these two lines and perpendicular to them are sets of two parallel
lines spaced one foot apart. Due to their appearance, these markings are commonly referred to as a
“ladder” or “rail road tracks”. The holding position markings for ILS critical areas identify the location on
a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop when it does not have clearance to enter these critical
areas. These critical areas are used to protect the navigational aid signal or the airspace required for the
approach procedure. These markings are installed at the perimeter of the ILS critical area and are
perpendicular to the taxiway centerline. Where the distance between the taxiway/runway holding
position and the holding position for an ILS critical area is 50 feet or less, one holding position may be
established, provided it does not affect capacity. The local FAA airways facilities office will help
designate the ILS critical areas for the airport operator.
 Other Markings

Permanently Closed Runways and Taxiways For permanently closed runways, the threshold, the
runway designation, and the touchdown zone markings are removed and CROSSES are placed at each
runway end and at 1,000-foot intervals. If the closed runway intersects an open runway, crosses should
be placed on the closed runway on both sides of the open runway. For taxiways, a cross is placed on the
closed taxiway at each entrance. The crosses are 60 feet square for runways and half that size for
taxiways. The lighting circuits should also be disconnected for runways and taxiways which have been
permanently closed.

Temporarily Closed Runways And Taxiways

Temporarily closed runways and taxiways are treated as if they are permanently closed runways
and taxiways with the exception that the runway markings are not removed, and temporary crosses are
placed only at the runway ends on the top of the runway numerals. For temporary marking, the
dimensions of the crosses may be reduced to permit the use of standard sheets of 4- by-8-foot of
plywood. Temporarily closed taxiways are usually treated as a hazardous area, as explained below.

Closed Airports

When all the runways are closed temporarily, the runways are marked as “temporarily closed
runways” and the airport beacon is turned off. When all the runways are closed permanently the
runways are marked as “permanently closed runways”, the airport beacon is disconnected, and a cross
is placed in the segmented circle or at a central location if no segmented circle exists.

Hazardous Areas

Hazardous areas are areas where no part of an aircraft may enter. These areas are delineated by
barricades with alternate orange and white markings. The barricades are supplemented with orange
flags a minimum of 20 by 20 inches square and made and installed so that they are always in the
extended position and properly oriented. For nighttime use, the barricades are supplemented with
flashing red lights. Barricades, flags, and lights must be appropriately placed so as to adequately define
and delineate the hazardous area.

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)

A NOTAM is a formal notification that describes information on hazardous conditions or

unexpected changes to the airport that are not included in the associated charts and related
publications. The airport owner (or operator) must provide information on closed or hazardous
conditions to the local air traffic control facility so that a NOTAM can be issued. Only the Airport
Manager or delegated authority can issue NOTAMs on landing areas. When issuing a NOTAM always
provide the airport’s name, the NOTAM information, an estimate of the duration of the NOTAM, and the
name and phone number of the person issuing the NOTAM.
 Stabilized Areas

Holding bays, aprons, and taxiways are sometimes provided with shoulder stabilization to
prevent blast and water damage and erosion. This stabilization may have the appearance of full strength
pavement but is not intended for aircraft use. Usually taxiway edge markings will define this area, yet
there may be areas where confusion exists, such as stabilized islands or taxiway curves. Where such
confusion exists, the stabilized area is marked with 3-foot stripes perpendicular to the edge stripes. On
straight sections, the marks are placed at a minimum of 100-foot spacing. On curves, the marks are
placed a maximum of 50 feet apart along the curve. The stripes are extended to 5 feet from the edge of
the stabilized area or to 25 feet in length, whichever is less.

Day and Night Landing Aids

Landing aids can be any flashing light, radio beacon, communicating device or radar device or
any system of such devices for helping aircraft in an approach and landing.

Used to guide a pilot to the runway, helps the pilot to judge his alignment with the runway and
correct angle of approach.

Various landing aids

 Instruments landing system (ILS)

 Precision Approach Radar (PAR) or Ground Approach Control (GAC)
 Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)
 Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE)
 Approach Lights

Instruments landing system (ILS)

 Instrument landing system (ILS) was the only ground-based system certified to provide both
lateral and vertical guidance to aircraft on approach to an airport. An ILS system consists of two radio
transmitters located on the airport. One radio beam is called the Localizer and the other the Glide
Slope. The localizer indicates to pilots whether they are left or right of the correct alignment for
approach to the runway and the glide slope indicates the correct angle of descent to the runway.

