Subsea Pipeline Installation Calculations - Volume-Two

E N G I N E E R I N G C O N S U LTA N T S
Subsea pipeline
installation
calculations
VOLUME - TWO
2
All information contained in this document has been prepared solely to illustrate
engineering principles for a training course, and is not suitable for use for engineering
purposes. Use for any purpose other than general engineering design training
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in

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Copyright of this book remains the sole property of:
Trevor Jee Associates

26 Camden Rd
Tunbridge Wells
Kent
TN1 2PT
England
© Trevor Jee Associates 2006

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Volume One
PREFACE............................................................................. 7
Layout .......................................................................................................................9
CATENARIES..................................................................... 11
Expectation .............................................................................................................13
Catenary Curves......................................................................................................14
Pipe Lay Catenary Equations..................................................................................18
Pipe Stresses............................................................................................................23
Worked Example ....................................................................................................32
Exercise...................................................................................................................38
Control by tension...................................................................................................39
Background Information .........................................................................................43
BENDING ........................................................................... 47
Expectation .............................................................................................................49
Bending During S-Lay ............................................................................................50
Worked Example ....................................................................................................57
Exercise...................................................................................................................66
Break-Over Length .................................................................................................67
Concrete-Coated Pipe .............................................................................................78
Horizontal lay radii .................................................................................................83
REELING ............................................................................ 87
Expectation .............................................................................................................89
Reeling Criteria .......................................................................................................90
4
Worked Example ..................................................................................................104

Exercise.................................................................................................................107
SAGBEND BUCKLING .................................................... 109
Expectation ...........................................................................................................111
Local Buckling Criteria.........................................................................................112
Prediction of Buckling in Catenary.......................................................................121
Worked Example ..................................................................................................126
Exercise.................................................................................................................130
Buckle Propagation ...............................................................................................132
ROPES WINCHES & CHAINS ......................................... 139
Expectation ...........................................................................................................141
Pulley Usage .........................................................................................................142
Wires .....................................................................................................................148
Fatigue Life...........................................................................................................161
Winches.................................................................................................................168
Worked Example ..................................................................................................174
Exercise.................................................................................................................178
Chains and Fittings................................................................................................180
PIPE PULL FORCES ....................................................... 189
Expectation ...........................................................................................................191
Landfall Setup .......................................................................................................192
Worked Example ..................................................................................................205
Exercise.................................................................................................................214
Alternative Pull Setups..........................................................................................215
STEELWORK ................................................................... 227
Expectation ...........................................................................................................229
Analysis & Design Process ...................................................................................231
Visualisation .........................................................................................................237
Analysis.................................................................................................................240
Analysis Exercise..................................................................................................248
Design Code Check...............................................................................................250
Worked Example ..................................................................................................263
Strut design exercise .............................................................................................275
Worked Example ..................................................................................................276
Fatigue...................................................................................................................288
Connections...........................................................................................................292
5
Volume Two
PIPE LIFTING................................................................... 303

Expectation ...........................................................................................................305
Attachments ..........................................................................................................306
2, 3 and 4 point lifts ..............................................................................................312
Strop Exercise .......................................................................................................321
Strop Sizing...........................................................................................................323
Spreader Beams ....................................................................................................329
Worked Example ..................................................................................................334
Beam Exercise ......................................................................................................343
Deep Water Resonance .........................................................................................345
LUGS & SEA FASTENINGS............................................ 353
Expectation ...........................................................................................................355
Lugs and Stiffeners ...............................................................................................357
Worked Example ..................................................................................................371
Exercise.................................................................................................................378
Foundations and Deck Fixings..............................................................................379
Sea Fasteners.........................................................................................................386
BARGE STABILITY ......................................................... 395
Expectation ...........................................................................................................397
Stable Floating Bodies ..........................................................................................398
Determining Vessel Stability ................................................................................402
Free Liquid Surfaces and Suspended Loads .........................................................408
Modular Craft and Local Barges...........................................................................415
Worked Example ..................................................................................................419
Exercise.................................................................................................................423
Background Information .......................................................................................426
Derivation of the Metacentric Height Formula..............................................................426
Free Liquid Surfaces in Tanks .......................................................................................431
ANCHORS & PILES......................................................... 433

Expectation ...........................................................................................................435
Anchors .................................................................................................................437
Exercise.................................................................................................................449
Piles.......................................................................................................................450
Sheet pile anchorage .............................................................................................463
6
Worked Example ..................................................................................................470

Exercise.................................................................................................................477
Survey Methods.............................................................................................................479
Soil Types and Properties ..............................................................................................487
ABANDONMENT & RECOVERY..................................... 491

Expectation ...........................................................................................................493
Abandonment and Recovery.................................................................................495
Case Study ............................................................................................................502
A & R Analysis .....................................................................................................509
Exercise.................................................................................................................514
Equipment Used for A&R .............................................................................................518
PROFILES ........................................................................ 527

ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS................................... 549
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & REFERENCES ................... 557

PIPE LIFTING
PIPE LIFTING 305
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
z Develop an understanding of the processes

involved in lifting pipelines offshore
z Attachment to crane
z Lift configurations
z Static and dynamic lift forces
z Sizing the strops
z Checking the pipe will not buckle when lifted
In this module we will be looking at the process of lifting a pipeline offshore using a
crane(s). This will include consideration of the type and number of lift points, the
forces involved (both static and dynamic) during the installation process, how to size
the strops based on DnV guidelines and also checking that the pipe will not buckle
when lifted, due to self-weight.
306 SUBSEA PIPELINE INSTALLATION CALCULATIONS
ATTACHMENTS
ATTACHMENTS
z Attaching pipe to strops

z Straps / slings
z Hooks
z Clamp arrangement or permanent lugs
z Considerations
z Does the attachment need to be ROV friendly?
z Can the attachment slip? (friction, restraints)
z Crane selection
z Main components / dimensions
z Capacity
PIPE LIFTING 307
STROPS
z Safe Working Load (SWL) of slings

Included
z Varies depending on the configuration angle <90°
1 2 3
α α
SWLstrop = 1 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 1.4 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 1.4 x SWLwire
4 5 6
SWLstrop = 2.1 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 2.1 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 2 x SWLwire
Above are some examples of sling configurations, using either single or multiple legs.
The safe working load of these slings varies, depending on the configuration and
number of straps. Refer to BS 6210 CP for the Safe Use of Wire Rope Slings for
General Lifting Purposes; and BS 1290 .
A summary of the safe working loads and description of the configurations is shown
below:
1. Single straight lift: SWL of the sling is 1 x SWL of wire and fittings
2. Two single legs: SWL of the sling is 1.4 x SWL of wire and fittings
3. Basket hitch single sling: SWL of the sling is 1.4 x SWL of wire and fittings
4. Double wrap basket hitch: SWL of the sling is 2.1 x SWL of wire and fittings
5. Double basket hitch: SWL of the sling is 2.1 x SWL of wire and fittings
6. Doubled and choked sling: SWL of the sling is 2 x SWL of wire and fittings
It can be seen from the above data that if two single legs are used instead of one (i.e.
configuration 2 instead of 1), the SWL of the sling lift only increases by 40%, not
double. This is because the included angle may be up to 90°.
Also, the double wrap basket hitch (4) has the same SWL as the double basket hitch
(5). Therefore, wrapping the strap around the lifted object twice has no effect on the
amount that can be lifted. However, the additional wrap will reduce slippage on the
attachment, as the frictional constraint will increase.
When determining the length of the sling, the included angle must be limited to a
maximum of 90° for the above values to apply.
SAFE WORKING LOADS
z Factor of Safety - typically:

SWL = MBL / FoS
where:
z MBL = Minimum breaking load (covered in strop sizing - design
load for wire strop)
z FoS = Factor of safety - typically 3 to 8
z FoS depends on usage - multiple use requires higher FoS
z Allows for dynamic effects, such as wave / current

loads, splash zone loads as object enters water etc
When calculating the Safe Working Load, the Minimum Breaking Load (MBL) must
be divided by a safety factor (minimum breaking loads are covered later in this
section).
This safety factor is typically 5, but can be client specified depending on a case-by-
case analysis of the risk involved in the job. This safety factor then covers dynamic
load variations, and also the potential for an unevenly distributed load through the
strops.
In many cases, strops for heavy lifts are single usage and then the strop is disposed of.
Where multiple use is permitted, a higher factor of safety is normally demanded.
PIPE LIFTING 309
CRANES
z Main parts of a crane:
Reach
Boom
Height
Brothers
α
Angle of
boom
Above are some examples of the main parts of a crane. When two or more strops are
attached to the lifted object, they are commonly referred to as brothers.
CRANE SELECTION
z Dependent on load weight and boom length
Load
(tonne
or kip)
As boom length
increases, load capacity
decreases but maximum
reach increases
Reach
Minimum (m or ft)
reach
When selecting an appropriate crane for the load to be lifted, the reach and weight of
the load must be considered. For a particular crane, e.g. one with a 60 tonne load
capacity, a range of boom lengths can be selected.
By varying the boom length, the desired reach can be obtained. However, as the
reach is increased, the maximum load capacity of the crane will decrease. This is due
to the angle at which the crane boom is positioned when at maximum reach. As the
angle increases (from horizontal), the bending moment acting on the crane boom
decreases, and hence the load capacity is greater than when horizontal.
Another consideration when selecting an appropriate crane is the height required

between the top of the boom and the object to be lifted. This will be dependent on
the lift configuration (e.g. are there spreader beams / multiple lift points etc) and the
water depth (if lowering a pipeline to the seabed).
TYPICAL CRANE SELECTION TABLE
z Select mobile crane capacity (in tonnes) based on load and

reach required
Boom
radius 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m
Load - (33 ft) (66 ft) (98 ft) (131 ft) (164 ft)
weight in
tonnes (kip)
2 (4.4) 20 (44) 35 (77) 60 (132) 90 (198) 160 (353)
Required
4 (8.8) 20 (44) 50 (110) 90 (198) 120 (265) 200 (441) crane
rating in
6 (13.2) 25 (55) 70 (154) 100 (220) 160 (353) 225 (496)
tonnes
8 (17.6) 35 (77) 90 (198) 160 (353) 225 (496) 300 (661) (kip)
10 (22.0) 50 (110) 100 (220) 160 (353) 250 (551) 800 (1764)
z (Numbers given are for illustrative purposes, and vary

according to crane manufacturer. This table is for mobile
cranes)
The table shown illustrates the relationship between the boom radius and the load
weight.
It can be seen from this that to lift a load of a certain weight, the crane must have a
considerably larger rated capacity (e.g. to lift 10 tonnes needs a minimum crane load
capacity of 50 tonnes when using a 10 m boom radius).
Lifts need to be carefully controlled with regard to boom reach (radius), otherwise
extremely large cranes will be required for even modest weights.
PIPE LIFTING 311
ATTACHMENTS - SUMMARY
z Straps are more common offshore

z Clamps more suitable for 1 point lift - short loads
z Strop configuration affects SWL
z Typical Factors of Safety of 3 to 8 is used
z Higher values when strop is used more than once
z Crane selection depends on boom length
and weight of load
z As reach increases, maximum load decreases
Any questions?
We have examined how the method of release needs to be considered when lowering
spool pieces to the seabed.
Other items may have permanent lugs or releasable clamps.
The method of slinging affects the safe working load of strops and higher safety
factors are required for multiple use.
The stated capacity of the crane may be much greater than the object being lifted.
This is due to the reach of the boom.
With permanent barge cranes, the limiting envelopes of their lift capacity need to be
checked to prevent overloading.
2, 3 AND 4 POINT LIFTS
STROP CONFIGURATION
z How do we choose the number of lift points?

z Commonly 2, 3 or 4 attachments
z Factors to consider
z Pipeline / spoolpiece geometry
z Is it symmetrical?
z 1D (straight pipe section) or 2D (e.g. L, Z or U shaped spool)
z 3D items may need extension strops or shackles to make up
z Typically chain brothers are of equal length
z Pipeline / spoolpiece material properties

z Yield strength (SMYS)
z Density / Self-weight in and out of water
z Position of Centre of Gravity and Centre of Buoyancy
z Keep spoolpiece level - crane boom above CoG
The most common lift configurations have either 2, 3 or 4 attachments to the object
being lifted. One point lifts can be used, if the object is sufficiently small to avoid
instability problems caused by the moment from its self-weight acting at either end.
Therefore, when lifting pipelines, this method is generally only used for short lengths,
using a clamp attachment to prevent slippage.
Of the remaining options, the selected number of lift points will depend on the shape
of the pipeline, its weight and also material properties. For example, a straight
pipeline may be lifted using two lift points, but if it is long and thin-walled (flexible),
the bending moments and compressive forces induced during lifting may lead to a
requirement for further lift points for additional support, to avoid plastically
deforming or buckling it.
When configuring the strops, the top of the crane boom must be positioned directly
above the centres of gravity and buoyancy of the pipeline, otherwise it will twist
PIPE LIFTING 313
when lifted until they are aligned. If the centres of gravity and buoyancy are not in
alignment, the rigging will twist again if lowering into water (this is discussed later in
this section).
To assist in handling, the spool is normally kept level as it is lifted from the deck and
placed onto the seabed. This means that the end of the crane boom must be above the
centre of gravity of the spool, otherwise it will swing into that position.
2, 3 AND 4 POINT LIFTS
z Example lift configurations:
2 point lift on 3 point lift on 4 point lift on Extension

short straight U-shaped Z-shaped pieces for
pipe spoolpiece spoolpiece 3D spoolpiece
The simplest lift is for a straight section of pipe. Here the chain brothers can be fitted
equidistant from both ends.
With an L or U-shaped spool piece, care must be taken to equalise the load between
the chain legs. An alternative for the U-shape might be a four point lift but this is
only possible with long leg lengths. The vertical attachment to the crane must be
directly above the centre of gravity of the spool.
With a Z-shaped (or dogleg) spool piece, the arrangement shown above is preferable
to four equal length chains. With the latter, it is not possible to find four points on the
spool equidistant from the centre point ring. It would mean that the length of two of
the chains would need to be either lengthened or shortened. However, it is possible
to attach the above system and the shorter lengths of chain will adjust to suit. Note
that the loads on each of the shorter chains will not be equal and that the position of
the attachments needs to be carefully chosen to prevent loose legs.
With a true 3D spool, there is no option but to add extension strops (shown in red) to
the chain brothers. This can be done with wire strops or shackles. However, as
before, the arrangement shown will provide some self adjustment, and is preferable to
four separate chains joining in a ring. The length of four chains would have to be
very carefully controlled to avoid all load being distributed well.
For very complicated shapes, it may be necessary to provide a lifting frame with
multiple, individually lengths of strops. However, costs and time constraints when
fabricating strops to tight tolerances on individual lengths must be considered.

Perhaps it might be better to split the spool into two simpler legs able to make use of
standard lifting equipment.
COMPARISON OF LIFT CONFIGURATIONS
z How many lift points are required?

Type Straight pipe U spool Z spool 3D
1 point 9 x x x
(short length only)
2 point 9 x x x
3 point 9 9 x x
4 point 9 9 9 9
(with extensions)
The table above represents the most commonly installed spoolpiece geometries.
When considering the lifting configurations for other shapes or objects, the rotational
constraints and load weight limitations must be considered.
Environmental conditions should also be considered, e.g. wave and current loads on
the object once lowered into the sea. This may have implications on the stability of
the system, and may lead to additional strops being required.
PIPE LIFTING 315
LOAD TRANSFER
z Strop lengths must be accurate, otherwise:

z Lifted object will not be level (2 or 3 point lift)
z Load may be unevenly distributed (4 point lift)
Potential for one or two

Object rotates until brothers to remain slack
both brothers are on 4-point lift - increases
taut - unable to load on others
align horizontally
It is crucial to ensure that the strop lengths are measured accurately when setting up
the lifting gear. If one or more of the strops is too short or too long, there is a
potential problem for the 2, 3 and 4 point lifts. It is normal to use equal lengths of
chain brothers, the hook heights of which can be checked as being level when
hanging from the crane. The use of unequal legs should be avoided whenever
possible.
In the case of a one-point lift, the strop length is less important, as the discrepancy
can be accounted for by changing the boom angle slightly, and this will be negligible
in comparison to the tolerances on the strops.
However, with 2 and 3 point lifts, if one of the brothers is longer than the other(s), the
lifted object will rotate until the tension is taken up in all of the brothers. This will
lead to the object being skewed from the horizontal axis, and may cause problems if it
is being aligned with another object, e.g. a spoolpiece being aligned with a pipeline,
with the flange hubs requiring accurate alignment.
With the four-point lift, the situation is slightly different. If the strops are configured
in the arrangement shown above, then potentially two of the brothers can be
tensioned with the others remaining slack. This will result in the load being
transmitted through these brothers alone, effectively doubling the load in each
brother.
This problem occurs due to the constraint of having four brothers. The Z-spool can
rotate in one direction to remove the slack from one of the two brothers. However,
this will increase the slack in the remaining brother, and hence equilibrium can not be
obtained.
FOUR POINT LIFT OF SUBSEA STRUCTURE
Here a subsea protection structure is being installed using a four point lift in a calm
sea.
The structure is designed to be overtrawlable by typical North Sea fishing vessels.

The end flaps of this roof structure will be lowered over the base unit which holds the
valves and pigging loop pipework.
Following flume tank model trials carried out by Trevor Jee Associates, the design
was modified to reduce the height of the main section of the unit.
PIPE LIFTING 317
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND BUOYANCY
z CoG and CoB may not be aligned

z e.g. partially coated riser - splash zone transition
z CoB and CoG will be offset, due to variation in densities
Splash zone corrosion
protection coating CoG
CoB
z Not a problem for lifts in air

z Problem occurs when riser becomes submerged
z Pipe will rotate due to misalignment of CoG and CoB
If a crane is lowering an object into water, the centres of buoyancy and gravity must
be directly aligned, with the top of the crane boom aligned directly above both of
them. If the crane strops are aligned to the centre of gravity, but the centre of
buoyancy is offset, the crane will be balanced until the pipeline starts to enter the
water.
Once the buoyancy forces begin to act on the system, it will become out-of-balance,
and hence the pipe will start to skew towards one side. Therefore it is essential that
the CoB and CoG are aligned, by use of one of the methods shown on the next slide.
In the above example, one section of a riser is coated, for protection against corrosion
in the splash zone. As the coating density is different to that of the steel pipeline, the
centres of buoyancy and gravity will be misaligned.
Another example of this problem occurs when lowering a plough into the sea. A
plough is made up of many components, including buoyancy tanks and control
modules. Some sections may be flooded whilst others are airtight and hence add to
the buoyancy when lowered into water. Therefore calculations must be completed
before the lowering operation, to ensure the centres of buoyancy and gravity are
aligned vertically.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND BUOYANCY
z Correct by re-aligning CoB and CoG

z Adding buoyancy - move CoB towards CoG
Air-filled Lift force
container
CoG
CoB
z Add lump mass - move CoG towards CoB
Lump
mg CoG
mass
CoB
The above diagrams show how the centres of buoyancy and gravity can be re-aligned
for an unsymmetrical pipe section. There are two options:
• Buoyancy is added to counteract the additional weight on one side. This shifts the
centre of buoyancy towards the centre of gravity
• A mass is added on the opposite end of the riser to counteract the additional
weight of the flange / connector etc. This shifts the centre of gravity back into
alignment with the centre of buoyancy.
PIPE LIFTING 319
CODES AND STANDARDS
z General
z DnV Marine Operations Part 2: RP5 - Lifting
z PM 20 (HSE withdrawn publication - but still used)
z HSE L113 - Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment
Regulations (LOLER) 1998
z Lifting gear
z EN 13414-3 - Steel wire rope slings
z BS 1290:1983 and BS 6210:1983 - Specification and code of
practice for wire rope slings
z BS 3481 Part 3 - Web slings
z ISO 7531:1987 and ISO 8792:1986 - Wire rope slings
z ASME B30.9 - 2003 - Slings (Web, Steel wire and fibre rope)
z BS 7121-11:1998 - Code of practice for safe use of cranes
The above list is not intended to be exhaustive, but does cover a wide range of codes
used in the UK, USA and internationally when considering the use of handling and
lifting equipment offshore.
2, 3 AND 4 POINT LIFTS - SUMMARY
z 2, 3 or 4 point lifts
z Depends on pipe geometry, material properties and dynamic
conditions of installation
z Strop lengths - must be accurate or:
z 2, 3 point lifts will be skewed - rotate until taut
z 4 point lifts may have unequal loading on each strop
z Align CoG and CoB with top of crane boom
z Otherwise lifted object will twist
z Tension in strop is related to included angle
z Self-weight induces bending moment in pipe
z May cause plastic deformation or buckling
Any questions?
The lifting chains commonly have either two, three or four hooks - but normally hang
level from the crane when not in use. The selection of which option to use depends
on the shape of the spool and any changes in section along its length.
The aim is to keep the spoolpiece level as it is lifted from the deck and keeping all
chains in tension. This can be achieved by ensuring the crane boom is directly above
the centre of gravity of the spool. This must remain true as the spool is immersed in
water.
Any tension in the chain or strop can be calculated by trigonometry and is related to
their included angle.
Remember too that the spoolpiece is normally subjected to higher bending stresses
during installation than it is likely to experience during operation. This is particularly
true for long slender spools.
PIPE LIFTING 321
STROP EXERCISE
EXERCISE
z Determine the forces in the sling