ILS system provides facilities for landing under conditions of poor visibility. ICAO has divided the
visibility into three categories for ILS approach:

Airport Lighting Aids

1. Approach Light Systems (ALS)

 ALS provide the basic means to transition from instrument flight to visual flight for landing.
Operational requirements dictate the sophistication and configuration of the approach light
system for a particular runway.
 ALS are a configuration of signal lights starting at the landing threshold and extending into the
approach area a distance of 2400-3000 feet for precision instrument runways and 1400-1500
feet for nonprecision instrument runways. Some systems include sequenced flashing lights
which appear to the pilot as a ball of light traveling towards the runway at high speed (twice a
second). (See FIG 2-1-1.)

2. Visual Glideslope Indicators

A. Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)

 VASI installations may consist of either 2, 4, 6, 12, or 16 light units arranged in bars referred to
as near, middle, and far bars. Most VASI installations consist of 2 bars, near and far, and may
consist of 2, 4, or 12 light units. Some VASIs consist of three bars, near, middle, and far, which
provide an additional visual glide path to accommodate high cockpit aircraft. This installation
may consist of either 6 or 16 light units. VASI installations consisting of 2, 4, or 6 light units are
 located on one side of the runway, usually the left. Where the installation consists of 12 or 16
light units, the units are located on both sides of the runway.

 Two-bar VASI installations provide one visual glide path which is normally set at 3 degrees.
Three-bar VASI installations provide two visual glide paths. The lower glide path is provided by
the near and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees while the upper glide path, provided
by the middle and far bars, is normally 1/4 degree higher. This higher glide path is intended for
use only by high cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold crossing height. Although
normal glide path angles are three degrees, angles at some locations may be as high as 4.5
degrees to give proper obstacle clearance. Pilots of high performance aircraft are cautioned that
use of VASI angles in excess of 3.5 degrees may cause an increase in runway length required for
landing and rollout.

 The basic principle of the VASI is that of color differentiation between red and white. Each light
unit projects a beam of light having a white segment in the upper part of the beam and red
segment in the lower part of the beam. The light units are arranged so that the pilot using the
VASIs during an approach will see the combination of lights shown below.

 The VASI is a system of lights so arranged to provide visual descent guidance information during
the approach to a runway. These lights are visible from 3-5 miles during the day and up to 20
miles or more at night. The visual glide path of the VASI provides safe obstruction clearance
within plus or minus 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline and to 4 NM from the
runway threshold. Descent, using the VASI, should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually
aligned with the runway. Lateral course guidance is provided by the runway or runway lights. In
certain circumstances, the safe obstruction clearance area may be reduced by narrowing the
beam width or shortening the usable distance due to local limitations, or the VASI may be offset
from the extended runway centerline. This will be noted in the Chart Supplement U.S. and/or
applicable notices to airmen (NOTAM).
 B. Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a
single row of either two or four light units. These lights are visible from about 5 miles during the day and
up to 20 miles at night. The visual glide path of the PAPI typically provides safe obstruction clearance
within plus or minus 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline and to 3.4 NM from the runway
threshold. Descent, using the PAPI, should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the
runway. The row of light units is normally installed on the left side of the runway and the glide path
indications are as depicted. Lateral course guidance is provided by the runway or runway lights. In
certain circumstances, the safe obstruction clearance area may be reduced by narrowing the beam
width or shortening the usable distance due to local limitations, or the PAPI may be offset from the
extended runway centerline. This will be noted in the Chart Supplement U.S. and/or applicable
NOTAMs. (See FIG 2-1-5.)
 C. Tri-color Systems

Tri-color visual approach slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit projecting a three-
color visual approach path into the final approach area of the runway upon which the indicator is
installed. The below glide path indication is red, the above glide path indication is amber, and the on
glide path indication is green. These types of indicators have a useful range of approximately one-half to
one mile during the day and up to five miles at night depending upon the visibility conditions. (See FIG 2-
1-6.)
 D. Pulsating Systems

Pulsating visual approach slope indicators normally consist of a single light unit projecting a two-
color visual approach path into the final approach area of the runway upon which the indicator is
installed. The on glide path indication may be a steady white light or alternating RED and WHITE light.
The slightly below glide path indication is a steady red light. If the aircraft descends further below the
glide path, the red light starts to pulsate. The above glide path indication is a pulsating white light. The
pulsating rate increases as the aircraft gets further above or below the desired glide slope. The useful
range of the system is about four miles during the day and up to ten miles at night. (See FIG 2-1-7.)
 E. Alignment of Elements Systems

Alignment of elements systems are installed on some small general aviation airports and are a low-
cost system consisting of painted plywood panels, normally black and white or fluorescent orange. Some
of these systems are lighted for night use. The useful range of these systems is approximately three-
quarter miles. To use the system the pilot positions the aircraft so the elements are in alignment. The
glide path indications are shown in FIG 2-1-8.

3. Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL)

REILs are installed at many airfields to provide rapid and positive identification of the approach end
of a particular runway. The system consists of a pair of synchronized flashing lights located laterally on
each side of the runway threshold. REILs may be either omnidirectional or unidirectional facing the
approach area.

They are effective for:

 Identification of a runway surrounded by a preponderance of other lighting.

 Identification of a runway which lacks contrast with surrounding terrain.
 Identification of a runway during reduced visibility.

4. Runway Edge Light Systems

A. Runway edge lights are used to outline the edges of runways during periods of darkness or
restricted visibility conditions. These light systems are classified according to the intensity or
brightness they are capable of producing: they are the High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL),
Medium Intensity Runway Lights (MIRL), and the Low Intensity Runway Lights (LIRL). The HIRL
 and MIRL systems have variable intensity controls, whereas the LIRLs normally have one
intensity setting.

B. The runway edge lights are white, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the
last 2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution zone for landings

C. The lights marking the ends of the runway emit red light toward the runway to indicate the end
of runway to a departing aircraft and emit green outward from the runway end to indicate the
threshold to landing aircraft.

5. In-Runway Lighting

A. Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS). Runway centerline lights are installed on some
precision approach runways to facilitate landing under adverse visibility conditions. They are
located along the runway centerline and are spaced at 50-foot intervals. When viewed from the
landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000 feet of the runway.
The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet, and for the last 1,000 feet of
the runway, all centerline lights are red.

B. Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL). Touchdown zone lights are installed on some precision
approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone when landing under adverse visibility
conditions. They consist of two rows of transverse light bars disposed symmetrically about the
runway centerline. The system consists of steady-burning white lights which start 100 feet
beyond the landing threshold and extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or to the
midpoint of the runway, whichever is less.

C. Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights. Taxiway centerline lead-off lights provide visual guidance to
persons exiting the runway. They are color-coded to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that they
are within the runway environment or instrument landing system (ILS) critical area, whichever is
more restrictive. Alternate green and yellow lights are installed, beginning with green, from the
runway centerline to one centerline light position beyond the runway holding position or ILS
critical area holding position.

D. Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights. Taxiway centerline lead-on lights provide visual guidance to
persons entering the runway. These “lead-on” lights are also color-coded with the same color
pattern as lead-off lights to warn pilots and vehicle drivers that they are within the runway
environment or instrument landing system (ILS) critical area, whichever is more conservative.
The fixtures used for lead-on lights are bidirectional, i.e., one side emits light for the lead-on
function while the other side emits light for the lead-off function. Any fixture that emits yellow
light for the lead-off function must also emit yellow light for the lead-on function.

E. Land and Hold Short Lights. Land and hold short lights are used to indicate the hold short point
on certain runways which are approved for Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO). Land and
hold short lights consist of a row of pulsing white lights installed across the runway at the hold
short point. Where installed, the lights will be on anytime LAHSO is in effect. These lights will be
off when LAHSO is not in effect.
 6. Runway Status Light (RWSL) System

A. Introduction

RWSL is a fully automated system that provides

runway status information to pilots and surface
vehicle operators to clearly indicate when it is unsafe to enter, cross, takeoff from, or land on a
runway. The RWSL system processes information from surveillance systems and activates Runway
Entrance Lights (REL) and Takeoff Hold Lights (THL), in accordance with the position and velocity of
the detected surface traffic and approach traffic. REL and THL are in-pavement light fixtures that are
directly visible to pilots and surface vehicle operators. RWSL is an independent safety enhancement
that does not substitute for or convey an ATC clearance. Clearance to enter, cross, takeoff from, land
on, or operate on a runway must still be received from ATC. Although ATC has limited control over
the system, personnel do not directly use and may not be able to view light fixture activations and
deactivations during the conduct of daily ATC operations.