z Resolve forces horizontally and vertically
algebraically in terms of α
T Included
z Draw BM, compression and angle, θ
shear diagrams for pipe
Strop
z Use w = unit pipe tension,
Strop
weight = W / L length,
Ts
z (W = total weight) Ls Ls
α Pipe compression, C p
Pipe
a W = m·g a
L
The above slide shows a simple two point lift on a straight pipe. The forces present
are the self weight of the pipe and the tension in the sling strops. Using a force
balance, the forces in the individual strops can be determined, and also any forces
present in the pipe being lifted.
Hint: The free body diagram can be resolved by balancing the forces firstly in the
vertical direction, and then horizontally.
Shear load and bending moment diagrams are constructed by firstly integrating the
distributed load to get the shear diagram. The shear diagram is then integrated to get
the bending moment diagram. For the shear diagram, point loads will result in a step
in the diagram. Similarly, there will be steps in the moment diagram for point
couples.
The diagram should show that for a simple two point lift of a straight pipeline, the
maximum bending moment will be either at the centre of the pipe or at the points of
attachment to the sling. Optimum design might try to equalise these moments by
moving the points of attachment.
PIPE LIFTING 323
STROP SIZING
STROP SIZING
z Determine the minimum breaking load (MBL)

for the crane strops
z Design using DnV Standard for Insurance Warranty
Surveys in Marine Operations. Part 2: RP5 Lifting
This section covers the methodology used by DnV to determine the Minimum
Breaking Load to be specified when sourcing suitable steel rope for the strops on a
crane.
The method incorporates a number of safety factors to account for conditions such as
skew loads, hydrodynamic effects, weight tolerances and rigging configuration.
WEIGHT OF OBJECT AND RIGGING
z Weight of object to be lifted

z Normally determine by weighing (if > 95% complete)
z May be determined using specific weights and
volumes (if estimated then multiply by 1.1)
z Also used to determine centre of gravity
z Weight of rigging
z Total weight of rigging equipment
z Shackles, slings, spreader bars, frames etc
When considering the weight to be lifted by the crane, this should include both the
object being lifted and the rigging attached to it. Ideally the object’s weight will be
determined by weighing, with the CoG being determined at the same time. This may
be impractical, in which case an approximation can be made based on specific
weights and volumes of all components in the object. 10% should be added to this
estimate to allow for any inaccuracies.
If the object is weighed, there should be a consideration of inaccuracies in the

weighing equipment. It is recommended that equipment less than 97% accurate
should not be used, and that at least 95% of the object is fabricated before it is
weighed.
The weight of the rigging should include all equipment being supported by the
crane’s boom, i.e. spreader bars, slings, shackles etc.
PIPE LIFTING 325
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
z Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)

z Accounts for global dynamic effects
z Influenced by:
z Environmental conditions
z Type of crane
z Stiffness of crane boom and lifting appliances
z Weight of lifted object
z Type of cargo vessel
z Lift in air or water
z Consider hydrodynamic and hydrostatic effects in water
The dynamic amplification factor (DAF) accounts for global dynamic effects
experienced by the system. There are a number of parameters affecting the DAF, the
main ones of which are listed above. When considering lifts in water, consideration
should be made of the hydrostatic and hydrodynamic effects present.
DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
z Typical values of DAF

Weight of < 100 100 (220) to 1000 (2205) to >2500
lifted object (< 220) 1000 (2205) 2500 (5512) (>5512)
in tonnes (kip)
DAF Offshore 1.3 1.2 1.15 1.1
DAF Inshore 1.15 1.1 1.05 1.05
z Above factors only apply if:

z Not in adverse conditions
z Lifting in air - no hydrodynamic or hydrostatic effects
Why do factors reduce as load increases?

MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD
z De-rating factor - applies if one or more of

the following conditions occur
z Minimum bend radii compared to that of cable laid
rope nominal diameter (Dnom):
z Eye of single part sling: < Dnom
z Other part of sling: < 6 · Dnom
z Eye or other part of grommet: < 6 · Dnom
z De-rating factor if above conditions are not met:
fb = 0.8 /(1 − 0.5 /(D / d)0.5 )
z D = diameter of bend
z d = nominal diameter of cable laid rope or single part grommet
The de-rating factor is generally not required, as the strength reduction of a sling or
grommet due to bending is normally within allowable limits. However, in cases
where de-rating is required, i.e. when the MBL is reduced by more than 20%, a de-
rating factor is required.
The strength reduction is directly related to the ratio of bend radius to the diameter of
the cable laid rope or grommet. If this ratio falls outside the limits specified in the
above slide, the de-rating factor should be used. This will increase the MBL
specified when selecting an appropriate steel rope for the sling, i.e the de-rating factor
(fb) > 1.
PIPE LIFTING 327
OTHER FACTORS
z Tugger or guide lines - special loads (SPL)

z Tugger lines are used to control the spool during lift
z Wind and hydrodynamic/hydrostatic loads
z Dynamic hook loads (DHL)
z Includes effects from global dynamic amplification
z Skew load factor (SKL)
z Of particular concern with multi-crane lifts
z Usage factor
z Will the strops be used only once?
MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD
z Minimum breaking load (MBL)

z Specifies the strength required for the sling
MBL = calculated force ⋅ SKL ⋅ FoS ⋅ fb
z Additional safety factors
z Nominal safety factor (FoS)
z De-rating factor - applies if MBL is reduced by > 20% due to
splicing or bending (fb)
z Nominal safety factor (FoS)

W eigh t (W ) o f o bject F oS
W > 50 to nn es (110 kip ) 3.3
W < 40 ton nes (88 kip ) 4.0
The minimum breaking load is used to specify the guaranteed minimum load at
which the steel rope breaks. This will normally be determined by the steel rope
fabricator by testing the entire rope, or part of it, to destruction. If the MBL is
determined from a part of the rope, a spinning loss coefficient should be applied.
This is typically 0.85.
If a grommet has an unspliced core then the core strength should not be included in
the calculation of the MBL.
There are two safety factors to consider when calculating the MBL to be specified for
a particular sling. These are the nominal safety factor and the de-rating factor.
Nominal safety factor - this is dependent on the weight of the object being lifted. If
the weight is greater than 50 tonnes, a factor of 3.3 should be used. If less than 40
tonnes, a safety factor of 4.0 should be used. For all intermediate weights, the factor
should be linearly interpolated between the two values.
STROP SIZING - SUMMARY
z MBL of strops depends on:

z Weight of rigging and lifted object
z Global dynamic effects (DAF)
z Special loads e.g. hydrodynamic (SPL)
z Dynamic Hook load (DHL)
z Determined from the above factors
z Skew Load Factor (SKL)
z Allows for uneven loading on strops
z De-rating factor to account for tight bend radii of strops
PIPE LIFTING 329
SPREADER BEAMS
PIPE BUCKLING
z Compressive forces related to:

z Angle of sling strops
z Number of strops
z Weight of object
z Geometry of pipe spool
Compressive forces in
spool (L-shaped)
With direct two point lifts, the limitation on the length of pipeline / spoolpiece that a
single crane can lift is usually governed by pipe buckling.
We have shown how the angle of the lifting wires can result in axial compressive
loads being applied to the spool. If the spool is too long or the angles too shallow,
these compressive loads (in combination with its self weight) may become large
enough to cause Euler buckling of the spool.
The above diagram is designed to clearly demonstrate strut buckling with a L-shaped
spoolpiece. However, it would be more common to have a three or four leg lift with
an L or Z spool. Nevertheless, these can also induce compressive forces in the spool
if a spreader bar is not used.
Larger DSVs and MSVs have twin cranes allowing longer spools to be installed. If
using twin cranes, the operators should always work in unison to ensure lift forces are
always acting in the vertical direction and not transferred axially into spool
compression.
SPREADER BEAMS
z Advantages
z Alleviate compressive forces by transferring from
pipe to spreader beam
z Reduce the risk of buckling the pipe
z Spool need not be designed for
temporary installation condition
z Disadvantages
z Add weight to the rigging
z Additional crane height required
to accommodate beam
Compressive forces in
spreader beam
Spreader beams can be used to alleviate this problem.
However, they need to be very stiff compared to the pipe, so are usually large I-
beams.
They add their own weight and also increase the height of the lifting configuration.
Note that the figure shows the same L-shaped spool again being lifted with only two
strops from the spreader beam. This would not be an optimum solution due to the
difficulty in keeping the spool level. A better solution would have three or four
strops.
PIPE LIFTING 331
SPREADER BEAMS
z Transfer of compressive load (P) to beam

z Increased weight and height
z W = m · g (pipe) + weight of beam (+ strops etc)
z Can more than double W
the lifted load
z Crane jib height
P
increased by H
P
H Vertical strops
attached to pipe,
no compressive
W force in pipe
All buckling forces are now taken by the beam But this can be sized to withstand
these forces.
This contrasts with having to size the spool for the temporary condition during
installation instead of the permanent stresses during operation.
However, the increased weight of the beam and extra strops can more than double the
lifting load needed.
We also need to allow for the increased height of lift due to the strops.
USE OF CHS OR UB AS SPREADERS
z Circular Hollow Section z Universal I Beam

z Optimum for compression z Good for bending and axial
Single plate
welded into
slot in
spreader
Small pipe
needs extra Intermediate lugs slot-
Spool can support support connected using welds
self weight to web stiffeners
It is common on vessels to have a selection of only CHS (Circular Hollow Sections)

or UB (Universal I Beams) and pipes.
The former provide excellent stiffness against Euler buckling. The shape provides
the maximum radius of gyration for the amount of steel. It is the best solution when
the spoolpiece can support the bending stresses due to self weight. The combined
lugs at either end are made from a single piece of metal welded into a slot in the
spreader beam pipe. Note that the spreader will need to be able to support its own
self-weight so true Euler buckling analysis is not appropriate.
I beams are used where there are intermediate slings to the object being lifted and
stiffness in bending is needed as well as axial compression resistance. It is used for
long flimsy spools which need intermediate support to withstand their self weight.
The load is then transferred to the spreader beam. The intermediate lugs are slotted in
replacing part of the web. They are also welded to the web stiffener plates: this
provides additional resistance to pull out.
PIPE LIFTING 333
SPREADER BEAMS - SUMMARY
z Lifting induces compressive force in pipe

z Increases as strop deviates from vertical orientation
z Spreader beams
z Alleviate compressive stress in spool
z Multiple attachments can reduce bending
z But increases weight and height of rigging
z Designed for:
z Compressive buckling
z Bending due to self weight
Any questions?
If the pipe spool is lifted by itself, it will tend to buckle due to the self weight and the
compressive forces induced by the strops.
Spreader beams can be used to lift spools into position safely.
They need to be designed to resist the same compressive force and bending due the
self weight of the beam.
But the spool can then be economically designed for the permanent stresses during
operation.
WORKED EXAMPLE
PIPE LIFT WORKED EXAMPLE
z Make use of equations you developed earlier

z Two-point lift on spreader beam
z Straight pipeline spoolpiece
z Calculate for beam:
z Compressive force and bending moment
z Limiting stress conditions
z Assume:
z Static analysis - doesn’t account for crane
acceleration, hydrodynamic loads etc
We want to lift a double butt pipe using a lifting beam. It is 168.3 mm diameter with
heavy weight concrete.
On board the vessel we have a BS4 UC which we can use.
Are the stresses acceptable?

PIPE LIFTING 335
WORKED EXAMPLE - INPUT DATA
z Double-header pipe spool

z 168.3 mm x 12.7 mm wall (65/8in x ½in)
z Length 24.3 m (79.7 ft)
z Grade X42 (σy = 289 MPa)
z 50 mm (2in) heavyweight concrete
α
z Density 3044 kg/m³ (190 lb/ft³)
z Beam
z Length 14.3 m (46.9 ft)
z ∴End overhang 5 m (16.4 ft)
z UC 254 x 254 x 89 kg/m
(10.2 x 10.1 x 59.7 lb/ft) z Total weight of
z Steel grade S275 (39.9 ksi) pipe & beam, Wtot
z Strop angle with beam α = 45° = 67.5 kN (15.1 kip)
For the simple straight pipe lift, we want to size a suitable spreader beam using AISC
code and a non-US steel section. Column sections can provide the best resistance to
pure compression since they have similar stiffness in the x and y axes. Struts’
strength is determined by their minimum stiffness, so by equalising these, their
capacity is maximised.
A check is also needed for built-up beams to ensure that they are deemed ‘compact
sections’.
Possible sections that might be used are:

• European HE wide flange beam section in accordance with Euronorm 53-62
• European IPE narrow flange beams to Euronorm 89 (although these may not be
not stiff enough in the lateral direction)
• BS 4 : Part 1 : 1993 UC or UB sections to BS EN10056 : 1999
• USA W (wide flange) shapes (metric versions are available in the Far East)
The enclosed angle of 90° for the sling is the maximum that we would really want to
use. The equations developed earlier should be used to calculate the compression in
the beam.
In this instance, we are only going to check the chosen beam for over-stress
conditions. For this reason, we are providing the total mass of pipe, beam and strops.
An allowance of 105% has been made for the weight of the lugs, stiffeners and strops
attached to the beam. The additional items are concentrated at the ends, so for the
unit self weight, we can assume the listed value.
The pipe stresses have been checked separately. The bending stress in pipe is
approximately half that of yield.
Note that the orientation of the beam (and therefore pipe) is controlled using
additional ropes to the ends of the beam. If they were attached to the pipe, there is a
risk that additional unwanted loads could be applied to the system.
BEAM FORCES
z Unit weight of beam

z w = 88.9 kg/m · g = 0.872 kN/m (59.7 lbf/ft) - no need for g
z Compression in beam compression
z P = W tot ÷ (2 ·tan α)
= 67.5 kN (15.2 kip) ÷ (2 ·tan 45°) = 33.7 kN (7.6 kip)
z Bending at centre sag
z M = w · g · L² / 8
= 88.9 kg/m · 9.81 m/s² · (14.3 m)² / 8 = 22.3 kN m
(59.7 lb/ft · (46.9 ft)² / 8 = 16.4 kip ft) - no need for g
z Shear at ends
z S=w·g·L/2
= 88.9 kg/m · 9.81 m/s² · 14.3 m / 2 = 6.5 kN
(59.7 lb/ft · 46.9 ft / 2 = 1.5 kip) - no need for g
Where:
• w = unit weight of beam (ignore allowance for end lugs etc)
• P = compressive force
• Wtot = total weight of pipe, concrete coating and beam (including an allowance
for lugs etc).
• α = angle of slings with horizontal
• M = moment in beam at mid-length due to self weight
• g = acceleration due to gravity (9.80665 m/s²)
• L = length of lifting beam
• S = shear force in beam at ends due to self weight
In most instances of a spreader beam, the beam acts as a ‘long column’ subject to
moment at middle and shear at the ends (due to self weight of the beam). However,
the combination of moment and axial compressive force is the main design
consideration.
By ‘long’, we mean that the beam is likely to fail by Euler elastic buckling rather than
inelastic buckling (short or intermediate beams). We need to check that the beam
does not bend sideways (yy axis) under the compression since the beam is less stiff in
this direction.
Remember that when working in imperial units (lb and lbf - or kip), there is no need
to multiply by g.
PIPE LIFTING 337
CRITICAL DESIGN CONDITION IN BEAM
z The critical design condition is

z Compression and bending at mid-span of beam
z Bending stress is much greater than compression
z We will ignore other checks in exercise
z Shear at ends
z Values are small
z Generally not critical for lifting beams
z Full design should include these checks
z Support lugs covered elsewhere in course
BEAM STRESS DUE TO COMPRESSION
z Effective length, l = K · Lb = 14.3 m (46.9 ft)

z K = 1.0 for a pin-pin free-ended lifting beam
z Section data from tables
z Depth of section, d = 260.3 mm (10.2in)
z Width of flange, bf = 256.3 mm (10.1in)
z Thickness of web, tw = 10.3 mm (0.4in)
z Thickness of flange, tf =17.3 mm (0.7in)
z Elastic modulus, Sx = 1096 cm3 (66.9in3)
z Minimum radius of gyration, ry = 6.55 cm (2.6in)
z Cross-sectional area, A = 113 cm² (17.5in²)
z Yield stress of beam, Fy = 275 MPa (39.9 ksi)
Be aware that different section data sources use different symbols for these variables.
For example, the new EuroNorms have the x axis along the centreline of the beam
between supports. This means that what used to be the x and y directions are now the
y and z directions.
Note too that many tables use centimetres to reduce the number of digits printed.
Remember to factor values into common units (multiply ft by 12 to get inches and
metres by 100 to get centimetres).
STRESSES IN BEAM
z Stresses
z Axial compression, fa = P / A
= 33.7 kN / 113 cm² = 3.0 MPa
(7.6 kip / 17.5 in² = 0.4 ksi)
z Bending due to self-weight, fb = M / Sx
= 22.3 kN m / 1096 cm³ = 20.3 MPa
(16.4 kip ft / 66.9in³ = 2.9 ksi)
z Design for:
z Combined compression and bending
z Compare with permitted levels of these stresses
PERMITTED COMPRESSIVE STRESS
z We need to know beam failure mode

z Long beams fail in Euler elastic buckling
z Short to intermediate beams fail in inelastic buckling
z Dependant on: 2 ⋅ π2 ⋅ E 2 ⋅ π 2 ⋅ 200 GPa

Cc = =
z Critical column Fy 275 MPa
slenderness ratio ⎛ 2 ⋅ π ⋅ 29 ⋅ ksi ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟ = 119.8
⎜ 39 . 9 ksi ⎟
⎝ ⎠
z Limiting slenderness s = K ⋅ l / r = 1.0 ⋅ 14.3 m / 6.55 cm
r y
ratio for short and
intermediate columns (1.0 ⋅ 46.9ft ⋅ 12 / 2.6in ) = 218.3
PIPE LIFTING 339
FACTORED EULER BUCKLING
z Compare the two: sr ≥ Cc (218.3 ≥ 119.8)

z We have a long column - Euler failure condition
z Use equation E2-2 for allowable stress
12 ⋅ π2 ⋅ E 12 ⋅ π 2 ⋅ 200 GPa
Fa = = = 21.6 MPa
23 ⋅ sr 23 ⋅ 218.3
⎛ 12 ⋅ π 2 ⋅ 29 ksi ⎞
⎜ = 3.1 ksi ⎟
⎜ 23 ⋅ 218.3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
z Compare with actual stress in compression
(worked out earlier):
z fa = 3.0 MPa (0.4 kip)
This differs from the earlier work on the struts in the frame. We now have to limit
the stress to that for elastic buckling.
In addition to the compressive stresses, we also need to calculate those due to

bending in order to calculate the combined factor.
PERMITTED BENDING STRESS
z First evaluate rT - radius of gyration of:

z Compression flange plus
z 1/ of compression web area
3
z Taken about axis of web (y-y) Compression flange
b
z Radius of gyration = √(I/A) tf
y
t f ⋅ b 3 (d − 2 ⋅ t f ) tw2
(d-2·tf)/6 1/3 web
+ ⋅ in comp
d-2·tf
rT = 12 6 12 x x
d
(d − 2 ⋅ t f )
tf ⋅ b + ⋅ tw
6
rT = 67.2 mm (2.6 in ) y
tw
For this example, the compression is at the top of the lifting beam.
When the beam is subject to bending, the tension flange tends to straighten out.
However, the compression flange tries to move sideways. This is why we need to
find the stiffness laterally about the web.
PERMITTED BENDING STRESS
z We need to check the greater of two values

z Either eqn F1-6 or F1-7 - depends on l/rT and Cb/Fy
z l/rT = 14300/67.2 (46.9 ft · 12 /2.6 in) = 212.9
z Cb = 1.0 when the mid-span moment is the largest - our case
z Cb/Fy · 510 · 106 ksi = 113.1
z 212.9 ≥ 113.1 so use eqn F1-7
1172.1 GPa ⋅ Cb ⎛ 170 ⋅ 103 ksi ⋅ Cb ⎞

Fb = = 25.9 MPa ⎜ = 3 . 8 ksi ⎟
(l rT )2 ⎜ ( r )2 ⎟
⎝ l T ⎠
z Or eqn F1-8 (In this instance, the greater)

82.7 GPa ⋅ Cb ⎛ 12 ⋅ 103 ksi ⋅ Cb ⎞
Fb = = 98.6 MPa ⎜
⎜ = 14.3 ksi ⎟⎟
l ⋅ d rT ⎝ l ⋅ d rT ⎠
Using the lateral stiffness of the compression flange, we can calculate the lesser of
the two equations.
In the above equations, 1172.1 GPa and 82.7 GPa are code specified constants.
PIPE LIFTING 341
BENDING STRESSES
z This gives us a maximum permitted stress of

z Fb = 98.6 MPa (14.3 ksi)
z Further check, Fb value cannot be more than
z 0.6 ·Fy
= 0.6 ·275 MPa (39.9 ksi) = 165 MPa (23.9 ksi)
z OK - acceptable
z Compare with actual stress in bending

(worked out earlier):
z fb = 20.3 MPa (14.3 kip)
Now we know the actual and permitted stresses due to both compression and
bending.
COMBINE BENDING & AXIAL COMPRESSION
z Check ratio of axial stress to permitted value

z fa/Fa = 3.0 MPa / 21.6 MPa (0.4 ksi / 3.1 ksi) = 0.138
z This is less than 0.15, use eqn H1-3
z If it were not true, then check eqns H1-1 and H1-2
z Stress level fa fb 3.0 20.3 ⎛ 0 .4 + 2 .9 ⎞
+ = + ⎜ ⎟
Fa Fb 21.6 96.8 ⎝ 3.1 14.3 ⎠
= 0.138 + 0.206 = 0.345
z This is less than unity ∴acceptable section size
z We could check for another section shape
z A UB might be more efficient - less steel = lower cost
We need to combine the stresses and check for a safe level.
The code uses three equations H1-1, 2 and 3 depending upon how close the axial
compressive stress is to the factored Euler stress.
Note that the equation above has been simplified since we do not have any lateral
bending (about the yy plane). We only have the axial and the xx terms for bending.
PIPE LIFTING 343
BEAM EXERCISE
EXERCISE
z What if the spool were 36.5 m (120 ft) long?

z Use a longer spreader beam of 24.5 m (80.4 ft)
z Pipe ends overhang beam by 6 m (19.7ft)
z Intermediate slings to prevent overstress in pipe
z Calculate for beam:
z Compressive force and
bending moment
z Add weight of pipe to the
beam as an uniform load
z Other parameters and
assumptions as before
z Omit pipe calculations
For simplicity, assume that the weight of the pipe is added to that of the beam as a
uniformly distributed load (UDL) rather than evaluating the two intermediate
equidistant support straps. The 5% additional allowance for the lugs and stiffeners on
the beam should also be distributed along the beam rather than concentrated at just
the ends.
In actual fact, the system is statically indeterminate. We need to ignore the stiffness
of the pipe (assuming it is essentially a flexible load) to simplify the design of the
beam. Nevertheless, this is a reasonable assumption in this instance.
BEAM STRESS DUE TO COMPRESSION
z We need a longer and deeper section beam

z Try UB 914x419x343 kg/m (35.9x16.5x230.5 lb/ft)
z Section data from tables
z Depth of section, d = 911.4 mm (35.9in)
z Width of flange, bf = 418.5 mm (16.5in)
z Thickness of web, tw = 19.4 mm (0.8in)
z Thickness of flange, tf =32.0 mm (1.3in)
z Elastic modulus, Sx = 13 691 cm3 (835.5in3)
z Minimum radius of gyration, ry = 9.11 cm (3.6in)
z Cross-sectional area, A = 436.9 cm² (67.7in²)
z Yield stress of beam, Fy = 275 MPa (39.9 ksi)
A UB provides better resistance to bending about the xx axis than the UC we used
previously.
PIPE LIFTING 345
DEEP WATER RESONANCE
INTERFACE WITH WATER
z Lowering through water interface

z Most risky part of operation
z Surge and wave motion
z Out of phase effects
z Object and vessel
z Swinging
z Short arc movement
z Proximity with side of vessel
z Swings more in air than in water
z Less resistance
Lowering (or lifting out) an object through the air-water interface can be the most
risky part of the operation.
In addition to the surge and wave motion of the vessel - which is transferred to the
end of the lifting derrick and thence to the rope - we have the swinging of the object
itself. The derrick must be stiff enough to resist any dynamic amplification effects
from the rope and object being lifted, as well as any out of phase effects between the
lifting system and the vessel.
Swinging of the weight is worst when the rope is shortest. This is often at the water
interface and close to the side of the vessel.
We will also not have the damping effect of the object as it moves through the water.
CURRENT EFFECTS
z Currents are combination of

z Tidal current
z Calculable for each phase of moon (springs and neaps)
z Wind generated current at still water level
vB vw
z Vc = VT + Vw (ho - z/ho)
Surface
z Vw = 0.17 · VR
z Adjust for wave crests ho
and troughs to maintain
h = 50 m
constant current flow volume o
h
z Vc’ = Vc · (h + z )/h vB
Current profile
An assessment of currents may be needed for suspended loads beneath a barge.
Where
• Vc = current profile at depth z
• VT = tidal current
• Vw = wind-generated current at the still water level
• VR = reference wind velocity (defined earlier)
• h = water depth
• ho = reference depth for the wind generated current (ho=50 m)
• z = distance from the still water level (positive downward)
Currents can be calculated as the combination of tidal currents and wind generated
currents.
Tidal currents are often greatest near to shore on the continental shelf. Mid-ocean,
they are considerably less due to the greater water depth. They can be assessed
knowing the location and time of year. The strongest tides are found at spring tides,
which occur a few days either side of full and new moons (once a fortnight). Smaller
tidal currents are associated with neap tides, which occur one week either side of the
springs.
At the spring and autumn equinoxes, spring tides are particularly high and currents
run stronger.
The DNV RP2 code provides a method of assessing wind-generated currents. Their
effects are effectively restricted to the upper 50 m (164 ft) of the water column. The
method also permits adjustments to be made, allowing constant current flow volume
through the wave crests and troughs.
PIPE LIFTING 347
DEEP WATER RESONANCE
z Waves
z RAO of vessel
z Phase angle and response
z Weight of object
z Response near seabed
z Current effects on wire
z Variation with depth
z Vertical out of phase
z Over-stress in wire
z Varies with depth
We often assume sinusoidal waves of fixed height. In practice at sea, they are
random both in period and height.
The vessel operating characteristics need to be described in all six degrees of freedom
(yaw, pitch, roll and heave, sway, surge). The responses or RAOs vary with wave
frequency. We need to take account of both the phase angle and percentage of the
initiating wave movement is felt at the fixed point.
It is normal to lift from near the centre of the vessel to minimise movement.
However, some movement is inevitable.
We often need to set an object gently down in a specified location on the seabed.
Close to the bottom, the object does not feel the effects of the waves directly but may
rise and fall slightly as it is being held by the wire. Its inertial mass must be allowed
in the analysis. Allowance for swinging motions must also be made.
The current may vary in both speed and direction with depth. Often, either the 7th
power law or a parabolic distribution of velocity is used, based on readings just above
the seabed, at mid-point and just below the surface.
However, in some instances, the bed current can flow in a different or even reverse
direction compared with that at the surface. Where it is known that there are
significant changes in current velocity and direction through the water depth, then
this must be taken into account.
It may be that because of resonance, the weight tries to go down just as the vessel
rises in the water. This effectively stretches the wire, increasing tension forces in it.
Different wire lengths tend to have different responses as the object is lowered to
depth.
ACTIVE HEAVE COMPENSATION SYSTEM
z Waveriding Launch System

for ROV
z Gas/oil accumulators
act as spring
z Fitted into winch hydraulic circuit
z Operable in 14 m (46ft) waves
z Problems
z Localised cable wear
z Rope fatigue
z Reduced life
To overcome problems at the air-water interface a number of systems have been

developed to either guide or push objects below the surface. An additional problem
with ROVs is that their thrusters cannot operate near the surface - they suffer from
cavitation.
To avoid the deep-water resonance, we can install a heave compensation system.
The examples shown were fitted to the Beryl Alpha and Beryl platforms, courtesy of
Subsea 7. The system minimises heave forces developing in the wire or cable.
Problems were encountered due to wear on a localised length of the cable when
positioned at a set depth. This same section of cable would be repeatedly pulled back
and forth over the sheaves as the waves passed through and dynamic resonant effects
of the ROV were felt.
In addition, other effects such as fatigue contributed to a reduced life.

PIPE LIFTING 349
CRANE HEAVE COMPENSATOR
Hydraulic accumulator
The crane heave compensator is controlled by the unit reaching the full height to the
side of the cab as shown on the photo.
This hydraulic accumulator essentially smoothes out any power surges in the systems.
The crane wire winches are driven by hydraulic motors hence the need a damping
device. The vessel and object load are controlled by a computer system in the crane
driver cab. The accumulator is only active in ‘heavy active heave mode’.
This particular crane has a number of operational modes:

• Manual Mode - No heave compensation is used.
• Constant Tension - This mode is used when a payload is supported by something
other than the lift line. In this mode, the winch will haul or render as the vessel
rises and falls, and will maintain the line tension within limits pre-set by the
operator.
• Active Heave Compensation (Heavy / Passive) - Active Heave compensation is
used to maintain the vertical load within pre-defined limits. A joystick control
may control the vertical position of the payload from a motion reference unit.
This mode is commonly used when landing a load onto the seabed.
The 3D spool is part of the valve unit covered by the overtrawling protection
structure we saw earlier.
ROPE RESONANCE AND FATIGUE
z Suspended load in deep water

z Multiple sheave system
z Bending and tension over the pulleys
z Resonance of rope - fluctuation loads in pulleys
z Wear and fatigue failures of the wires and strands
z Severely limits the life of the rope
z Life assessment
z Interaction of wear, bending, tension and fatigue
z Not directly calculable analytically
z Feyrer’s empirical formula used
z Endurance bending stresses - testing to failure
If an active heave compensator is used, then the effects of wear and fatigue must be
assessed for dynamic ropes working on a multiple sheave system.
Single sections of the wire will be repeatedly passed back and forward across the
pulley system used to compensate for the resonance. Each time, the wire will be
subjected to bending and tension. Areas will be worn and damaged by fatigue.
This all contributes to a much reduced life of the rope.
The combined effects of wear, bending, tension and fatigue interact together.
Professor Feyrer’s empirical formula can be used to estimate the life of a wire rope
subjected to cycles of tension and bending.
The formula includes several parameters, specific to a given rope design, that must be
derived from a large number of bending fatigue tests. Feyrer’s empirical lifetime
formula can then give a guide to the life of a rope and so an appropriate discard time
can be obtained when the service cycles are known.
PIPE LIFTING 351
DEEPWATER RESONANCE - SUMMARY
z Air-water interface
z Swinging and wave effects
z Deep water effects during lowering to bed
z Out of phase effects change with wire length
z Heave compensators
z Wire fatigue over sheaves
Any questions?
There are two phases in lowering spoolpieces or other objects to the seabed.
The air-water interface presents risks due to swinging of objects as they are acted on
by waves. The crane is also subjected to surges as the spool is lowered into and out
of the water - due to changes in waterlevel arising from waves.
Once the object is below the surface, any heave movement on the barge will cause
sympathetic movement in the object. These may be out of phase with the vessel.
With different lengths of wire let out as the object is lowered, these movements may
develop into resonant action, increasing peak wire loading. Damping due to water
needs to be allowed for.
The use of heave compensators can help once the object is through the water surface.
All wire is subject to fatigue as we have discussed earlier. But heave compensators
are particularly vulnerable because the same section of wire will be passed repeatedly
over sheaves with each wave. If there are a lot of spools to be lowered to the water
depth, wire may have a very short life.
PIPE LIFTING - SUMMARY
z Attachments
z 2, 3 and 4 point lifts
z Strop sizing
z Spreader beams
z Deep water resonance
Any questions?
In this module, we have examined some of the problems with lifting spool pieces
down to the seabed.
Different lifting arrangements are needed depending upon the shape of the spool.
The spool should remain level both in air and underwater. This may need either
weights or buoyancy to be attached.
We have calculated the forces induced into the wire and the spoolpiece during lifting.
We have examined the safety factors used with strops.
Spreader beams reduce the stresses in long spools. The AISC method of designing I
beams to resist both axial compression and bending has been described. This
complements the earlier work for tubular members.
Some of the methods and considerations needed to minimise resonance have been
described.

LUGS & SEA FASTENINGS

LUGS & SEA FASTENINGS 355
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
z Considerations in designing lugs

z Single and double shear
z Doubler plates
z Out-of-plane resistance
z Fixing plates
z AISC permitted stresses
z Similar analysis needed
Pulling
for pulling heads head lug
z Securing plate to suitable foundation

z Seafasteners
Lugs are commonly designed and fabricated on board pipelay vessels. They are used
for permanent and temporary uses and the installation engineer should be able to size
one. They are commonly highly overdesigned to allow for misuse.
We will examine in detail the stresses that different areas of lugs must resist. The
stress levels will be compared with the AISC permitted values.
A similar analysis can be used when designing pulling heads for landfalls and A&R.
The lug must be fixed to a safe location on deck. For ease of removal in the future,
this is commonly achieved by the use of a base plate bolted or welded to a suitable
foundation.
Finally, we will determine the forces on lugs as components of seafastener systems,

used to transport equipment such as pipes, spoolpieces or valve structures to an
offshore field.
LUGS AND STIFFENERS
TYPICAL LUG USAGE
z Restraining struts and ties

Strut
Tie
Lugs
The figure shows an A-frame handling structure located at the stern of a vessel. The
lugs used in the design have been highlighted.
In this structure, the lugs at the ends of the hydraulic cylinders (that act as struts) will
be designed primarily for carrying compressive loads. The lugs upon which the
frame rotates will then be designed for significant tensile loading.
LUGS AND STIFFENERS
z Point of fixity on a flat surface

z Loads applied via pin through the lug-hole
z Single principal plane of loading
z Translational restraint
in the x-z plane z
x
z No rotational restraint
about y axis y
z Pin joint
Lugs are a simple means of providing a point of fixity on a flat surface. They are
usually temporary fixtures that are either welded or bolted on to the surface. They
provide a pinned-joint type of restraint with a principal plane of loading.
For the figure shown above, the principal plane of loading is a translational restraint
in the x-z plane. A small (5%) translational restraint is provided in other directions,
but these loads are secondary in the design of the lug.
There is also no rotational restraint provided about the y-axis. Minimal rotational
restraint in other planes should also be considered as secondary loading during the
lug design.
STIFFENED LUGS
z Designed to accommodate significant

secondary loads
z Translational restraint
in the y-z plane
z Minor bending restraint z
z About the x axis x
z About the z axis y
Stiffener
It is likely that lugs will not always experience loading solely in the principal axis (x-
z plane). Therefore, it may be necessary to reinforce the lugs against bending loads
applied in other planes.
The reinforcement can be achieved by welding stiffeners to sides of the lug.
With a stiffened configuration as shown in the above diagram, there will be an

increased bending stiffness about the x axis that restrains translations in the y-z plane.
SINGLE AND DOUBLE SHEAR
z Two common configurations for applying

loads to lugs P
P/2
P/2
Tie
Pin
Single-shear Double-shear
The loading configuration on the pin will either be a single or double shear.
The above figure shows a lug attached to a tie via a pin. A tensile load is applied to
the tie, which is transmitted to the lug via the pin.
For single shear, the tie is attached to one side of the lug.
For double shear, the tie is attached to each side of the lug. Each half of the tie
carries half the applied tensile load, P.
SINGLE-SHEAR
z Forces acting on close-fitting pin

z Shear Æ diameter Tie
4⋅P t
τ= Nut
Nut
π ⋅ D2
z Bearing Æ diameter x thickness
P
σ bearing = D
D ⋅t Pin
z Forces acting on the lug t
Lug
z Tension or tearing Æ cross-section P
Fillet welds
z Bending moment, P · t
z Resisted by section moment at hole
Single-shear lugs are those where the load is applied to one side of the lug.
The main difference between this and the double-shear type lug is that the shear
stresses in the pin are twice as large for the single-shear configuration. There is also
a bending moment that should be considered during the lug design. This is resisted
by the section moment at the hole location.
The pin is sized for the maximum applied load, P. The pin diameter is sized from the
allowable shear stress and the thickness of the lug is sized from the allowable bearing
stress.
Lug dimensions should also account for tearing and bending as detailed in the
relevant design code.
With this design, it is normal for the tie and lug to have the same thickness plate.
Note that these equations are for close-fitting pins. Loose pins will have a stress
concentration at the point of bearing. With single shear and loose pins, there is also a
tendency to rotate the pin. This can be avoided by using friction grip bolts which
transfer loads in a different way using the roughness on the faces of the plates.
DOUBLE-SHEAR
z Forces acting on close-fit pin Fillet welds

P
z Shear Æ diameter
2⋅P P/2 P/2
τ=
π ⋅ D2 T
z Bearing Æ diameter x thickness

P
σ bearing =
D ⋅T D
z Forces acting on the lug

t t
z Tension or tearing Æ cross-section
P Fillet welds
z Zero bending moment in lug
z But check for bending in long pins
The double-shear configuration applies the load equally to each side of the lug. This
configuration effectively halves the shear force applied to the pin and so allows for
smaller pin or bolt diameters than required for the single-shear configuration.
It makes sense to have tie plates thinner (t) than the lug itself (T).
This configuration also has the advantage that no bending moment is applied to the
lug. As with the single-shear configuration, the lug should be sized with account for
possible tearing of the lug due to the applied tension.
Again, we assume a close-fitting pin. Whereas there is no tendency for the bolt to
rotate, we need to check for bearing stress. But now, we cannot use friction-grip
bolts.
However, we may find double shear with a shackle used in an oversized hole. In this
instance, the stress concentration at the point of bearing must be assessed. The
material (lug and shackle pin) will deform slightly until sufficient bearing area is
provided by local yielding.
Many lugs are essentially overdesigned to permit such misuse. Because the material
and welding costs are relatively small, there is often little advantage with temporary
hold points in designing them close to the maximum permitted stresses. Often they
have a very large safety factor. What we wish to achieve is a balanced design with all
failure mechanisms having a similar FoS. The strength of a lug is like that of a chain:
it is only as good as the weakest link.
DOUBLER-PLATES
z Welded onto lug

Doubler
z One or both sides plate
z Increased area for

bearing load application
z Increasing thickness
z Reduces bearing stress
P
σ bearing = Bearing
D ⋅ (T + 2 ⋅ t ) Applied surface D
load
z Doubler plate weld - assume
all load taken by doubler plate t T t
Plan view
z Reduced bending in long pins
Doubler-plates (also known as “cheek plates”) are relatively thick rings welded onto
the outside of the lug. They are an inexpensive way of increasing the allowable
applied load by reducing the bearing stress applied to the lug by the pin.
The bearing stress is inversely proportional to the thickness of the lug. The doubler-
plates increase this thickness and so reduces the pin bearing stress.
However, care should be taken when the lug is being manufactured using a flame-cut
hole or where the force may not truly be in-plane. The former may be the case for a
temporary fixing fabricated on board the vessel.
If it is possible for all the load to come onto one doubler plate for any reason, the
fixing weld needs to be assessed to ensure that it does not become overloaded. If this
weld fails, then the doubler plate would become ineffective and the bearing surface of
the lug would be reduced. A ‘domino’ failure may take place.
They are also used where the pin is relatively long and bending moments in the pin
itself may cause concern. Examples are for shackles, which are generally loose
fitting for ease of use.
LUGS AND SHACKLES - PADEYES
Bow shackle
Doubler-plate
Bolted padeye
Lug
Pin
Stiffeners Welded padeye

Fastener plate
If a purpose made tie rod is not used, shackles can fix the end of rope or chain to the
lug to simulate a padeye.
The above figure shows a bow-shackle fixed to a lug by a threaded nut and bolt
fastener. This is often used to take out of plane loads, so the lug needs to be fitted
with stiffeners. If the load direction is always in-plane with the lug, a D-shackle may
be more appropriate.
The section of the bolt in contact with the lug will not be threaded and acts as the pin
through the lug-hole.
The doubler-plates prevent the over-sized shackle from moving along the axis of the
lug-hole and reduces the bearing loads applied to the pin.
Lugs are sometimes mistakenly called padeyes. However, true padeyes - shown
above - are rings with very high safety factors so that they can withstand sideways
forces from any direction. They may have a ring fitted to aid tying off of ropes and
minimise wear.
In this module, the vector forces acting on the lugs are accurately known, so factors
of safety can be kept close to the code limits.
LUG FAILURE MODES
z Shear pull-out
z The lug and doubler plate
fail in shear
z Tension pull-out
z The lug and doubler plate
fail in tension
z Tear-out
z The lug fails in tension
behind the doubler plate
The above modes of failure for the lug will result from bearing stresses greater than
the yield stress for the lug material.
The three different failure modes will be dependant on the dimensions of the lug and
the doubler-plate. The three failure modes are:
• Shear pull-out occurs when there is insubstantial lug and doubler-plate thickness
causes significant shear stresses and resulting in the pin shearing through the lug
and doubler-plate.
• Tension pull-out is a result of insufficient lug and doubler-plate thickness and too
small of a radius for the lug around the pin.
• Tear-out occurs when there is an insufficient lug thickness and a small lug radius
but the thickness of the doubler-plate is sufficient.
BENDING FAILURE MODES
z In-plane bending
z Moment due to lever arm La
La
and force P
z Resisted by section b d
modulus, z = b · d² / 6
z At each section through lug
z Allow min ±5% transverse load
z Out-of-plane bending
z Moment resisted by combined
I value of the stiffeners
z At each section through lug
In-plane and out-of-plane bending of the lug is resisted by the combined section
modulus of the plate and stiffener at each level down to the base plate.
Even when the load is assessed as purely in-plane, good practice will always consider
a small transverse load equivalent to ±5% of the pull.
Out-of-plane bending resistance can be increased by the use of a pair of stiffeners.