B. Runway Entrance Lights (REL): The REL system is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement,
unidirectional light fixtures that are parallel to and focused along the taxiway centerline and directed
toward the pilot at the hold line. An array of REL lights include the first light at the hold line followed
by a series of evenly spaced lights to the runway edge; one additional light at the runway centerline
is in line with the last two lights before the runway edge. When activated, the red lights indicate that
there is high speed traffic on the runway or there is an aircraft on final approach within the activation
area.
 a. REL Operating Characteristics - Departing Aircraft:

When a departing aircraft reaches a site adaptable speed of approximately 30 knots, all taxiway
intersections with REL arrays along the runway ahead of the aircraft will illuminate. As the
aircraft approaches an REL equipped taxiway intersection, the lights at that intersection
extinguish approximately 3 to 4 seconds before the aircraft reaches it. This allows controllers to
apply “anticipated separation" to permit ATC to move traffic more expeditiously without
compromising safety. After the aircraft is declared “airborne" by the system, all REL lights
associated with this runway will extinguish.

b. REL Operating Characteristics - Arriving Aircraft:

When an aircraft on final approach is approximately 1 mile from the runway threshold, all sets
of taxiway REL light arrays that intersect the runway illuminate. The distance is adjustable and
can be configured for specific operations at particular airports. Lights extinguish at each
equipped taxiway intersection approximately 3 to 4 seconds before the aircraft reaches it to
apply anticipated separation until the aircraft has slowed to approximately 80 knots (site
adjustable parameter). Below 80 knots, all arrays that are not within 30 seconds of the
aircraft's forward path are extinguished. Once the arriving aircraft slows to approximately 34
knots (site adjustable parameter), it is declared to be in a taxi state, and all lights extinguish.

c. What a pilot would observe: A pilot at or approaching the hold line to a runway will observe
RELs illuminate and extinguish in reaction to an aircraft or vehicle operating on the runway, or
an arriving aircraft operating less than 1 mile from the runway threshold.

d. When a pilot observes the red lights of the REL, that pilot will stop at the hold line or remain
stopped. The pilot will then contact ATC for resolution if the clearance is in conflict with the
lights. Should pilots note illuminated lights under circumstances when remaining clear of the
runway is impractical for safety reasons (for example, aircraft is already on the runway), the
crew should proceed according to their best judgment while understanding the illuminated
lights indicate the runway is unsafe to enter or cross. Contact ATC at the earliest possible
opportunity.

C. Takeoff Hold Lights (THL):

The THL system is composed of flush mounted, in-pavement, unidirectional light fixtures in a
double longitudinal row aligned either side of the runway centerline lighting. Fixtures are focused
toward the arrival end of the runway at the “line up and wait" point. THLs extend for 1,500 feet in
front of the holding aircraft starting at a point 375 feet from the departure threshold. Illuminated
red lights provide a signal, to an aircraft in position for takeoff or rolling, that it is unsafe to takeoff
because the runway is occupied or about to be occupied by another aircraft or ground vehicle. Two
aircraft, or a surface vehicle and an aircraft, are required for the lights to illuminate. The departing
aircraft must be in position for takeoff or beginning takeoff roll. Another aircraft or a surface vehicle
must be on or about to cross the runway.
 a. THL Operating Characteristics - Departing Aircraft:

THLs will illuminate for an aircraft in position for departure or departing when there is another aircraft
or vehicle on the runway or about to enter the runway. Once that aircraft or vehicle exits the runway,
the THLs extinguish. A pilot may notice lights extinguish prior to the downfield aircraft or vehicle being
completely clear of the runway but still moving. Like RELs, THLs have an “anticipated separation"
feature.

NOTE- When the THLs extinguish, this is not clearance to begin a takeoff roll. All takeoff clearances will
be issued by ATC.

b. What a pilot would observe: A pilot in position to depart from a runway, or has begun takeoff
roll, will observe THLs illuminate in reaction to an aircraft or vehicle on the runway or entering
or crossing it. Lights will extinguish when the runway is clear. A pilot may observe several cycles
of illumination and extinguishing depending on the amount of crossing traffic.

c. When a pilot observes the red light of the THLs, the pilot should safely stop if it's feasible or
remain stopped. The pilot must contact ATC for resolution if any clearance is in conflict with the
lights. Should pilots note illuminated lights while in takeoff roll and under circumstances when
stopping is impractical for safety reasons, the crew should proceed according to their best
judgment while understanding the illuminated lights indicate that continuing the takeoff is
unsafe. Contact ATC at the earliest possible opportunity.
D. Pilot Actions:

a. When operating at airports with RWSL, pilots will operate with the transponder/ADS-
B (Automated Dependent Suveillance)“On" when departing the gate or parking area until it is
shut down upon arrival at the gate or parking area. This ensures interaction with the FAA
surveillance systems such as ASDE-X/Airport Surface Surveillance Capability (ASSC) which
provide information to the RWSL system.

b. Pilots must always inform the ATCT when

they have stopped due to an RWSL indication that is in conflict with ATC instructions. Pilots
must request clarification of the taxi or takeoff clearance.

c. Never cross over illuminated red lights. Under normal circumstances, RWSL will confirm the
pilot's taxi or takeoff clearance previously issued by ATC. If RWSL indicates that it is unsafe to
takeoff from, land on, cross, or enter a runway, immediately notify ATC of the conflict and re-
confirm the clearance.

d. Do not proceed when lights have extinguished without an ATC clearance. RWSL verifies an ATC
clearance; it does not substitute for an ATC clearance.

e. Never land if PAPI continues to flash. Execute a go around and notify ATC.