Ensure that they leave enough space for welds and fitting of the shackle.
Not only should the steel of the lug or the stiffeners be checked, but also the welds
which connect to the base plate.
PIN FAILURE MODES
z Bending P/2 A P/2 z Shear

P
z Loose
shackle
z Slipping
P
Shear
P force
A
z Bearing
Section A-A
z Local Bearing failure
Deformed
stress Original (weaker) lug
pin profile
z Flame-cut Undeformed
holes Original lug (stronger) pin
hole profile
The modes of failure for the pin (or bolt) used in a lug and shackle design are
bending, bearing and shear.
The pin (especially on a loose fitting shackle) may bend due to the moment induced
in it. Long pins (relative to lug) should be checked for bending. However, it is not
good practice to use pins which are much longer than the lug width. The tie can slip
sideways and more load come onto one plate than the other. Later, we will examine
the use of doubler plates to maintain the pin in the correct position.
Bearing failure occurs when the lug or pin plastically deform as they are pushed
together by the applied load. In the majority of designs, the pin will often be made
from a stronger material than the lug, which will result in the lug-hole being
deformed by the pin. The bearing check needs to be made on the weaker material.
In some instances, especially when the hole is flame-cut rather than drilled for a close
fit, the lug may deform at the hole. A small amount of local yielding due to stress
concentration is not necessarily a cause of failure. The AISC code recognises that
this may take place, providing that the surrounding material is able to safely accept
the distributed load.
Shearing of the pin may occur along the plane of interface between the lug and
shackle.
TOLERANCES
z Shackles
z Looser fit
z Ability to fit quickly
Pin and
z Cleated pins cleat
z Close tolerance fit
z AISC tol 0.8 mm (1/32in)
z Shouldered bolts Shoulder
z Maximum hole diameter
z AISC specifies 1.6 mm (1/16in) larger than bolt
z Europe uses 2.0 mm Castellated nut,
split pin, washer
z Friction-grip bolts and hot rivets and shouldered bolt
z Not usually appropriate
Care should be taken to define the required tolerance of pin and hole; and also for
double-shear connections, any gap between the doubler plates and side plates. If the
hole diameter is too big relative to the pin, then secondary deformation of the steel
may occur.
For shackles, there is a large tolerance on manufacture but factors of safety within the
metal are higher than for simple tie connections. Refer to BS 3032 Higher Tensile
Steel Dee and Bow Shackles for dimensions.
Larger diameter (100 mm and above), purpose-made pins are normally sized with
close tolerances, better than 1 mm. The holes through the lug and tie are assembled
and bored in a single operation to ensure concentricity in all members. The figure
shows a pin with two grooves either end. Into these fits a steel plate, which is bolted
to the outside of the connection. Even if the pin rotates, there is no risk of the pin
coming loose. It is normal to provide four plates (two at either end).
Where the pin is not purpose-made for the hole, slightly larger tolerances may be
used, perhaps up to 3 mm.
Holes for threaded bolts with shoulders used for lug-tie connections generally have
close tolerances. In many cases, the codes require standard dimensions based on the
diameter of the bolt or pin. US and European practice is given above.
In general, lugs do not use friction grip bolts properties, but remain slightly loose.
Friction grip bolts grip the steel plate tightly together and hold in a different manner
than we have discussed. Tolerances for friction grip bolts depend on their diameter
and oversize holes may be used to make steelwork connections. For nominal sizes of
bolts up to 24 mm, the standard hole clearance is 2 mm; for 27 mm and larger, the
clearance is 3 mm. With 27 mm bolts in oversize holes, the clearances are up to 8
mm. Really, their use with lugs is limited to single-shear rather than double-shear
cases.
Similar considerations apply to hot rivets. These are rarely used today but it must be
remembered that during riveting, the rivet steel deforms (expands) to fill the hole
completely. It grips the plates tightly in a similar manner to friction grip bolts.
AISC PERMITTED STRESS LEVELS
z Bearing
z Bearing of pin against hole of lug σbear ≤ 90% σy
z Local yielding in FEA >100% σy
z Bending
z Bending of pin σbend ≤ 45% σy
z Shear
z Shearing of pin or lug (pullout) σshear ≤ 30% σy
z Tensile
z Axial pull of lugs σtens ≤ 45% σy
z Welds
z Fillet welds σweld ≤ 30% σy
In this module, we are considering a design to the AISC code Manual of Steel
Construction - Allowable Stress Design.
• For bearing, refer to section J8 p5-79. Note that the code recognises stresses
determined by finite element analysis may locally exceed yield providing that the
stresses are blunted by confined yielding. Refer to A5.1 p5-127.
• For bending, refer to section F1.1 p5-45.
• For shear, refer to section J4.1 p5-77.
• For axial tensile, refer to section D3.1 p5-41.
• for fillet welds, refer to table J2.5 p5-70.
Other steelwork codes provide similar permitted limits on the steel and weld stresses.
LUGS AND STIFFENERS - SUMMARY
z Single and double shear connections

z Failure mechanisms
z Failure of pin and plates
z Stiffeners and doubler plates
z Shackles
z Tolerances and fit
z AISC permitted stress levels
Any questions?
We have examined the main failure mechanisms associated with lugs.
The two main approaches are single or double shear connections. Checks need to be
made for both the pin and the plates.
Where significant out-of-plane forces may be encountered, the lug is normally

strengthened with stiffeners. To spread the load or centralise a shackle, doubler
plates may be needed.
We have contrasted the close fitting pins with considerations needed for looser fitting
shackles.
Finally, we have examined typical tolerances in fitting pins into lugs. The loose
fitting shackles demand higher safety factors. Where temporary lugs are provided
and fabricated with flame-cut holes, then the much greater tolerances and safety
factors are normally considered.
Permitted stress levels have been given to the AISC code. This and other codes
normally assess the different types of stresses acting within the lug - bearing,
bending, shear, tensile and the welds - and then sets limits for each relative to the
yield.
WORKED EXAMPLE
AISC LUG CAPACITY ASSESSMENT
z Parallel sided lug with semicircular ends

z Doubler plates either side
z Welded to base plate
z Bolted to deck
z In-plane loading only Rl
Rt Dd
z No need for angles
z Check to AISC stress levels
z Bending of pin
z Bearing of pin, lug, doubler plate and tie cheek plate
z Shear/tensile failure of lug, doubler plate and tie
z Fillet welds at doubler plate and base plate
Let us design a double-shear lug and compare the stresses to those allowed in the
AISC code.
We are going to simplify the design by considering only a true vertical upward
loading can be applied. No out-of-plane forces need be considered. This may be the
case when there is a tie to a fixed point above.
The lug will be attached to a plate bolted to the deck of the barge.
Because of the fixed pull direction, the lug and tie plates can have simple radiussed
ends. Note the plates are dimensioned as radii but the doubler plate is defined by its
diameter.
WORKED EXAMPLE - INPUT PARAMETERS
z Pull force, P = 100 kN (22.5 kip)

z Pin diameter, Dp = 50 mm (1.969in)
z Hole tolerance, ht = 0.8 mm (1/32 in) P Tie bar
z Lug thickness, tl = 20 mm (0.787in) Fillet
welds
z Doubler plates, td = 8 mm (0.315in)
P/2
z Doubler dia, Dd = 80 mm (3.150in) tl
z Tie thickness, tt = 22 mm (0.866in) Pin

z Lug radius, Rl = 50 mm (1.969in) Dp
Doubler
z Tie rad, Rt = 40 mm (1.575in) Fillet Dd tt td plates
weld P Base
z Fillet weld leg lengths plate
z Doubler plate, Ld = 8 mm (0.236in)
z Lug to base, Ll = 10 mm (0.394in) Deck
The other items are as shown.
The welds securing the tie bar to its twin cheek-plates will not be assessed in this
example.
WORKED EXAMPLE - PIN
z Pin bending - assume force acts at tie cheek centres

z Moment in pin, M = P · (tl + 2·td + tt)/4
= 100 kN · (20 + 2 · 8 + 22) mm / 4 = 1450 N m
(22.5 kip · (0.787 + 2 · 0.315 + 0.866) in / 4 = 1070 lbf ft)
z Section modulus of pin, z = π · Dp³/32
= π·(50 mm)³/32 = 12 272 mm³
(π·(1.969in)³/32 = 0.749in³)
z Bending stress in pin = M / z
= 1450 N m / 12 272 mm³ = 118.2 MPa
(1070/0.749 = 17.1 ksi)
z Pin shear (double shear stress)
z Area, A = π · Dp² / 4 = π · (50 mm)² / 4 = 1963 mm²
(π · (1.969in)² / 4 = 3.043in²)
z Shear = ½ · P / A = ½ · 100 kN / 1964 mm² = 25.5 MPa
z (½ · 22.5 kip / 3.043in² = 3.7 ksi)
WORKED EXAMPLE - PIN
z Pin bearing from lug and doubler plate

z Close-fitting pin (not flame-cut)
z Bearing area, A = Dp · (tl + 2 · td) =
50 mm · (20 mm + 2 · 8 mm) = 1800 mm²
(1.969in · (0.785in + 2 · 0.315) = 2.8in²)
z Bearing stress on pin = P / A
= 100 kN / 1800 mm² = 55.6 MPa
(22.5 kip / 2.8in² = 8.1 ksi)
z Pin bearing at tie cheek plates
z Bearing area, A = 2 · tt · Dp =
2 · 22 mm · 50 mm = 2200 mm²
(2 · 0.866 in · 1.969in = 3.4in²)
z Bearing stress on pin = P / A
= 100 kN / 2200 mm² = 45.5 MPa
(22.5 kip / 3.4in² = 6.6 ksi)
WORKED EXAMPLE - LUG
z Bearing from pin on lug

z Equals stress onto pin = 55.6 MPa (8.1 ksi)
z Tension through lug behind doubler plates
z Plate cross-sectional area, A = 2 · Rl · tl =
2 · 50 mm · 20 mm = 2000 mm²
(2 · 1.969in · 0.785in = 3.1in²)
z Tensile stress in lug = P / A
= 100 kN / 2000 mm² = 50.0 MPa
(22.5 kip / 3.1in² = 7.3 ksi)
z Fillet weld around lug at baseplate
z Circumference around lug, C = 2 · (2 · Rl + tl)
= 2 · (2 · 50 mm + 20 mm) = 240 mm
(2 · (2 · 1.969in + 0.785in) = 9.4in) Throat Leg
z Stress at throat of weld = P / (C · Ll ·√½)
= 100 kN /(240 mm · 10 mm · √½) = 58.9 MPa
(22.5 kip / (9.4in · 0.394in · √½) = 8.5 ksi)
Again, we should check bearing stresses in lug and pin because they are not
necessarily made from the same grade of steel.
The figure shows the two alternative methods of defining the size of a fillet weld.
Some codes define the throat, others define the leg length. We will use the latter.
The strength of a fillet weld is determined by the minimum thickness - the throat.
WORKED EXAMPLE - DOUBLER PLATE
z Tensile stress through doublers and lug at pin CL

z Total cross-section, A = 2·(Dd-Dp-ht)·td + (2·Rl -Dp-ht) · tl =
2·(80-50-0.8)mm·8 mm+(2·50-50-0.8)mm·20 mm = 1451 mm²
2·(3.150in-1.969in-0.031in)·0.315in+(2·1.969in-1.969in-
0.031in)·0.787in = 2.2in²
z Tensile stress in lug = P / A
= 100 kN / 1451 mm² = 68.9 MPa
(22.5 kip / 2.2in² = 10.0 ksi)
z Fillet weld around doubler plates
z Circumference around doubler, C = π · Dd
= π · 80 mm = 251 mm (π · 3.150in = 9.9in)
z Assume all of the load acts on one doubler
z Stress at throat of weld = P / (C · Ld ·√½)
= 100 kN /(251 mm · 8 mm · √½) = 70.3 MPa
(22.5 kip / (9.9in · 0.236in · √½) = 10.2 ksi)
For a safe design, we must assume that the load does not act truly in the plane of the
weld. We design as if all the load is applied to one of the doubler plates and is then
transferred to the weld.
In actual fact, this fillet weld proves to be the critical stress. We could improve the
design by using a different weld design. This is often achieved by increasing the root
thickness by chamfering the inside face of the doubler plate.
WORKED EXAMPLE - LUG/DOUBLER SHEAR
z Shear in lug around back of doubler

z Failure surface, A = (π/2·Dd + 2·Rl - Dp) · tl =
(π/2·80 + 2·50 - 50)mm · 20 mm = 2913 mm²
(π/2·3.150in + 2·1.969in - 1.969in) · 0.787in = 4.5in²)
z Shear stress in lug = P / A
= 100 kN / 2913 mm² = 34.3 MPa
(22.5 kip / 4.5in² = 5.0 ksi)
z Shear through lug and doubler
z Failure surface, A = tl · (2·Rl - Dp - ht) + 2 · td ·(Dd - Dp - ht) =
20 mm · (2 · 50 - 50 - 0.8) mm +
2 · 8 mm ·(80 - 50 - 0.8) mm = 1451 mm²
0.787in · (2 · 1.969in - 1.969in - 0.031in)
+2 · 0.315in · (3.150in - 1.969in - 0.031in) = 2.2in²)
z Shear stress in lug = P / A
= 100 kN / 1451 mm² = 68.9 MPa
(22.5 kip / 2.2in² = 10.0 ksi)
The length of the shear failure planes is approximated by assuming the minimum
distance from the pin hole to the outside of the lug and doubler or the cheek plate.
That for the lug itself assumes tearing at the back of the doubler plate. It means that
the rupture path distance is slightly longer than for simple tension.
Remember that the permitted stress for shear is considerably less than for tension.
WORKED EXAMPLE - TIE CHEEK PLATES
z Bearing from pin

z Equals stress onto pin = 45.5 MPa (6.6 ksi)
z Tensile stress through tie cheek plates at pin
centreline level
z Cross-section, A = tt · (2 · Rt - Dp - ht) =
22 mm · (2 · 40 mm - 50 mm - 0.8 mm) = 642 mm²
(0.866in · (2 · 1.575in - 1.969in - 0.031in) = 0.996in²)
z Tensile stress in tie cheek plates
=½·P/A
= ½ · 100 kN / 642 mm² = 77.8 MPa
(½ · 22.5 kip / 0.996in² = 11.3 ksi)
z May be double - depends on tie far-end restraint
z Shear in tie cheek plates - same area
z Shear stress - as for tensile = 77.8 MPa (11.3 ksi)
Again, we may find the tie cheek plates are a different material from that of the lug or
pin.
Depending on the design of the tie cheeks and the way that the tie is held, it may be
prudent to assume that all the load is acting on only one of the cheek plates.
Again, although the tensile area and shear area are the same in this instance, the
critical value is for shear since this has the lower permitted stress.
STRESS LEVEL SUMMARY AND AISC YIELD
z Pin
z Bearing at tie = 45.5 MPa (7.3 ksi) / 90% ∴σy = 49.4 MPa (7.3 ksi)
z Bearing at lug = 55.6 MPa (8.1 ksi) / 90% ∴σy = 61.7 MPa (9.0 ksi)
z Bending = 118.2 MPa (16.5 ksi) / 66% ∴σy = 179.0 MPa (26.0 ksi)
z Shear (double) = 25.5 MPa (3.7 ksi) / 30% ∴σy = 84.9 MPa (12.3 ksi)
z Lug and doubler plates
z Bearing = 55.6 MPa (8.1 ksi) / 90% ∴σy = 61.7 MPa (9.0 ksi)
z Axial in lug = 50.0 MPa (7.3 ksi) / 45% ∴σy = 111.1 MPa (16.1 ksi)
z Thro’ doubler = 68.9 MPa (10.0 ksi) / 45% ∴σy = 153.1 MPa (22.2 ksi)
z Shear in lug = 34.3 MPa (5.0 ksi) / 30% ∴σy = 114.4 MPa (16.6 ksi)
z Thro’ lug & doubler = 68.9 MPa (10.2 ksi) / 30% ∴σy = 229.7 MPa (33.3 ksi)
z Tie cheek plates
z Bearing = 45.5 MPa (6.6 ksi) / 90% ∴σy = 49.4 MPa (7.3 ksi)
z Axial tensile = 77.8 MPa (11.3 ksi) / 45% ∴σy = 172.9 MPa (25.1 ksi)
z Shear = 77.8 MPa (11.3 ksi) / 30% ∴σy = 259.4 MPa (35.7 ksi)
z Welds on lug
z Doublers = 70.3 MPa (10.2 ksi) / 30% ∴σy = 234.5 MPa (34.0 ksi)
z Base plate = 58.9 MPa (8.5 ksi) / 30% ∴σy = 196.4 MPa (28.5 ksi)
z Use steel grade higher than 248.2 MPa (36 ksi) or thicker cheek plate
The highlighted values indicate the critical stresses.
It means that the minimum yield stress needed for the pin is 179 MPa (26 ksi).
The lug and doubler plates require a 230 MPa (16 ksi) steel yield.
The tie cheek plates require a 259 MPa (36 ksi) steel yield.
However, the critical stresses are those for the doubler plate welds. This demands a
yield stress in the plates equivalent to 234.5 MPa (34.0 ksi). The welding rods will
match this.
This means that we can not use the lesser of the two grades of steel from the AISC
code as designed. Note that AISC steel has two grades : 248.2 MPa (36 ksi) and
344.7 MPa (50 ksi). We either use the higher grade steel or increase the tie cheek
plate thickness.
GEOMETRIC CHECKS
z Base plate weld leg lengths

z Not more than half lug thickness
z Doubler plate welds
z Not more than plate thickness
z Not more than half lug thickness
z Not more than diameter of lug
z Not more than ring thickness
z Pin diameter & hole tolerance
z Not more than lug diameter
z Not more than doubler plate
z Not more than cheek plate diameter
Until the lug is drawn up, it is easy to specify an unworkable design due to
geometrical constraints. In particular, checks are needed to ensure that the welds will
fit onto the plates.
For this reason, care should be taken when writing software (such as an Excel
spreadsheet) to size lugs.
EXERCISE
EXERCISE
z Pull force, P = 200 kN (45.0 kip)

z Pin diameter, Dp = 67 mm (2.638in)
z Hole tolerance, ht = 0.8 mm (1/32 in) P Tie bar
z Lug thickness, tl = 30 mm (1.181in) Fillet
welds
z Doubler plates, td = 14 mm (0.551in)
P/2
z Doubler dia, Dd = 96 mm (3.780in) tl
z Tie thickness, tt = 38 mm (1.496in) Pin

D
z Lug radius, Rl = 74 mm (2.913in) p
Doubler
z Tie rad, Rt = 52 mm (2.047in) Fillet Dd tt td plates
weld P Base
z Fillet weld leg lengths plate
z Doubler plate, Ld = 14 mm (0.551in)
z Lug to base, Ll = 14 mm (0.551in) Deck
Calculate stresses in the larger lug for double the load.

FOUNDATIONS AND DECK

FIXINGS
SUITABLE FOUNDATION
z Design of base plate

z Lug welded to a base plate
z Thick, stiff plate to distribute forces and moments
z Connection details
z Bolts or welded
z Transfer load to deck or member
z Find suitable foundation
z Follow load path beneath the deck
z Structural analysis
z Local strengthening of existing structure
A base plate is normally welded to the bottom of the lug.
This then provides an easy means of transferring the forces and moments to the
foundation.
The bolted or welded connection between the deck or structural member needs to be
designed like any other.
But a check needs to be made that the underlying load path is able to withstand the
load.
It may be necessary to undertake a structural analysis to assess whether the existing

structure will need local strengthening.
FIXING BASE PLATE - CONNECTION DESIGN
z Steel base plates

z Base plate stiff enough to prevent it bending
z Fixings distribute moment and load combinations
z Prevent tearing of deck plate
z Pullout, punching shear or bending
z Fixings
z Friction-grip bolts, nuts and
washers
z Welds
z Rivets
It is normal to provide a stiff base plate that can withstand any moments and forces
transmitted from the lug welded to it, without it bending during operation.
Compression forces are transmitted through the plate at an angle of 45°. Bearing
stresses need to be checked at the deck plate or foundation level. It is essential that
the deck plate can withstand the forces transmitted to it by the base plate without
tearing (such as shown in the photograph).
The AISC code provides guidance in designing bearing plates for beams on pp2-141
to 145 and for columns on pp3-106 to 110. However, these need to be adjusted for
lugs, having an upward pull rather than a down force.
A number of different fixings of the base plate will be considered. These are usually
bolted or welded connections, although rivets can be used.
Preference may be given to bolted connections on decks since future removal of the
lug often leaves the stub of the lug and base plate in place. Trip hazards are
associated with uneven decks.
Part 4 of the AISC code gives information regarding fixings.

PRYING FAILURE OF BASE PLATE
z Check bending stiffness of baseplate

z Associated with uplift forces and bolted plates
z Also with weld-filled slotted holes
Deck
Because lugs are frequently used for uplift applications, a check should be made that
it does not fail by prying forces.
This is more true with bolted baseplates rather than construction fully welded around
the edges. Sometimes, slotted holes are left in plates to be filled by welding -
effectively acting as permanent ‘bolts’ to the deck. These too may tend to bend.
BASE PLATE TO LUG
z Simple four bolt at corners - or more detailed

z Check plate for edge proximity
z Access for the wrench or spanner
Deck
Weld
Check that the bolt

can be tightened using Check for edge
a torque wrench without distance to plate to
hitting welds or a stiffener prevent tearing
The simple example given above shows a base plate with the lug welded onto it.
The usual minimum number of bolts will be four - set at the corners. However, to
limit the bolt diameter or improve the moment-resistant capability, it may be
necessary to use patterns of additional bolts along the edges of the plates.
A check needs to be made with proximity of the bolt hole to the edges of the plate.
Checks should also ensure sufficient access to torque up the bolts using the wrench or
spanner, avoiding stiffeners, adjacent welds or even other bolt heads.
Bolt groups must be sized to withstand tensile, shear and bending in both the in-plane
and out-of-plane directions.
BOLTS, NUTS AND WASHERS
z Preloading (stretching) bolts

z Places parts in compression
z resistance to tension
z Creates friction between faces of plates
z resistance to shear α
z Torque requirement
⎡d ⎛ tan ψ + μ ⋅ sec α ⎞ ⎤
T = ⎢ m ⋅⎜ ⎟ + 0.625 ⋅ μ c ⎥ ⋅ Fi ⋅ d
⎣ 2 ⋅ d ⎝ 1 − μ ⋅ tan ψ ⋅ sec α ⎠ ⎦
T = torque to give required preload ψ = Helix angle = tan-1(1/(π ·d))
Fi = Preload μ = Nut friction
dm = mean thread diameter μc = Thrust collar friction
d = major thread diameter α = half angle of thread (see figure)
Bolted connections are commonly used when the two adjoining parts need to be
disassembled without using destructive methods. They are suitable where the
connection requires a resistance to both external tensile loads and shear loads, or a
combination of the two.
The effect of applying a preload to the bolt is to place the parts in compression, hence
providing resistance against the tensile load. It also creates friction between the parts
which resists any shear load applied.
One method for measuring the preload in a bolt is to measure the change in its overall
length. By relating this to its spring stiffness, the resultant force, or preload can be
determined. However, it is often impractical to measure the change in length of the
bolt, so other methods are commonly used, such as the equation shown in the above
slide.
The expression in square brackets is sometimes referred to as k and bolt

manufacturers sometimes give relevant values for their products. Typical values
range from k=0.3 for standard oxide finish down to k = 0.18 for well lubricated bolts.
Because we want to stretch the bolt to provide good grip between the plates, we
should use well-lubricated bolts, nuts and washer faces.
See Mechanical Engineering Design third edition by Joseph E Shigley ISBN 07-
085722-9 McGraw Hill 1981.
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
z General and high-strength friction-grip bolts

z Bolt sizes from M16 to M30
z BS 4395 and BS 4604 - EN 24014 and EN 24016
z US - ASTM A307, A325 or A490 bolts
z Lack of fit
z Due to bolt hole misalignment
z Due to tolerances in member dimensions
z Bolt tolerances
z Varies with bolt size - 2 mm or 3 mm (1/16in or 1/8in)
z Slotted holes up to 8 mm (5/16in) clearance
z Require large washers
z Alternative use of welded plug slots
Typically, general grade or high strength friction grip bolts will be used to connect
the lug base plate to the foundation member. These should be matched to the grade
of steel plate. Typical standard sizes are range between 16 mm and 30 mm nominal
diameter. The British and European ISO standards for metric bolts are given above.
A major consideration with assembling frame structures is lack of fit either due to
measurement of the bolt hole locations or the accuracy of manufacture of the
members.
These can be partly accommodated by using relatively loose fitting holes (depending
on the bolt diameter - 2 mm for diameters up to 24 mm). It may be necessary to
increase this further using a slotted hole and a larger washer. Slightly tighter fitting
holes are specified in the US.
AISC permits the use of slots filled with weld as an alternative to bolts. This
provides a permanent means of fixture to the deck. Combined with a fillet weld
around the base plate, it can provide extra fixity.
WELD TYPES
z Butt welds Included

angle
Weld face
z Best practice Excess weld metal

uses full
penetration Throat thickness Fusion face
welds
Root face
Sealing run
z Fillet welds Butt is

better
Weld face
z Leg length weld
Leg Fusion face detail
must be less length Included
than plate angle
thickness Root
Throat thickness
z Crack initiator at root
Fillet and butt welds are the most commonly used types for structural steelwork.
Butt welds
The size of a butt weld is specified by throat thickness. When plate thicknesses are
equal, the throat thickness is equal to the plate thickness. If the plates vary in
thickness, the thinner plate thickness is taken as the specified throat thickness.
The welds are reinforced with excess material, but this additional thickness is not
accounted for when determining the strength of the weld. If it is not possible to
provide this additional sealing run, the throat thickness is taken as 5/8 of the thinner
plate thickness.
The allowable stress in mild-steel butt welds must not exceed the allowable tensile,
compressive and shear stresses of the parent material. Therefore it is normally not
necessary to make calculations on complete penetration welds.
Fillet welds
It is always preferable to use full penetration butt welds. Fillet welds should be
reserved for when they are not possible. Gaps between the plates can gather
moisture, resulting in hidden corrosion. The gap between plates at the weld root
effectively acts as a potential crack initiator.
Fillet welds are sized based on their throat thickness and leg length. The latter cannot
be larger then the thickness of the thinner plate. The allowable stress in a fillet weld
must not exceed the allowable shear stress in the parent material. Some key
considerations for fillet welds are as follows:
• For fillet welds connecting parts, if the fusion faces form an angle of more than
120° or less than 60°, the weld should not be relied upon to transmit loads at the
full working stresses unless permitted to by the appropriate standard for the
particular application.
• For fillet welds ending at the side or end or parts, they should be returned
continuously around the corners for a distance of twice the size of the weld or
greater.
FOUNDATIONS AND DECK FIXINGS - SUMMARY
z Selection of foundations
z Base plates
z Design of connections
z Bolts
z Welds - fillet or butt
Any questions?
Once the lug is designed, a suitable point of fixture on the structure must be selected.
The load must be transferred though the deck or plate to the underlying steelwork.
Failure of baseplates may be due to the stiffness of the plate itself or the means of
connecting to the deck.
We have looked at bolted plates and welded plates, comparing fillet and butt welds.
SEA FASTENERS
SEA FASTENING
z ‘Fixed points’ on vessel deck or in hold

z Provide longitudinal and transverse restraint
z Used to fasten items to vessel
z Spoolpieces, SSIVs, piles, pipe, spreader beams
and containers
z Loose fixings cause higher impact loads
It is important that cargo transported on vessels is restrained from movement during

transportation. For ‘one off’ items of equipment it may be necessary to construct
fixed points on the vessel deck that can provide a restraint against the movement of
equipment. These fixed points will generally be simple steel structures that are
welded to the vessel deck.
If fixings work loose, then the object being held may start to slide. The fastener then
has to withstand the additional shock or impact loading at the end of its travel.
SEA FASTENING
z Layout of spoolpieces DSV Bar Protector
and sea fasteners
Plan of Bar Protector deck

Spoolpieces
Stern
SSIV Fasteners
The schematic shows the layout of spoolpieces and an SSIV being transported for the
Goldeneye project on board the DSV Bar Protector. The spoolpieces are fastened to
strongbacks by strapping. The strongbacks are then restrained by the sea fasteners
that are welded to the vessel deck. The location of the sea fasteners restraining the
spoolpieces is also highlighted (in colour) on the schematic.
FASTENER DESIGNS
Pad plate or
Spoolpiece
wooden
spacer Fastener raises
Fastener spool off deck
Deck
Lateral restraint
Cable reel
Webbing
Ratchet strap
D-shackle Turnbuckle
Lug
Vertical restraint
Wire
Sea fastener designs may be made from cheap and widely available standard steel
sections, such as I-section or angle-sections. It may be possible to utilise scrap steel
and offcuts. More specialist fasteners may be custom built for the specific object
being fastened. The fastener designs may utilise steel pad plates or wooden spacers
to provide a tight enough fit for individual items of equipment. Wooden spacers
prevent damage to the equipment during installation and removal from the fastening.
This is particularly important for coated pipe and spoolpieces.
Sea fastening designs may combine lugs and webbing straps for vertical restraint
along with fixed lateral restraints. It maybe necessary to raise equipment above the
deck level for complex spool geometry or to accommodate larger equipment. For
larger items of equipment, such as cable reels, fastenings may require additional
support through wire cables attached to lugs. Turnbuckles (or Bottlescrews) are used
to put tension into the wire.
FASTENER DESIGN
z Movement of vessel applies inertial forces to

equipment on deck
z Inertial force = mass · acceleration
z Inertial force applied at centre of gravity of the body
z Fastener designed to withstand inertial
Angled face to
forces and allow easy release prevent snagging
CofG
Stern Bow FT /2
FT /2 FT /2
Weld
FT is the transverse inertial force
A moving vessel will undergo movements, such as pitch, heave and yaw that will
impart inertial forces on the cargo it carries. The inertial forces act at the centre of
gravity of each item of equipment. Inertial forces are calculated from the known
mass of each item and the maximum accelerations it is expected to undergo during
transport.
The prediction of the accelerations is a complex process requiring knowledge of the

vessel dynamics. These are related to the vessel’s RAOs and the maximum seastate
permitted for shipping and operations. Software packages such as the DnV
spreadsheet LASHCON (based on the International Maritime Code for Cargo
Stowage and Securing), allow determination of the accelerations for different vessels.
Typical conservative values, which are independent of sea conditions, but which are
used by classification societies are: a characteristic roll of 30° for barges and 20° for
ships; and a pitch of 7° to 10°.
When the inertial forces have been estimated, they can be used to design the sea
fasteners. The principle of designing fasteners is similar to designing the supports for
beam structures.
Inertial loads are often applied as point loads at the centre of gravity of bulky,
compact objects. Long objects (such as spools) normally apply them as a uniformly-
distributed load (UDL) along their length. Such long items need to be checked to see
if they can withstand shear and bending between the fastener locations.
It is normal to angle the face of restraints to permit the object to be lifted out during
installation without snagging. Snagging would impart forces onto the crane
additional to the object’s self weight.
In the figure above, the force is distributed equally between the two lateral fastenings
only because the centre of gravity of the spool is midway between. No lateral load is
attracted to the two fastenings at the stern. These, however, must resist all fore-aft
loads by themselves.
SEAFASTENING CODE
z DNV Marine Operations Part 2

Recommended Practices
RP2 Sea transportation
z Assesses wind, waves and currents
z Towing speeds and hawser arrangements
z Vessel accelerations and motions in 6DF
z Surge and gravity acceleration, sway, amplification factors
z Assess requirements for fixing
z Loads during transit
z Clearances (tolerances) chocks for easy removal
z Prevent snagging during lifting operations
One such seafastening code is DNV Part 2. Conformance with this will be needed to
achieve certification. Other codes are available, such as: Lloyds Register of
Shipping, Norsok standard J003 (Marine Operations), ISO 19902 (fixed steel offshore
structures) or API RP2A (Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and
Construction of Fixed Offshore Installations).
DNV first assesses the wind, waves and currents acting on the vessel. The vessel
towing arrangements are also considered in finally assessing the accelerations and
motion of equipment on board.
From this, the naval architect can assess the fixings needed to withstand the generated
forces, without compromising the integrity of spool piece etc on board.
It is important to prevent snatching of the item as it is removed from the fastening

blocks at sea. A slight chamfer or bevel aids removal.
WIND EFFECTS
z Wind speeds
z Quoted at zo = 10 m (32.8 ft) above sea surface
z Corrected for near surface effects (or higher structures)
z V = VR (z/zo)0.09 Height
z Maximum of 55 m/s (123 mph)
z Wind and waves are normally
taken as in same direction
z Relative to vessel heading
z Wind pressures vR
ρ zo = 10 m
qref = ⋅ v R2
2 Wind profile
z Air density, ρ = 1.25 kg/m³ (0.078 lb/ft³)
Where
• qref = reference wind pressure
• ρ = density of air (in UK waters, can reduce to 1.225 kg/m³)
• vR = reference wind velocity
The reference height for steady wind speeds is taken at 10 m above the surface of the
sea or land.
This figure needs to be integrated over the height of the structure to assess the true
wind force acting. The relationship between wind speeds at different heights is given
above. It is normally not necessary to apply wind speeds acting on vessels greater
than 55 m/s.
For most calculations, the direction of the wind and waves are deemed to be the
identical. However, it may be necessary to examine different directions relative to
the vessel; for example, from bow, stern, sides or quarters.
Using the reference wind velocity, the pressure may be obtained. A simple
trapezoidal method can be used to summate the different heights above the sea
surface.
This may be modified for shorter (stronger) gusts for items of smaller diagonal
dimensions.
WIND FORCE ON ITEMS
z Wind pressures
z Adapt for small items subject to shorter period gusts
z Depends on diagonal length exposed to wind
z Guyed masts/towers or latticed structures may flutter
z Check for suction forces for flat objects on deck
z Wind force
F = qref ⋅ area ⋅ Cd
z Drag coefficients
z Cylindrical Cd = 0.95 to 1.2
z Rectangular Cd = 0.90 to 1.10
z Thin rectangular Cd = 1.2 to 2.0
Where
• F = force on item
• qref = reference wind pressure
• area = area of item facing wind
• Cd = coefficient of drag
The reference wind speeds are customarily quoted as ten minute or one hour mean
speeds. Small items can be subjected to short period gusts which are greater than this
mean.
Flutter of guyed masts and towers or latticed structures should be checked for flutter.
Again this is at a higher velocity than the reference wind speed. The flutter is caused
by vortex shedding and if not controlled may develop into galloping. Any
seafastenings or fixings can then be subject to vastly increased forces.
Additional checks should be made for suction effects for flat, wide objects held on
deck. These present little cross sectional area to the wind but may be subject to a
differential pressure beneath the plate which could be lifted off the deck if not
secured well.
Forces are a function of the area presented to the wind and the shape of the item
(streamlined shapes use lower coefficients).
If no other information is available, the default air density and maximum drag
coefficients should be used. The DNV offshore standard OS-C301 Stability and
Watertight Integrity gives values for Cd for a range of marine structures in table B1
on page 13.
Eurocode 1 (EN 1991-1-4 Actions on structures - wind actions) gives a fuller

explanation of wind actions on structures, higher gust speeds on smaller items and
shape functions.
See also A. J. Adams, N. D. Barltrop, M. G. Hallam Dynamics of Marine Structures

ISBN 0750610468.
WAVE EFFECTS
z Waves and wave loads

z Long period waves (swell)
z Locally wind-generated waves (‘seas’)
z Calculated using four alternative methods
z Wave data from statistics
z 10% fractile of highest waves
z Predict characteristic height Hk from Hs and Hmax
z Weibull parameters for regions around the world
z Design wave method
z Design spectrum method
z Assessment of vessel motion due to waves
Two types of seas need to be considered: these are long period or local waves.
The former are caused by a distant storm that have travelled to the vessel. These are
generally attenuated to some extent and may not be associated with any winds
locally. The term swell is often used for these waves.
Steeper waves are caused by local winds. These are often termed ‘seas’.
A number of methods are suggested by the DNV RP2 code to derive suitable wave
data. The aim is to quantify a characteristic wave height which acts on the vessel. In
the simplest case, a chart and table can be used to quantify the wave height for coastal
regions around the world.
Finally, the naval architect can determine how the particular vessel will behave in
certain wave conditions. From this, the motions can be determined and thus an
assessment can be made of the forces exported by the object being held by the
seafastening.
The position of the seafastener relative to the centre of vessel motion affect the felt
acceleration of the object.
SUMMARY
z Examples of seafastenings
z Fully restrained during transportation
z Easy release until clear of the barge
z DNV RP2
z Wind, waves and currents
z Assess vessel accelerations and motions
z Determine forces on fixing equipment
Any questions?
Seafasteners are used for transportation of numerous items to the field. These include
pipes, spool pieces and subsea valve structures.
The intention is to provide full restraint to prevent high impact loads which might be
generated if the items slide about on deck.
However, the fasteners should not snag the items when the crane finally lifts them
from the deck. Any snagging would increase the crane lift and possibly loss of
control of the item by the crew when it finally breaks clear.
We show the main considerations for loads during transportation as stated in the
DNV codes. These are mainly due to wind and the movement of the vessel due to
waves. However the code also provides information on currents (discussed in the
pipe lifting module).
The combined accelerations and the location of the item relative to the centre of
motion of the vessel provides a means of determining the forces on the sea fastenings.
Design of the seafasteners themselves should be to the appropriate code recognised

by the insurers. DNV RP2 does not give stresses in steel used for seafasteners.
However, the AISC code examined earlier may be used for this.
SUMMARY
z Lugs and stiffener design

z Foundations and deck fixings
z Sea fasteners
Any questions?
We have examined how to design lugs, which are used for many purposes offshore.
It is important to ensure that the lug is provided with a load path through the deck to
the main structure of the vessel.
A common use of lugs is for sea fastenings.

BARGE STABILITY
BARGE STABILITY 397
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
z Examine stability of floating objects

z Determine whether a vessel is unstable
z Incorporation of cranes and free surfaces
z Tend to reduce stability
In this section we will examine why floating objects adopt stable configurations.
In particular, we will look at box-shaped barges and other craft used for pipelay
support. However, the methods are general and are applicable to all marine vessels
including laybarges.
The calculations will show how swinging loads from cranes and free liquid surfaces
of tanks tend to reduce stability.
A full discussion of stability may be found in DNV offshore standard OS-C301

Stability and Watertight Integrity.
STABLE FLOATING BODIES
FLOTATION
z For equilibrium
z Force upwards, Fb = Force downwards, m · g
Or:
z Weight of fluid displaced = Weight of body in air
z For flotation
m·g
z Buoyancy force = weight of body Fb
Fb = ρwater ⋅V ⋅ g = m ⋅ g
Where V is the volume of the submerged section of the body
z Buoyancy force acts through centre of gravity of
displaced fluid
Where
• Fb = buoyancy force
• g = acceleration due to gravity (=9.80665 m/s²)
• m = mass of object
• V = volume of the submerged section of the body
• ρwater =density of seawater
Note that the gravitational acceleration term ‘g’ can be omitted in imperial
calculations using lb for mass and lbf for force.
A body partly submerged in water will float if the force generated by its buoyancy, Fb
is greater than the weight of the body (in air).
BARGE STABILITY 399
The uplift or buoyant force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced. This is
Archemedes’ principle. So if we know the mass of a floating body, we can determine
how much water will be displaced.
The mass of the body acts through its Centre of Gravity (CofG) or centroid. The
uplift acts through the Centre of Buoyancy (CofB) or centroid of the displaced water.
CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
z G is the centre of mass (centroid)

z = Combined centre of mass of ice and stone
z B is the centre of buoyancy
z = Centroid of the displaced seawater
A B C
m·g
Fb G
Fb B
B B
G Fb
G
m·g
m·g
Unstable Stable Stable
An iceberg with its embedded stone at the base has a centre of gravity slightly below
the centroid of the ice itself. The centre of buoyancy is always at the centroid of the
volume of displaced water.
As icebergs melt (A), their stability changes. The berg will rotate to find a new stable
position (B). The centre of gravity remains fixed but the centre of buoyancy moves
to the centroid of the new displaced volume of water.
It is easy to see that with the centre of buoyancy above the centre of gravity that the
berg remains stable.
But what of a homogeneous floating solid. That can never rotate to achieve this state.
It will always have the centre of gravity above the centre of buoyancy because the
centre of buoyancy will keep shifting.
If the berg loses its embedded stone, then it will rotate until it achieves stability with
CofG above CofB (C). What is happening?
STABILITY OF VESSELS
z M is ‘Metacentre’ (MB is metacentric radius)

z LM is ‘Metacentric height’
z Block is stable when M is above B M
z Overturning moment = P · xp
z Righting moment = m ·g · LM ·θ
z Thus L = P ⋅ x LM
θ
M
m⋅g ⋅θ
xp
P
P
m·g
G G Fb
x
B
Fb m·g B
Instead of an iceberg, think of a block of wood. This will float in a stable position
and have CofB below CofG. But it will always float on its flattest side.
Let us imagine a small force, P applied for an instant which is trying to rotate the
block a small angle θ. By small, we mean that θ tends to sin θ.
Any destabilisation that we apply will tend to be righted by the moment generated by
the forces at G and B and the lever arm x.
BARGE STABILITY 401
SUMMARY
z Centre of mass, G
z Centre of buoyancy, B
z Vertically in line
z It is not necessary for the centre of mass to be
below the centre of buoyancy for a stable body
z Metacentre, M
z M must be above B
z With ideal level deck, M is above G
Any questions?
We have defined the centres of mass, G and buoyancy, B.
These will be vertically above one another. It is simple to see how a body is stable
when B is above G. But for vessels (or homogenous blocks of ice or wood), it is
common to find stability with the forces reversed.
For barges, their stability can be assessed by finding the metacentre. No movement
will occur when M is above B. With a level deck, M is above G.
DETERMINING VESSEL
STABILITY
CRAFT DEFINITIONS
Bow
Forward
Port
Beam Starboard
Aft
Free Stern
boar Heave
d
Moulded
Yaw Surge
Draught
Sway
side
Roll
Pitch
el
Ke Vessel motion
We will be using some of these terms for the barge.
For a stable vessel, the draught and the freeboard should be known as well as the
metacentric height. If the water ships over the deck at one corner (or air gets under
the bottom of the vessel), then the restoring effect will be lost.
With a dinghy as shown above, these effects are counteracted by the action of the
sailors and adjustment of the sails.
Our vessels normally operate with a level deck.