E. ATC Control of RWSL System:

a. Controllers can set in-pavement lights to one of five (5) brightness levels to assure maximum
conspicuity under all visibility and lighting conditions. REL and THL subsystems may be
independently set.

b. System lights can be disabled should RWSL operations impact the efficient movement of air
traffic or contribute, in the opinion of the assigned ATC Manager, to unsafe operations. REL and
THL light fixtures may be disabled separately. Whenever the system or a component is disabled,
a NOTAM must be issued, and the Automatic Terminal Information System (ATIS) must be
updated.

7. Control of Lighting Systems

A. Operation of approach light systems and runway lighting is controlled by the control tower
(ATCT). At some locations the FSS (Flight Service Station) may control the lights where there is
no control tower in operation.

B. Pilots may request that lights be turned on or off. Runway edge lights, in-pavement lights and
approach lights also have intensity controls which may be varied to meet the pilots request.
Sequenced flashing lights (SFL) may be turned on and off. Some sequenced flashing light
systems also have intensity control.
8. Airport/Heliport Beacons

A. Airport and heliport beacons have a vertical light distribution to make them most effective from
one to ten degrees above the horizon; however, they can be seen well above and below this
peak spread. The beacon may be an omnidirectional capacitor-discharge device, or it may rotate
at a constant speed which produces the visual effect of flashes at regular intervals. Flashes may
be one or two colors alternately. The total number of flashes are:

a. 24 to 30 per minute for beacons marking airports, landmarks, and points on Federal
airways.
b. 30 to 45 per minute for beacons marking heliports.

B. The colors and color combinations of beacons are:

a. White and Green- Lighted land airport.

b. *Green alone- Lighted land airport.
c. White and Yellow- Lighted water airport.
d. *Yellow alone- Lighted water airport.
e. Green, Yellow, and White- Lighted heliport.

NOTE- *Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection with a white-and-green or white-and-
yellow beacon display, respectively.

C. Military airport beacons flash alternately white and green, but are differentiated from civil
beacons by dualpeaked (two quick) white flashes between the green flashes.

D. In Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface areas, operation of the airport beacon during the
hours of daylight often indicates that the ground visibility is less than 3 miles and/or the ceiling
is less than 1,000 feet. ATC clearance in accordance with 14 CFR Part 91 is required for landing,
takeoff and flight in the traffic pattern. Pilots should not rely solely on the operation of the
airport beacon to indicate if weather conditions are IFR or VFR. At some locations with operating
control towers, ATC personnel turn the beacon on or off when controls are in the tower. At
many airports the airport beacon is turned on by a photoelectric cell or time clocks and ATC
personnel cannot control them. There is no regulatory requirement for daylight operation and it
is the pilot's responsibility to comply with proper preflight planning as required by 14 CFR
Section 91.103.

9. Taxiway Lights

A. Taxiway Edge Lights. Taxiway edge lights are used to outline the edges of taxiways during
periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures emit blue light.

B. Taxiway Centerline Lights. Taxiway centerline lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under
low visibility conditions. They are located along the taxiway centerline in a straight line on
straight portions, on the centerline of curved portions, and along designated taxiing paths in
portions of runways, ramp, and apron areas. Taxiway centerline lights are steady burning and
emit green light.
C. Clearance Bar Lights. Clearance bar lights are installed at holding positions on taxiways in order
to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility conditions. They may also be
installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway during periods of darkness. Clearance
bars consist of three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights.

D. Runway Guard Lights. Runway guard lights are installed at taxiway/runway intersections. They
are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections during low
visibility conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions. Runway guard lights consist of
either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side of the taxiway, or a row of
in-pavement yellow lights installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway holding position
marking.

E. Stop Bar Lights. Stop bar lights, when installed, are used to confirm the ATC clearance to enter
or cross the active runway in low visibility conditions (below 1,200 ft Runway Visual Range). A
stop bar consists of a row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights installed
across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and elevated steady-burning red lights
on each side. A controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the taxiway centerline lead-
on lights which extend from the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC clearance to
proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on. The stop bar and lead-
on lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup timer.