BARGE STABILITY 403
We will see why this is easier to obtain in the fore-and-aft direction than from side-
to-side. (It is due to the much greater stability due to increased I value along the
vessel length as compared with the breadth.)
DETERMINING VESSEL METACENTRE
z Assumptions Plan view O
z Vertical sides to vessel at free surface

z Small angle of rotation, θ M
z Metacentric radius
I oo
BM = LM
θ
V O
z For θ → zero
θ
z Metacentric height,
LM = GM = BM - BG G Fb
x
z BG = difference in height m·g B
between CofB and CofG
Where
• B = centre of buoyancy
• BM = metacentric radius (distance from B to M)
• G = centroid (centre of mass or centre of gravity)
• Ioo = moment of inertia (second moment of area) about axis OO
• LM = metacentric height
• M = metacentre
• V = volume of displaced water
For the solution of the problem, the forces acting on a small segment of the vessel are
considered. Once determined, the forces are summed for all segments.
At the end of this section, we give the derivation of the formula for BM.
RECTANGULAR BARGES
z V = Total mass ÷ water density

z Draught = V ÷ water plane area
z I = second moment of area
b
z For a rectangle
z Water plane area Plan View
A=b·d
z Moment about midpoint X X
IXX = (b · d³) ÷ 12
d
z Moment about any other
axis, such as centreline
y
of vessel
IOO = IXX + A · y² O (vessel centreline) O
Many small vessels can be approximated to rectangles.
The above equations provide the information for calculating the plan area, A and the
second moments of area, I of such shapes about any axis (OO) that is parallel to the
midline of the rectangle (XX).
DETERMINE ANGLE OF HEEL
z Aim for a level deck

z θ < ±0.5°
z Trimming tanks to restore vessel trim M
z Assess heel as masses are moved

z Use of crane or derrick to move loads θ
LM
z θ may not be 0° for all conditions
∑ (P ⋅ x p ) θ xp
θ = tan −1
P
∑ W ⋅ LM
G Fb
x
z Spreadsheet evaluates m·g B
destabilising moment
BARGE STABILITY 405
Note that when loads are not arranged symmetrically about the centreline, the deck
will not be level. To solve this problem, trimming or ballasting tanks are used to
achieve a deck within ±0.5°. Note that the equations given assume an almost level
deck.
Even a small angle can cause problems onboard. Some ships’ decks are cambered
slightly to help water drain away. Any additional angle of heel needs to be added to
this on the seaward side for operations.
For comparison, roads with an incline of 4% are deemed steep enough to require
warning signs at the top of the hill. They correspond to an angle of just 2.3°.
Notwithstanding this, when derricks are used to move large weights overboard from
the deck of small craft, it may be that greater angles will occur temporarily. With
larger craft, the overwhelming mass of the barge and ballast helps to provide enough
stability to the system. That is: don’t use too small a craft when lifting objects. Even
small changes in angle can be alarming for crew on board.
Commonly, a spreadsheet or dedicated programme is used to assess trim of vessels.

The net destabilising moment is the sum of all masses times their leverarm for items
not evenly distributed about the centreline.
In the above equation,

• P = a destabilising load
• x = its offset from centreline of vessel
• ΣW = total mass of vessel, ballasting, trim and items on board
• LM = metacentric height
FREEBOARD AND DRAUGHT
z For larger angles of rotation, θ

z Lighter vessel lifts out of water
z Heavier vessel ships water onto deck
z Either rapidly reduces I at free surface
z Barge may become unstable
z Check for freeboard and draught
θ θ
Lighter craft Heavier craft
We made the assumptions that the angle of heel was small and that the sides of the
vessel vertical at the free water surface.
The first of these may not be true for all configurations of the vessel.
If the angle becomes too large, then either the bottom of the barge may lift out of the
water or the deck of the vessel becomes submerged on one side.
In either instance, the second moment of area will reduce. Since I is related to the
third power of the width of the free surface, the stability can be quickly dramatically
reduced and the vessel become unstable.
For this reason, we also need to check that freeboard and draught are sufficient.
When water has been able to enter the vessel through openings in the deck of heavier
craft, this has often proved catastrophic. We will examine the effects of flooded
compartments later.
SMALL BARGES
z With smaller ‘square’ craft

z Check both metacentric heights
z Port-starboard
z Fore-aft
z Stability may be critical in either direction
z Check for freeboard and draught at corners
z Metacentric heights are code-dependent

z Vary from 0.5 m (20in) upwards depending on usage
z Wind & wave effects - righting arm (see later)
For small rectangular barges with eccentric loading, both fore-aft and port-starboard
stability is needed.
What is a normal value of metacentric height? The maximum values for metacentric
heights are given in the relevant codes published by Lloyds or DNV etc. Different
craft usage (for example, for inshore waters or for high seas) will have different
requirements. Codes also specify minimum freeboards for each operating condition.
Normal merchant vessels and laybarges have metacentric heights in the order of 1 m.
Naval vessels want to be able to fire guns accurately and have a very stable platform.
They may have values of 8 m. However, they give a very uncomfortable ride for
their crew.
A low value for metacentric height is not necessarily a bad thing. Some reel, flexible
or J-laybarges have heavy reels, towers, cranes or lay towers high above the deck.
This has the effect of reducing their metacentric height. They lose some rigidity but
do not become unstable.
BARGE STABILITY 407
The righting moment or arm should also be checked against code. It particularly
affects larger vessels with high sides that are liable to be affected by wind pressure.
We will discuss this and the response of craft to waves (seas) later.
SUMMARY
z Definitions of vessel terms

z Method of determining metacentric radius
I
BM =
V
z Rectangular barge properties
z V, A and I
z Values for stability
z Metacentric heights = 0.5 m (20in) upward
z Check for heel or trim angle < ±0.5°
z Assess draught and freeboard (critical at corners)
Any questions?
We have provided the key equations for determining the metacentric height.
For rectangular barges - often used for construction work - their properties have been
given.
Typical values for metacentric heights and trim angles have been given.
The need to assess draught and freeboard (especially at corners of ‘square’ barges)
has been highlighted.
FREE LIQUID SURFACES AND

SUSPENDED LOADS
FREE LIQUID SURFACES
z Vessel carrying liquid in tanks with a free

liquid surface
z Free-liquids adversely affect stability
z Reduce metacentric height M
from M to N
N
θ
A vessel carrying liquid in tanks where the liquids have a free liquid surface will be
affected adversely by the movement of the CofG of the liquid in the tanks as the
whole vessel heels. Changes in position of the CofG of the liquid in the tanks causes
a change in position of the CofG of the whole vessel. This change in the vessel
CofG, as it heels, causes a reduction in the metacentric height of the vessel and so a
reduction in the vessel’s stability.
In vessels carrying liquids, such as oil tankers, they will usually be loaded in such a
way as to ensure that individual tanks are filled. Thus eliminating, where possible,
the free liquid surfaces. If the hull of a vessel is breached then the problem of
reduced stability becomes a particular problem and is usually a key factor in the loss
of vessels at sea. An example of this is the capsizing of the Herald of Free Enterprise
BARGE STABILITY 409
ferry near the port of Zeebrugge in 1987. After departure, the bow doors of the car
ferry had not been properly shut and water leaked into the car decks. The partially
flooded decks then acted as a tank with a free liquid surface which reduced the
metacentric height and thus the vessel stability. This led to the vessel capsizing and
the loss of 187 people.
A particular problem with the Herald of Free Enterprise ferry design was that it only
had a full width hold that acted as the car deck (for ease of parking). Therefore, when
it flooded, there was a greater second moment of area of the free liquid surface than
later car ferry designs, which have the hold divided into two by a bulkhead running
along the keel. Oil tankers and other vessels designed to carry liquids have their hull
divided into many smaller tanks.
z Reduction in metacentric height

It ⎛ ρ ⎞
NM = ⋅⎜I − t ⎟
V ⎝ ρ⎠
z Dependent on density of liquid in tank
z Free water surface dimensions of tank
z Width of tank relative to vessel trim
z And thus the tank’s second moment of area
z Therefore
z Ensure tanks are either completely full or empty
z Split into smaller individually-operated tanks
Where:
• I = 2nd moment of area of the vessel in the waterline plane
• It = 2nd moment of area of the tank in the waterline plane
• NM = change in metacentric height
• V = volume of water displaced by vessel
• ρ = density of the water in which the vessel is floating
• ρt = density of the fluid carried in the tanks
For each tank WITH A FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID, there is a reduction in the
metacentric height.
This is also a function on the relative densities of the seawater that the barge is
floating in and that of the contained liquid.
If there is no free surface of liquid then there is no contribution to the effect.

Therefore tanks should be kept either completely filled or totally emptied.
It is common to split larger tanks into smaller compartments, each being operated
(flooded or emptied) independently.
By simply splitting a tank into two across the beam of the barge, the combined I
value (which is dependent upon the third power of its width) of the pair of tanks is
reduced by a quarter.
SUSPENDED LOADS
z Loads act at top of crane jib

z Comparison of metacentric heights
z Barge is 12 m long × 8 m wide × 2.5 m side
(29.4 ft × 26.2 ft × 8.2 ft)
z Ballasted weight = 80 tonnes (88.2 US short ton)
6 m (19.7 ft)
z Crane cab is 2.59 m (8.5 ft) high
CofGc
z Weight incl jib = 24 tonne (26.5 ton)
CofGM
z Jib height = 6 m (19.7 ft)
z Object 53 tonne (58.4 ton) CofGb
z At deck level
CofB
z Weight lifted just off deck Combined CofG
z MG drops from 2.1 m (6.1 ft) down to 0.1 m (0.2 ft)
We are about to work through an example of a very similar barge in a moment.
Instead of the crane, we will examine a similar size and weight of container
However, for this example above, the barge is stable with the object sitting on the
deck of the barge. The metacentric height is an acceptable 2.1 m (6.1 ft).
As soon as the crane lifts the object even 1 mm off the deck, the metacentric height
drops to less than 0.1 m. This is close to being unstable. A very slightly longer jib or
a slightly increased load would make the vessel capsize.
Essentially, the weight of the object when it is sitting on the deck is adding to the
ballasting of the barge. As soon as it is lifted by the crane, that stability will be lost.
The object will tend to swing towards the crane and the barge will heel significantly.
The craft is somewhat poorly balanced to begin with, with the relatively large weight
of the crane always trying to tip it over. We really need a larger craft, or the crane
should be more centrally located.
BARGE STABILITY 411
CRANES AND EXCAVATOR ARMS
z Check for crane

arm swinging to
port and starboard
z Horizontal pull
forces from bucket
z Acts at top of jib
z Allow for suction of soil in bucket
z Pulling arm downwards and sidewards
It is normal to be able to swing the crane forward to lift an object off the deck and
into the water. All possible positions for the crane jib must be checked.
Other destabilising effects can occur when excavators are digging beneath the barge.
These tend to induce both vertical and horizontal forces onto the arm.
COMBINED EFFECTS
z Use of trim tanks to counteract crane lift

z Avoid free surface area
z Fill a number of tanks completely
Where ballast tanks are being used to counteract the effect of the crane lifting
destabilisation, it is better to fill a number of tanks completely to avoid the effects of
the free surface.
If tanks are partly filled, as shown in the diagram, then this reduces the barge
stability.
EFFECT OF WIND ON STABILITY
z Comparison of semi-sub and conventional
Righting
Righting arm in m (ft)
Wind
0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°

40°
Heel angle
With larger vessels, an assessment must be made of the effect of wind on the vessel.
The graph shows the change in righting arm as a vessel is heeled completely over.
However, codes such as DNV Marine Operations RP2 usually only consider
acceptable angles of heel up to 40°. Sailing vessels (yachts) are an exception.
The righting arm is the righting moment divided by its displacement. Some codes
refer to the righting moment curve rather than the righting arm curve.
We need to also take account of the destabilising effect of cross-winds (shown

dotted).
The graph shows the righting and wind traces for both semi-sub and conventional
vessels. Each vessel will adopt the stable angle where the destabilising wind and
righting lines cross.
Semi-submersibles (shown in yellow) are extremely stable up to a few degrees.
Conventional vessels (pink) have less initial stability though they will self right up to
about 130°. It may be that as the vessel rolls, there is a bigger area of side to be
affected by the wind.
For stability, the codes generally demand that the area beneath the righting curve
should be at least 1.4 times the area of the heeling curve for wind sustained for a 1
minute.
BARGE STABILITY 413
RESPONSE OF CRAFT TO SEAS
z Natural frequency of roll c ⋅ (g ⋅ GM )

0.5
z Lateral motion f4 = 4
b
z Natural frequency of pitch 0 .5
g
z Fore-aft motion f5 = c5 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
⎝d ⎠
z Natural frequency of heave 0 .5
g
z Up-down motion f3 = c3 ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
⎝d ⎠
z Critical waves frequency 0.71 to 1.2 of vessel
z Roll amplitude > twice that of swell
z Resonance reduced by bilge keels or stabilising fins
Where:
• b = beam (width) of the vessel
• c3 = typically around 0.13 for many ships
• c4 = typically between 0.35 and 0.4 for most ships
• c5 = typically around 0.13 for many ships
• d = depth of vessel hull
• f3 = natural heave frequency (Hz)
• f4 = natural roll frequency (Hz), typically between one cycle every 4 to 30
seconds
• f5 = natural pitch frequency (Hz)
• g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.80665 m/s² (32.174 ft/s²)
• GM = Metacentric height, typically around 1 m (3ft) for ships or laybarges
Since the equations for pitch and heave frequencies are similar, these motions tend to
be intercoupled. For ship-shaped vessels the bow and stern have different shapes.
This means that the pitching moment when the bow is down tends to be different
from that when the stern is down. This asymmetry results in a net vertical force
applied to the vessel as the ship pitches: this then causes the ship to heave.
When the frequency of waves approaches the natural frequency of the vessel, then the
amplitude of the roll increases sharply. In the critical range, where the waves have a
frequency 0.71 to 1.2 that of the ship, the amount of rolling can be more than twice
that of low frequency waves such as swells.
Ships are generally fitted either with passive dampers such as bilge keels to increase
viscous damping or active devices such as hydraulic stabiliser fins to reduce the
resonant roll.
For a more detailed discussion, refer to Chapter 11 of Flow-Induced Vibration by

Robert D Blevins ISBN 0-89874-891-7 Robert E Krieger Publishing Company, 1986.
SUMMARY
z Free liquid surfaces

z Suspended loads act at top of jib
z Stability comparison when lifting weights
z Digger forces due to soil
z Use of cranes to lift weights
z Combined effects of cranes and trim tanks
z Response of craft to wind and waves
Any questions?
The reduction of metacentric height due to free liquid surfaces means that wherever
possible, tanks should be completely full or empty.
Loads act at the top of crane jibs
We have shown how the apparently stable craft can topple when relatively large loads
are lifted from the deck of vessels.
Additional destabilising forces on floating diggers can be caused by soil suction.
Full stability analysis includes examining how the craft responds to the effect of wind
and waves.
BARGE STABILITY 415
MODULAR CRAFT AND LOCAL

BARGES
MODULAR CRAFT
z Uniflote barge - modular system

z Assembled manually
z Standard dimensions
z 5.3 m (17 ft – 4 in) long × 2.4 m (8 ft) wide × 1.2 m (4 ft) deep
z Ideal for work in shallow water
It is unlikely that field engineers will be expected to analyse pipelay vessel stability.
However, use of small pontoons or assessment/adaptation of small local barges may
be required. These are used for nearshore operations where laybarges cannot operate.
Examples of such uses include wire laying for landfalls and dredging or excavation.
With modular pontoons, the main two components are shown. Most rafts consist of a
number of the main box sections, as shown on the left. Where access is needed a
ramp section may be incorporated or a bow section for movement close to shore.
All these can be coupled manually by rocking the vessel using the self weight of the
workers.
Other equipment such as guard rails, bollards, anchor winches can be bolted on.
TYPICAL UNIFLOTE CONFIGURATION
z 20 tonne (22 US short ton) excavator

z 7 Uniflote raft
15.0 m (49 ft)
10.7 m (35 ft)
1 2
3 4 5
10.4 m (34 ft)

Ramp
Ramp
6 7
This is a typical small raft suitable for shallow dredging work.
Other larger configurations are possible. These include ‘moon pool’ where the
central section of the craft is left open for working.
INSHORE WORK CRAFT
z Landlines in swamps
z Rivers, estuaries and sheltered waters
z Landfalls
z Pull wire lay operations
z Excavation and piling
BARGE STABILITY 417
‘Landlines’ laid across swamps may make use of small work craft such as shown to
prevent damage to the soils. However, such barges are frequently used in rivers,
estuaries and sheltered waters where heavy wave action is not encountered.
Landfalls make use of such units to help install pull wires. Standard small units like
these are regularly used for excavation or piling in sheltered waters nearshore.
ADAPTING LOCAL BARGES
Often an existing barge is found operating locally to the worksite.
This may be adapted for use in order to saves mobilisation from other parts of the
world with consequential cost savings.
Its suitability for use will need to be assessed.

SUMMARY
z Modular craft
z Uniflote configurations
z Adapting existing local barges
Any questions?
We have looked at modular craft such as the Uniflote and shown a typical
arrangement with a tracked digger on board.
Typical use of these calculations may be needed when assessing local craft for
nearshore use.
BARGE STABILITY 419
WORKED EXAMPLE
WORKED EXAMPLE
2.44 m (8 ft)
CofG Cargo container

2.59 m
(8.5 ft)
Mass = 24 tonne
Length of barge = 12 m (39.4 ft)
(26.5 US short ton)
Mass of barge = 80 tonne (88.2 ton)
located in centre
2.75 m (9 ft)
Barge deck
Port Starboard
Side = 2.5 m
CofG Freeboard
(8.2 ft)
z
1.25 m
(4.1 ft)
x Draught
Keel (origin)
4.0 m (13.1 ft)
Beam = 8.0 m (26.2 ft)
Let us consider a simple flat bottom ‘brick-shaped’ barge with a cargo container
positioned to the starboard side.
The container is located midway between the bow and the stern along its length, so
we only need to consider the port-starboard axis shown above.
Earlier we made use of the same mass and location of the container for a crane. We
examined what happens when a weight was lifted off the deck.
WORKED EXAMPLE
z Weights = Mass · g
z Ballasted barge = 80 tonne · 9.81 m/s² = 784.5 kN
(88.2 US short tons = 176 kip)
z Cargo container = 24 tonne · 9.81 m/s² = 235.4 kN
(26.5 US short tons = 53 kip)
z Total weight = 784.5 + 235.4 = 1019.9 kN
(176 + 53 = 229 kip)
z Displaced volume of seawater
z = 1019.9 kN ÷ (1025 kg/m³ · 9.81 m/s²) = 101.5 m³
(229 kip ÷ 64 lb/ft³ = 3583 ft³)
It is common practice to use a value for seawater density of 1.025 tonne/m³ (64 lb/ft³)
and value for gravitational acceleration, g = 9.81 m/s² (9.80665 m/s², exactly).
US practice using imperial units (pounds and pounds force) does not need to multiply
by gravity to obtain weights (or the volume of displaced water).
WORKED EXAMPLE
z Vessel draught = volume ÷ (breadth · length)

z = 101.5 m³ ÷ (8 m · 12 m) = 1.057 m
(3583 ft³ ÷ (26.2 ft · 39.4 ft) = 3.5 ft)
z Mean freeboard = moulded side - draught
z = 2.5 m - 1.057 m = 1.443 m
(8.2 ft - 3.5 ft = 4.7 ft)
Deck
Freeboard
Draught
Keel
This is the draught and freeboard at the centreline.

BARGE STABILITY 421
Once we have calculated the vessel trim angle, we can derive minimum freeboard
values at both sides of the barge.
WORKED EXAMPLE
z Find centroid of mass (moments about keel)

z Horizontal
z Lxb= container weight · lever arm ÷ total weight
= W c · xcb / (W b+ W c) xcb
= 235.5 kN · 2.75 m / 1019.9 kN = 0.635 m Wc
Hc
(52.9 kip · 9 ft / 229 kip = 2.1 ft) Combined CofG
Lxb Wbc
Side
Wb Hkb
z Vertical Keel (origin)

z Hkb= [W b·Side/2 + W c·(Side + hc /2)] ÷ W bc
= [784.5 · 2.5/2 + 235.4 · (2.5 + 2.59 /2)] ÷ 1019.9 = 1.837 m
([176 · 8.2/2 + 53 · (8.2 + 8.5 /2)] ÷ 229 = 6 ft)
This gives us a position for the combined centre of gravity of the barge and container
relative to the keel.
WORKED EXAMPLE
z BM = 2nd moment of area ÷ displaced volume
z I = length · breadth³ ÷ 12 = 12 m · (8 m)³ ÷ 12 = 512.0 m4
(39.4 ft · (26.2 ft)³ ÷ 12 = 59 ·10³ ft4)
z V = 101.5 m³ (3583 ft³)
z BM = 512.0 ÷ 101.5 = 5.046 m Metacentre
MG
(59 ·10³ ÷ 3583 = 16.6 ft)
MK Combined
z Metacentric height CofG
z MG = BM + BK - GK
z BK = draught / 2 BM
θ
z GK = Hkb = 1.837 m (6 ft) GK
z MG = 5.046 + 1.057/2 - 1.837
= 3.737 m Kee BK
l
(16.6 + 4.7/2 - 6 = 12.3 ft)
New CofB
As a comparison, the metacentric height without the container was 5.717 m (18.8 ft).
This and other diagrams tend to exaggerate the angle of the vessel.
WORKED EXAMPLE
z Check for vessel trim

Metacentre
z Angle of heel, θ MG
⎛ W ⋅x ⎞ MK Combined
θ = tan −1⎜ c cb ⎟ CofG
⎝ Wbc ⋅ MG ⎠
⎛ 235.4 kN ⋅ 2.75 m ⎞ BM
θ = tan −1⎜ ⎟ θ
⎝ 1019 .9 kN ⋅ 3.737 m ⎠ GK
⎛ 53 kip ⋅ 9 ft ⎞ BK
θ = tan −1⎜ ⎟ Kee
l
⎝ 229 kip ⋅ 12.3 ft ⎠ New CofB
θ = tan −1( 0.170 )
θ = 0.168 radians or 9.6°
z Trim by adding more ballast to port side
z Check minimum draught and minimum freeboard
At 9.6°, this is far too steep a slope for operational use. It will be necessary to fill
balancing or trimming tanks on the opposite side from the container to restore a level
deck.
Simple trigonometry can be used to check the minimum freeboard and draught at the
sides of the barge.
BARGE STABILITY 423
EXERCISE
EXERCISE
z Find mean draught and freeboard

z Check for combined centroid of vessel,
crane and object (acts at jib)
z Find metacentric height Weight
acts at top
and trim CofG c
of jib
CofGM
CofGb
CofB
EXERCISE - INPUT DATA
z Barge
z Length = 40 m, Beam = 18 m, Side = 3.5 m
(131.2 ft × 59.1 ft × 11.5 ft)
z Ballasted mass = 600 tonne (661.4 US short ton)
z Crane and jib
z Weight = 24 tonne (26.5 US short ton)
z Height above deck = 2.59 m (8.5 ft)
z Distance from keel centreline = 6.25 m (20.5 ft)
z Top of jib (suspension point of object)
z Weight of object in air 100 tonne (110.2 short ton)
z Height of jib above deck = 30 m (98.4 ft)
z Distance top of jib from centreline = 15 m (49.2 ft)
BARGE STABILITY 425
BARGE STABILITY - SUMMARY
z Stable floating bodies

z Centres of buoyancy and mass
z Determining vessel stability
z Metacentric height
z Vessel trim angle
z Minimum freeboard and draught
z Free liquid surfaces and suspended loads
z Modular craft and adaptation of local barges
Any questions?
We examined why floating bodies are stable.
We have shown how the metacentric height (that is the height of the metacentre
above the centre of buoyancy) can be derived.
The reduction in stability associated with free liquid surfaces in tanks or due to loads
suspended from cranes has been demonstrated.
The use of these type of calculations are generally associated with nearshore work,
pontoons, modular craft or when adapting local barges for operations associated with
pipelaying. However, they are general principles that also apply to all ships and
laybarges.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Derivation of the Metacentric Height Formula
DETERMINING THE METACENTRE
z Vessel heels through small angle θ

z Shape of displaced water changes
z Removal of wedge AOA’
z Addition of wedge COC’
Wedge of
z CofB moves from B to B’ M
emersion
z For small angles of θ A

θ
BB' C’ O
BM = A’
θ C
G
B’ B
Wedge of Cross-section
immersion view
The following explanation details the method of predicting the metacentric height
relative to the Centre of Buoyancy (CofB). The method assumes the vessel is heeling
(also known as listing or tilting) by a small angle θ and considers the changes in the
buoyancy forces that result from this heel.
The example shown above considers a cross-section through a vessel which has an
original waterline plane of AC and location of the original CofB at B, directly below
the vessel’s Centre of Gravity, located at the midpoint along the vessel beam or
breadth.
When the vessel heels the shape of the volume of fluid displaced by the vessel will
change. A portion of the vessel (wedge AOA’) becomes emersed from the water by
the rotation and a portion equal in volume (wedge COC’) will become immersed in
BARGE STABILITY 427
the water. The total weight of displaced fluid must remain the same as the vessel
weight does not change. Therefore, the area of volume of wedge AOA’ must be
equal to the volume of wedge COC’.
The change in shape of the cross-section of displaced water results in movement of

the CofB from B to B’. For small angles of heel, the location of the metacentre can
be predicted in terms of the change in location of the CofB. The method for
determining the metacentre is detailed in the following slides.
z Consider a small area offset Plan view O
from the axis of rotation Area, a
z Swept-out volume when vessel

heels through an angle θ x
Va = DD' ⋅a = ( x ⋅ θ) ⋅ a M O
A
D
θ
z Weight of swept-out C’ O
D’ A’
volume G
C
Wa = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ ( x ⋅ θ ⋅ a )
B’ B
Cross-section
view
For the solution of the problem, the forces acting on a small segment of the vessel are
considered. Once determined, the forces are summed for all segments.
Considering a small area (a) that is offset a distance (x) from the axis of rotation
(OO), the volume (Va) that is swept-out by the area when the vessel heels, is
determined. The weight of this swept-out volume (Wa) is then predicted based on the
specific gravity of the water and the swept-out volume.
z Summation of the weights of small areas

z Weight of wedges AOA’ and COC’
x = AO x = AO
W AOA' = ∑ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ⋅ a ⋅ x = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ∑a ⋅ x
x =0 x =0
x =CO x =CO
WCOC' = ∑ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ⋅ a ⋅ x = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ∑a ⋅ x
x =0 x =0
z Axis OO will pass through centroid of
waterline plane
x = AO x =CO
Therefore ∑ a ⋅ x = ∑ a ⋅ x, or ∑a ⋅ x = 0
x =0 x =0
The weight of each small swept-out volume (Wa) that forms each wedge can then be
summed to give the total weight of each wedge (WAOA’ and WCOC’). The summation
of the area (A) × distance from centroid (x) for each small area making up the wedge
gives the first moment of area of the waterline plane (Σax) about the axis OO. It is
known that the first moment of area for the emersed wedge will be equal to the first
moment of area for the immersed wedge. Therefore, the total first moment of area for
the total swept volume (both emersed and immersed) will be zero.
z Moments about centroid OO

z Moment of weight of water swept out by area a
M a = Wa ⋅ x = (ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ⋅ a ⋅ x ) ⋅ x = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ⋅ a ⋅ x 2
z Total moment due to displaced water by addition of

wedge COC’
∑a ⋅ x
2 A
MCOC' = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ θ
C’ O
MCOC' = ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ⋅ I G
x A’
Wa
C
B’ B
z Where I is the 2nd
Cross-section
moment of area view
BARGE STABILITY 429
The weight of each small swept-out volume that is offset from the centroid (OO) will
result in a moment about the centroid. When summing the weight of each swept-out
volume resulting in a displacement of the water, the moment can be given in terms of
the second moment of area of the waterline plane about OO.
z Moments about centroid OO

z Moment when moving buoyancy force from B to B’
M b = FB ⋅ BB' = (ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V ) ⋅ BB'
z Where V is the total volume of water displaced
A
θ
C’ O
A’
G Wa
C
B’ B
Cross-section
FB view
The heeling of the vessel and the subsequent displacement of a volume of fluid
resulting from the addition of the wedge COC’ results in movement of the CofG of
the displaced fluid. This corresponds to movement of the CofB from position B to B’.
The buoyancy force (Fb) is equal to the weight of the displaced volume of fluid. This
buoyancy force will provide a righting moment that, for equilibrium, will oppose the
weight of the wedge AOA’ that is emersed from the water.
z Equating moments about OO, Ma = Mb

ρ ⋅ g ⋅ θ ⋅ I = (ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V ) ⋅ BB'
θ⋅ I
BB' =
V
z From previous M
BB'
BM =
θ θ
O
z Therefore G
I B’
BM = B
V Cross-section
view
The moments caused by the weight of the wedge emersed from the water (Ma) and
the buoyancy force acting to right the vessel (Mb) will be equal and opposite and can
be equated.
The equation can be rearranged to give the new position of the CofB (BB’) in terms
of the angle of heel, the second moment of area of the waterline plane and the volume
of water displaced. If the angle of heel is unknown and assumed to be small then the
previously defined equation for the metacentric height, relative to the CofB (BM) can
be used.
Substituting in this equation gives the metacentric height in terms of the second
moment of area of the waterline plane and the volume of displaced water.
BARGE STABILITY 431
Free Liquid Surfaces in Tanks
z From resolution of moments

(ρ ⋅ g ⋅ V × GG' ) = (ρt ⋅ g ⋅ V1 × G1G1' ) + (ρt ⋅ g ⋅ V2 × G2G2' )
1
Therefore, GG' = (ρt ρ) ⋅ θ ⋅ ( I1 + I 2 )
V M
z Effective metacentric height
NM = (ZB + BM ) − (ZG + GM ) N θ
where G G’
B’
B
BM = I V and ZG Z
B G1 G1’ G2 G2’
1
GN = GG' θ = ⋅ (ρt ρ) ⋅ ( I1 + I 2 )
V
z Therefore
1
NM = ZB − ZG + ⋅ [I − (ρt ρ ) ⋅ ( I1 + I 2 )]
V
Where:
• ρ = density of the water in which the vessel is floating (kg/m3)
• g = acceleration due to gravity constant (m/s2)
• V = volume of water displaced by the vessel (m3)
• GG’ = change in position of the Centre of Gravity of the vessel (m)
• ρt = density of the fluid carried in the tanks (assuming same fluid in both tanks)
(kg/m3)
• V1 = volume of the first tank (m3)
• V1 = volume of the second tank (m3)
• I = 2nd moment of area of the vessel in the waterline plane (m4)
• I1 = 2nd moment of area of the first tank in the waterline plane (m4)
• I2 = 2nd moment of area of the second tank in the waterline plane (m4)
• G1G1’ = change in position of the CofG of the first tank (m)
• G2G2’ = change in position of the CofG of the second tank (m)
• NM = change in position of the metacentric height (m)
• ZB = height of the CofB above a datum, the vessel keel (m)
• ZG = height of the CofG above a datum, the vessel keel (m)
• BM = metacentric height above the CofB (m)
• GM = metacentric height above the CofG (m)

ANCHORS & PILES

ANCHORS & PILES 435
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
z Anchors and piles provide a point of fixity

z Temporary
z Laybarge anchorage, pipelay startup
z Small anchor movements can be accommodated by winch
z Permanent
z Riser buoy for flexible pipes to a barge
z Cannot be allowed to move during life of facility
z Limiting this study to larger forces (>10 T)
z Determination of resistance force
z Requires knowledge of soils - c, φ, γ and porosity
z Phreatic level for land-based anchorages
We will be looking at piles and anchors which are two methods used to provide a
point of fixity on the seabed or beach.
These may be either temporary or permanent structures.
Here we are looking at how to design soil resistance to withstand larger forces such
as those used by laybarges or buoys.
We need to know what types of soils there are, and how their engineering properties
can be assessed and used. Clays tend to be dominated by their cohesion (c). Sands
are primarily categorised by angle of friction (φ). Knowledge of the density (γ) of all
soils is required to design anchors and piles as is their porosity, which is a function of
the particle size distribution.
For land-based anchorages the level of the ground water (phreatic surface) is
important since dry soils are able to withstand greater loads than when waterlogged.
Note that this module works solely in SI units because of the universality of these in
soils reports.
ANCHORS & PILES 437
ANCHORS
TYPES OF ANCHOR
z Use US Navy information

z Developed by Europeans on newer anchor types
z Based on ship mooring requirements
z Multiplier depending on shape and soil type
z Based on mass of soil ‘cone’ above
z Added effect of chain or wire
z Increases fixity over time
Shallow anchor in sand
Deeper anchor in clay
A lot of work was undertaken by the US Navy using their standard pattern of anchors
for ships’ moorings in different seabed materials. The Europeans further developed
this using more modern and efficient anchor types. It must be remembered, however,
that moorings for ships are often for short periods and some small movement of the
anchor is not a problem. Anchors holding SPMs are essentially permanent and
cannot be allowed to move when subject to wave-induced dynamic forces.
In general, the mass of the anchor is multiplied by a factor which is dependent upon
the pattern of the fluke and the type of soil. The mass of the anchor for each type is
an easy way of determining fluke size because they are essentially scaled up from the
same pattern. We will see that more modern anchors such as the StevManta
explicitly account for the fluke area in a more rigorous equation.
Effectively, the normal method assesses the mass of the cone of soil above the anchor
and applies a factor to account for the cohesion or friction around the perimeter. For
example, sands tend to have high friction and a shallow anchor. Clay requires a
deeper anchor because it relies on particle cohesion. The depth that the anchor adopts
can be adjusted by altering the angle of the shank to the fluke. This is achieved by
inserting steel wedges at the hinge.
A significant contribution to the holding power of anchors may be provided by the

chain cutting through the seabed from the shackle connection. With permanent
anchors in cohesive soils, particularly, fixity or holding power may increase over a
number of months as the soil reforms.
TRADITIONAL VESSEL ANCHORING
z Vessel anchor wires

z 48 mm to 76 mm (2in to 3in) in diameter
z Minimum Breaking Loads (MBL) 150 to 375 tonne
z Allow 2.5 FoS for breaking over allowable strength
z Wire lengths 1000 m to 4000 m (3000 ft to 13 000 ft)
z New deep water vessels exceed these values
z Anchor winches
z Braking capacities 120 T to 400 T
z Pulling capacities 80 T to 280 T
z Brake is usually 150% more than pull
z Limited also by breaking capacity of wire
Anchoring of traditional laybarges in a ten or twelve mooring configuration uses up

to 3in diameter steel-core wire. This has a minimum breaking load (when new) of
375 tonnes. The working strength is typically defined as 40% of the minimum
breaking load MBL. Its reciprocal allows us to think of a factor of safety of 2.5.
The length of wire is determined by the winch capacity and the water depth needed.
Typically, 1000 m to 4000 m of wire is fitted although some newer barges have more
when operating in deeper water. For example, Saipem’s 813 mm (32in) diameter
Greenstream project between Libya and Sicily had 3 km long wire extensions fitted,
in water depths up to 1130 m.
The anchor winches have capacities of up to 400 T braking load when locked off.
However, the limiting value may be that of the wire fitted. Their pulling capacity is
two-thirds of this figure.
The braking load is the ability of the winch to hold a stationary load whereas the
pulling load is able to be applied whilst the winch is rotating. (Note that the breaking
capacity of the wire is greater than the brake capacity of the drum.)
Winches are drum type and are automatically controlled (paying in or out) using
software from the bridge. This means that the forward movement of the barge can be
ANCHORS & PILES 439
defined when laying pipeline, and then all winches moved simultaneously the correct
amount.
TRADITIONAL VESSEL ANCHORING
z Anchor types and mass (weight in air)

z Baldt Stockless (20 T to 30 T)
z USN Stockless (10 T to 14 T)
z Flipper Delta (10 T to 15 T) Wire
Embedment
Groundleg
z Stevin (10 T) drag
z Bruce (6 T) Anchor Chain

z Holding capacity
z Multiplier depending on pattern and soil properties
z Also known as ‘efficiency factor’
z Additional fixity from groundleg (typical 100 m)
z Drag distance up to 40 times fluke length
Different types of vessels use different weights and patterns of anchors.
The holding power is dependant on their pattern, mass and the properties of the soil.
Additional holding capacity is developed by the groundleg chain and wire, which are
dragged into the seabed during the anchor embedment.
A typical groundleg chain for pipelay operations is 100 m long and 64 to 90 mm

diameter. This ensures that the wire does not come into contact with the seabed.
Typical breakout friction factors for chain are around 1.25 for clay, 1.0 for sand and
0.90 for soft mud. These may reduce to 75% for sliding friction. For comparison,
wire rope breakout friction around 0.6 for clay, 1.0 for sand and 0.45 for soft mud.
Factors may reduce to just 50% or 25% for sliding friction.
Typical masses of anchor used for offshore pipeline installation are shown above.
The US Navy stockless anchor originally used has typically been replaced by lighter
and more efficient patterns. More efficient, lighter patterns are now available.
Anchors do not develop their full holding power until they have been dragged into the
seabed. As they are recovered by pulling on the pennant attached to their rear,
damage to the bed may result. However, for pipelay operations, it is important that
anchor scarring should be minimised. This should be kept to no more than a 50 m
long scar under extreme weather (or down to 10 m in favourable conditions).
Drag distances may be up to 40 times the fluke length for full holding capacity
although typically they may be between 5 and 20 times.
Penetration is generally around one fluke length in sand and clay. In muds and soft
bottoms, the depth may be between three and six fluke lengths for all patterns of
anchor. The angle between shank and fluke has an effect. A 50° angle may cause the
anchor to dig twice as deep as one with 30°.
VESSEL ANCHOR TYPES
Flipper
delta
Stevin
Danforth
Bruce
Shank
Flukes
Palm Stockless
Stock
Anchors are to a number of patterns. Some are better in certain types of ground than
others.
• The Danforth has hinged flukes and a separate stock to help it position itself flat
on the seabed. The angle between the flukes and the shank may be adjusted for
use in different ground. The angle is narrower for hard rock (~ 28°), the standard
~36° for granular and mixed bottom (used in around 80% of the seabed
worldwide) and greatest (~50°) for soft clay anchorage. In hard ground a large
fluke angle may cause the anchor to keel over as it lifts up. If the Danforth is
installed in very soft seabeds then it may initially sink into the mud with the
flukes pointing upward because of the weight of the head. It is then necessary to
pull horizontally, using the drag from the palms to help to right it and gain good
holding. For a 5.5 T anchor, the shank is 3.7 m long, the flukes are 2.2 m long,
the palm depth is 0.9 m and the combined stock width is 3.5 m. For an 18 T
anchor, the shank is 5.5 m long, the flukes are 3.1 m long, the palm depth is 1.4 m
and the combined stock width is 5.2 m.
• The Stevin is similar to the Danforth but has curved blades and two stock stubs at
either side. Again the angle may be adjusted. For a 10 T anchor, the shank is 4.6
m long, the flukes are 3.2 m long and the combined stock width is 5.7 m. For a 25
T anchor, the shank is 6.3 m long, the flukes are 4.3 m long and the combined
stock width is 7.7 m.
• The Flipper Delta has open flukes but larger palms than the Danforth. The latter
help it right quicker in soft seabeds and also provide additional holding area. In
soft soil it has a holding of 2 x anchor weight. For a 10 T anchor, the shank is 5.0
m long, the flukes are 3.4 m long, the palm depth is 1.6 m and the width is 4.3 m.
For a 40 T anchor, the shank is 7.9 m long, the flukes are 5.3 m long, the palm
depth is 2.5 m and the width is 6.7 m.
• The Bruce has a fixed triform fluke beneath the stock. For a 9 T anchor, the
shank is 5.0 m long, the depth is 2.8 m and the combined fluke width is 3.4 m.
ANCHORS & PILES 441
For a 20 T anchor, the shank is 6.9 m long, the depth is 2.9 m and the combined
fluke width is 5.5 m.
• There are a number of different patterns of Stockless shackle including the US
Navy pattern and the Baldt. They are easier to stow in the draft tube on a vessel
whilst underway. The fluke makes an angle of 45° with the shank. For a 9 T
anchor, the shank is 3.0 m long, the flukes are 2.1 m long, the depth is 1.6 m and
the combined fluke width is 2.3 m. For a 27 T anchor, the shank is 4.8 m long,
the flukes are 3.4 m long, the depth is 2.2 m and the combined fluke width is 3.2
m.
MAJOR SUPPLIERS OF ANCHORS
z Vryhof Anchors bv, Netherlands

z Anker Advies Bureau bv, Netherlands
z Baldt Inc, USA
z Bruce International, UK
These major manufacturers provide the larger sizes of anchors used in the oil and gas
industry.
Note Dutch spelling of Vryhof Anchors - Vrijhof Ankers

ANCHOR HANDLING
Recovery hook
Marker
Pennant buoy
swivel
shackle
Ring chaser
Hinge link
Direction
of chaser Wire rope to vessel
(76 mm x 3 km) Pennant
(or pendant)
Groundleg wire rope or
anchor chain chain
Swivel shackle
Anchor
Safety shackle
Stud link chain is fitted between the swivel shackle at the anchor and the end of the
wire rope line to the vessel, in order to absorb the effect of waves. A direct line will
transmit wave movement at the vessel to the anchor, causing it to move. Typically,
the anchor holding capacity is 25% less for anchors with wire or if they are used in
hard soil.
Although the pull for the fore and aft anchors remains along the original line of the
anchor, the quarter or side anchors will experience rotation as the laybarge moves
forward during pipelay. The plan angle may be up to 30° different between
installation and removal. They therefore may lose some of their tested holding
power.
Nautical terminology for the wire rope to anchor is the ‘anchor line’. However, we
will avoid the use of ‘line’ for rope in order to avoid confusion with the pipe line.
Typically, operators prefer to use pennants in calmer water but chasers may be
needed in rougher waters (such as the North Sea) where losses of buoys have been
experienced. Saipem used such chasers for the work in the West of Shetlands fields.
Note that the pennant line digs into the ground behind the anchor as it is dragged
forward during embedment. Enough slack in the pennant should be provided for
movement in soft clay to prevent the marker buoy from submerging.
If a pennant wire is not attached, the alternative method of removal is to use a hook or
hoop chaser to travel down the wire and chain back down along the stock of the
anchor. The anchor can then be lifted in a similar manner. Care needs to be taken to
maintain tension on the wire whilst the chaser is travelling along it. This will prevent
kinking damage. ROVs are used to confirm this has not happened.
ANCHORS & PILES 443
12 POINT MOORING
~3000 m
Breast
~2300 m anchor
wire
Quarter
anchor wire
Lay direction
Stern anchor wire Bow anchor wire
~30 m
0m Pipeline tension H
SB SB S B SB S B SB SB SB SB SB SB SB S B SB SB SB SB SB
130 m c/c
180 m c/c
SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB SB
SB SB SB SB SB 380 m c/c SB
There are two breast anchors located on either side of the vessel to maintain the lay
along the correct pipeline route unaffected by the effects of current, wind and waves
on the vessel. Four anchors fore and aft ensure that the correct pipeline tension is
maintained. This is critical in the touchdown sagbend to prevent overstressing of the
pipeline. Smaller vessels used in sheltered waters may require only 10 small anchors
to maintain position. Conversely, laying larger diameter pipelines (610 mm) in heavy
weather, individual wire forces may reach 90 tonnes.
Each anchor leg is moved by the anchor handling tug separately, so that there are
always 11 lines under tension at one time. With typical S-laybarge progress, each
anchor is lifted and reset perhaps six to twenty times a day. Breast anchors can
accommodate more lateral movement and are moved furthest but least often. They
lie further away from the barge than the quarter anchors. Fore and aft anchors are
moved most frequently to allow the lay rate to progress. The distance an anchor
moves is dependent upon its location and the water depth but in the 600 m of water
shown above, the breast anchors may move 380 m each step, the quarter anchors may
be moved 180 m and the bow and stern anchor may be moved 130 m. In shallower
water, the offset distances of the breast and quarter anchors will be less; perhaps
down to 600 m to 1200 m. For the vessel shown, two tugs are used but only one
anchor at a time is relocated.
At each operation, the tug has to recover the positioning buoy and lift the anchor out
of the seabed. It then moves to the new location to reset the anchor by lowering it
carefully onto the seabed. The whole operation takes perhaps 2½ hours for each
anchor move. The anchor is not dropped as this could damage the wire. The barge
winch recovers the wire and prove the anchor’s holding capacity at the new location.
Recovery of the anchor held fast in the seabed requires that the pennant cable is held
off vertical (~15°) and hauled in. A vertical pull of the heavy anchor would cause
the wire to tend to untwist and snap as the tug is lifted in the waves. If the anchor
will not pull out using this method, it may be possible to use the combined pull of the
tug and the laybarge: both pull in the same direction to loosen the anchor before it can
be hauled in (not possible with a chaser). A short chain pigtail may be used to ensure
that the pennant wire does not wear and is not kinked over the back of the anchor
palm..
Care is needed to avoid other pipelines, wrecks or protruding rocks between the
laybarge and anchors. To this end, careful surveying of the whole pipe route is
required for a width either side of the line equal to the wire length.
ANCHOR EFFICIENCIES
Anchor Soft silt Sand

and clay
Danforth 7-8 7-9
Flipper delta 9 - 10 11 - 18
Stevin 11 - 12 20 - 22
Bruce 9 - 17 8 - 10
Stockless 1.8 - 4.5 3-9
The US Navy undertook a comprehensive test programme for different types of

anchor. Other work specifically for the oil industry has been undertaken in Norway
and France.
Anchor efficiencies refer to the horizontal pull at the vessel divided by the anchor
weight. This varied from between 2 and 60.
Whereas these give a comparison of efficiencies, it is best to use the figures for each
soil as recommended by the manufacturers of each anchor.
ANCHORS & PILES 445
STEVMANTA VLA SYSTEM
z Efficiency factors (33 to 55) not applicable

D = 1 . 5 ⋅ k 0 .6 ⋅ d −0 .7 ⋅ A 0 .3 ⋅ tan 1 .7 (α )
UPC = N c ⋅ S u ⋅ A
z Resists vertical pullout
The slide shows the Vryhof Stevmanta anchor. With this, the normal practice of
multiplying the mass of the anchor by an efficiency factor is not applicable. These
anchors are essentially thin steel plates which cut through the seabed at one angle,
and rely on their area and a different angle of pullout (nearly 90°) to resist loads.
This anchor can be either a temporary or permanent fixture point.
Where
• D = penetration depth (m)
• k = quotient of the undrained shear strength (kPa) for clay and depth (m)
• d = mooring line or installation line diameter (m)
• A = fluke area (m²)
• α = fluke shank angle (°)
• UPC = ultimate pull-out capacity (kN)
• Nc = bearing capacity factor
• Su = (k · D) undrained shear strength clay (kPa)
VLA type anchors such as the StevManta shown above or the Bruce Denla can resist
much more pull. They depend on their fluke area rather than their weight so their
high efficiency factor gives a poor indication of their ultimate holding capacity. The
equations shown above provide a better estimation of their capability. They have
been specifically developed for the offshore oil industry for use in deep water (eg
SPM, FPSO, etc).
The StevManta makes use of a hinged system to install the anchor. Three methods
can be employed: in the first using the single mooring line, a shear pin breaks as the
anchor reaches its designed pullout force and the point of loading switches to the
permanent position. In the second (shown in diagram), two lines can be used to first
pull the anchor to depth then the permanent mooring line located at the back takes
over. By use of special tensioners in the final method, a pair of such anchors can be
installed and proven at depth.
A permanent tail line and submerged buoy near the seabed can be used to recover
these anchors.
CLUMP ANCHOR
z Used for permanent buoyancy at risers

z Simple mass weight
z Heavy-weight concrete and steel pan
z Circular or rectangular in plan
z Check for short and longterm stability
z Shallow deformation and dynamic loading failures
z Use of skirt to provide lateral fixity (sliding)
z Installation
z Limited by crane
z Possible use of additional weight sections
This is used to fix the position of permanent buoys at risers. But other uses include
maintaining marker buoys on location or for weighting down an anchor chain
permitting free draught for shipping channels.
Essentially they act as a simple weight. They are usually made of a steel basket or
pan filled with concrete or stone ballast. Simple rectangular or circular shapes are
common. Because concrete has a relative density of just 2.4 and seawater is 1.025, it
is common to use heavy weight concrete of RD 3.05.
These can fail either over the short or long term. This is dependent upon the ability
of the soil to relieve pore water pressures.
Dynamic loading caused by seismic or wave effects on the buoy may also cause
problems over time. Soil strength may reduce with repeated application and
relaxation.
The risk of sliding failure on silty seabeds is reduced by the installation of skirts into
the mudline. These are typically made of thin plate about 1 m (3 ft) deep.
Installation of the clump is normally carried out using a barge mounted crane. This
may have limited lifting capability and a number of techniques are used to help
reduce weight. The buoy may be installed attached to the clump and additional
weights are added in separate operations to achieve the final anchor mass.
Alternative techniques of attaching the buoy may be to flood and purge one chamber
of the buoy, or to fit a sheave to the clump once installed and then pull the buoy down
from the surface and attach the chain.
Guidance on the design of clump foundations can be found in API RP2A and in DNV
classification notes 30.4.
ANCHORS & PILES 447
CLUMP ANCHORS
Buoy
Additional
Lifting lugs weight blocks
Guideposts
Skirt driven
into seabed
Initial anchorage of
heavyweight concrete and steel Anodes
This shows a permanent anchor for a flexible riser buoy.
It is installed using the help of the buoy to reduce the total submerged weight and
then a pair of additional weight blocks are located between the guideposts.
The skirt drives itself into the seabed once the full weight is installed.
Long term settlement is important because buoy height is critical for the dynamic
response of risers.
ANCHORS - SUMMARY
z Types of ships’ anchor

z Mass times efficiency for different soils
z Typical values of multiplier factor
z Laybarge anchor handling
z Modern plate type anchors
z Used for permanent moorings
z Clump anchors
Any questions?
We have looked at the traditional method of mooring vessels and a number of

different patterns of ships’ anchor for temporary usage.
The standard method multiplies the mass of the anchor by an efficiency factor which
is dependent upon the seabed soil. Some of these factors for different patterns have
been given.
For 12 legged anchored laybarges, the typical arrangement and handling

considerations is given along with dimensions of wire and anchor.
Modern anchors are more efficient. Permanent moorings demand no slippage and a
more analytical formula takes into account the area of the anchor and the actual
properties of the soil.
Clump anchors are another permanent means of mooring subsea buoys at flexible
risers. A typical arrangement is shown.
ANCHORS & PILES 449
EXERCISE
EXERCISE
z Estimate holding capacity of system in sand

z Assume a groundleg drag factor of 1
z Estimate unit mass of studlink chain
z Use M = 21.9 tonne/m³ · dia² (M = 1367.2 lb/ft³ · dia²)
z Check chain can hold anchor
z Use a proof stress for chain of 150 N/mm² (21.8 ksi)
z Check strength of wire 64 mm (2½in) wire
IPS Bridon Bluestrand 6x41
100 m (328 ft) MBL 238 tonnef (524.7 kip)
groundleg
90 mm (3½in)
12 tonne (13.2 US ton) U1 studlink chain Sandy seabed
Danforth anchor proof load 1910 kN (430 kip)
Where
• M = unit weight of studlink anchor chain
• dia = diameter of links
PILES
TYPES OF PILE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Many types of pile exist. Some typical examples used in the offshore industry are
shown above.
[1] A closed pile may be driven using a drop hammer from within onto a dry-mix
concrete pad set at the closed bottom of the pile. It can also be driven using
conventional hammers set at the top. Closed piles rely on skin friction plus end
bearing.
Some piles are reamed out and concrete filled. [2] If the soil is suitable, under-
reaming of bell-ended piles can provide extra end bearing.
[3] Sleeved and grouted piles can be driven providing additional stiffness at the
seabed. The inner pile is usually at least 150 mm smaller diameter than the sleeve.
ANCHORS & PILES 451
[4] Open piles fill with material and allowance during driving must be made for the
additional skin friction of the internal soil. [5] With very long piles, this internal
friction builds up and effectively forms a plug at the bottom of the pile. The pile then
acts as an end bearing pile.
[6] Open piles may encounter different soil types as they are driven. It is common to
encounter lenses of sand and gravel that are more difficult to drive through.
Installation testing of the pile is done by checking the rate of progress for each
hammer impact. It is often quoted as the number of blows per metre. Care should be
taken that the pile does not punch through the bottom of the lens during this testing -
or even shortly following testing when the pore water pressure has had time to
disperse.
[7] It is common to jet or drill into rock and grout a pile into place. Care must be
taken to avoid damaging the surrounding rock with jetting or creating a slick of silt
on the sides of the drill. Both may reduce the efficiency of the pile holding capacity.
CAN (SUCTION) ANCHORS
z ROV operated pump removes water

z Differential pressure forces can into seabed
z Cohesive soils
ROV
Can anchor
Suction piles on deck
A recently introduced method of installation makes use of the wide cross section of
offshore piles to force a drum or can into the seabed. These were used by Saipem for
the Christine development.
An ROV is used to create a partial vacuum within the pile and the pressure
differential at depth over the full area provides the insertion force.
Suction anchors are good for clay soils where a hydraulic seal can be made. In
granular soils such as coarse sands and gravel, a water path may be created through
the base of the anchor back up to the seabed. This prevents the formation of the
partial vacuum.
It is common to locate the lug at a point ¼ to 1/3 up from the base. This ensures that
the full resistance of the soil is developed. Any rotation of the cylinder will be about
the seabed rather the base so the anchor will dig in rather than be pulled out.
TUBULAR PILES
z Closed tubular or hollow

z Driven into seabed
z Percussion or vibration driver
z Hollow - drop hammer inside
z Vertical upward pull
z Skin friction resists pullout
z Check for wall tension
z Lateral pull
z Surface area of pile
z Check for bending of pile
Tubular piles are widely used to fix structures to the seabed. They are normally held
within a tubular positioning guide (not shown) prior to driving.
They can be closed tubular or hollow. The latter permits the soil to enter the pile.
This reduces the area of steel penetrating the soil, but for long piles, significantly
increases the friction force.
Percussive or vibrating piling hammers can be used. These are attached to the top of
the pile and transmit loads down the pile wall.
Sometimes in fine sands, it is quicker to use a smaller hammer. This is because

bigger impacts cause higher pore water pressure between the grains. These
effectively resist the driving action. A lesser force may cause the pile to enter the
ground more quickly.
The simplest form of driving and which can be used in shallow water, involves
dropping a cylindrical steel weight down the inside of the tubular pile onto a pad of
dry-mix concrete resting on the capped end at the bottom of the pile.
Lateral forces on the pile are resisted by the area of the side of the pile in contact with
the soil. Vertical forces are resisted by skin friction. Downward forces can also
count on the end bearing of the pile. A combination of these effects can be used for
diagonal forces.
It is important to check for bending of the pile in case the upper portion moves
laterally within the soil. Similar checks should be made for stresses in the steel wall
itself.
Where the attachment point is below the seabed and any groundleg anchor chain
cannot be replaced during the life of the facility then it is common to increase the
diameter of the permanently-buried section of chain by 25% to allow for corrosion.
ANCHORS & PILES 453
In other instances such as when vertical forces are being resisted, the lug can be at the
surface.
FAILURE MECHANISMS
1 2 3 4
[1] Scour can occur rapidly in rapidly moving shallow tidal waters. With large
diameter piles, the scour depths can be surprising. They are often a proportion of the
pile diameter.
For example, whilst fixing 4 m diameter piles for an offshore windfarm in Dublin
Bay, within four tides (48 hours), a scour hole 6 m deep was formed in the seabed.
Piles need to move slightly against the soil in order to develop lateral resistance.
[2] Short piles may fail due to rotation. [3] Longer ones may fail due to bending
overstress in the steel of the pile wall.
[4] Groups of piles tend to act as one larger diameter pile and may not always provide
as much total resistance as first thought. This is because the skin friction may drag a
block of soil down as one.
DESIGN CODES
z API RP2A - WSD

z Recommended Practice for Planning, Designing and
Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms - Working
Stress Design
z Section 6.0 Foundation design
z DNV Classification notes N° 30.4
z Foundations
The recommended codes for pile design for offshore structures are API RP2A or the
DNVclassification notes N° 30.4 Foundations.
They provide simple equations for design of piles and identifies where problems may
demand further investigation. They provide a number of references to provide
additional information.
The following methods are take from the API code.

ANCHORS & PILES 455
PILING HAMMERS
z Driven piles
z Open ended piles
z Steam, diesel or hydraulic powered hammers
z Wave equation analysis for cushion and capblock
z Pile refusal before design penetration
z Review hammer performance
z Re-evaluate design penetration
z Modify piling procedure
z Plug removal
z Soil removed below pile tip
z Sleeved pile
Most seabed piles are open ended cylinders.
These may be driven using a variety of hammers. The subcontractor will use an in-
house wave equation analysis to ensure driving forces do not exceed the strength of
the pile.
The minimum wall thickness, t is given by the empirical equation:

t = 6.35 + D/100, where t is the diameter of the pile.
It is normal practice to allow a cutoff length of between 0.5 m and 1.5 m at the top of
the pile following driving.
If driving becomes difficult, there are a number of methods listed above in order to
achieve the design penetration.
The last items must only be used as a last resort. Jetting of material below the pile tip
is to be used with caution.
PILE DRIVING
Hammer
z Easy driving conditions Cushion
z Low stress wave Drive cap
z Light, fast ram

z Stiff cushion
Follower
z Difficult driving conditions
z High stress wave
Joint
z Heavier, slow ram (comp-
ression
z Soft cushion only)
Hammer Efficiency
Single acting steam or air 75% to 85% Pile
Double acting steam or air 70% to 80%
Diesel 85% to 100%
Hydraulic 85% to 95%
The above arrangement shows a typical arrangement for pile driving. The follower is
used when driving a pile from above the water when the final position of the pile top
is required to be below the water line. The joint between the follower and the pile
itself can only take compression forces.
The best way of studying the hammer/pile/soil system is using wave compression
theory. When the hammer strikes the pile head, a stress wave travels (at the speed of
sound in steel) from the pile head down towards the bottom of the pile. (Another
stress wave travels up to the hammer.) The stress wave travelling down the pile is
split, with one part reflected and one part continuing whenever a discontinuity occurs
- such as at a change in wall thickness. On reaching the end of the pile, the remaining
stress wave is partly reflected.
Stress waves continue to bounce up and down the pile until their energy is dissipated
by:
• friction between the pile and the soil
• plastic soil deformation
• radiation of stress waves through the soil and away from the pile
• internal natural damping in the pile.
It has been found that both the energy transferred from the hammer and the shape of
the stress wave affects the efficiency of the piling.
The energy is determined primarily by the mass of the ram and its impact velocity:
E=½ M V² (but only 60% to 70% is typically transferred to the drive cap from the
ram). See the table above for different hammer types. Clearly the greater the energy
the greater the penetration per blow and the greater the risk of damaging the pile. The
maximum stress in the stress wave is largely determined by the velocity of the ram.
For the same energy input to a given pile a lighter, faster ram and a stiff cushion will
result in a higher stress of shorter duration than a heavier, slower ram and a soft
cushion. For easy driving conditions, the long duration, low stress wave is best. For
heavier driving conditions, a short duration, high stress wave is better.
ANCHORS & PILES 457
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS MODEL FOR DRIVING
Mr M Mass
Kc
Mc K Linear spring P z
Kf
Compression only P
Mf z
spring
Kf
P z•
Mf Damper
Kf
Mf Linear spring with
Ks P z
Kf/p maximum force limited
by friction
Mp
Kp
Mp
Kp
Mp Approximate
dynamic soil
model
The mathematical model for the analysis includes the above elements, where the
subscripts are as follows:
• r = ram
• c = cushion and cap
• f = follower
• p = pile
Each element’s mass and spring stiffness is assessed. For the analysis, the pile and
follower are generally divided into shorter sections 2 m to 3 m long.
Hard cushion materials include hardwood, steel, aluminium and coils of wire ropes.
Some hammers incorporate a gas cushion in the hammer body. This soft cushion
sustains a soft push to be applied to the pile - an effective method of driving through
soils with a low tip resistance such as North Sea clays.
The soil resistance is also analysed in layers.
Dynamic soil resistance, Rdy = Rst (1 + J ⋅ v) and damping coefficient, Cs = Rst ⋅ J

where
• Rst = static soil resistance
• J = soil damping constant
• v = velocity of pile element
Wave equation analysis is subject to considerable uncertainty owing to the uncertain

soil properties so approximations in the model are used. Nevertheless, it is a useful
and widely used technique.
For a fuller discussion refer to Dynamics of Fixed Marine Structures, by Barltop and
Adams.
DESIGN OF VERTICALLY LOADED PILES
z Typical factors of safety 1.5 to 2.0

z Ultimate bearing capacity
z Qd = Qf + Qp = f ⋅ As + q ⋅ Ap
z Cohesive soils
z Skin friction - assess in intervals
down to depth
z f = α ⋅ cu
z α = 0.5 ⋅ Ψ-0.5 where Ψ≤1.0 (lower layers)
z α = 0.5 ⋅ Ψ -0.25 where Ψ>1.0 (upper layers)
z Ψ = cu/p'0
z End bearing
z q = 9 ⋅ cu
Where
• Qd = ultimate bearing capacity of pile (kN)
• Qf = skin friction resistance (kN)
• Qp = total end bearing (kN)
• f = unit skin friction capacity (kPa)
• As = side surface area of pile (m²)
• q = unit end bearing capacity (kPa)
• Ap = gross area of pile (m²)
• α = a dimensionless factor (α≤1.0)
• cu = undrained shear strength of soil
• Ψ = a dimensionless factor
• p'0 = effective overburden pressure at the depth being considered (kPa)
ANCHORS & PILES 459
DESIGN OF VERTICALLY LOADED PILES
z Cohesionless soils
z Shaft friction - assess in intervals down to depth
z f = K ⋅ p0 ⋅ tan δ
z See table over for maximum limits on f and values for δ
z Open end piles, K = 0.8 in tension & compression
z Full displacement piles, K = 1.0
z End bearing
z q = p0 ⋅ N q
Where
• K = coefficient of lateral earth pressure
• p0 = effective overburden pressure at the pile tip (kPa)
• δ = friction angle between soil and pile
• Nq = dimensionless bearing capacity factor
COHESIONLESS SOIL PROPERTIES
Density Soil Soil-pile Limiting Nq Limiting unit

description friction skin friction end bearing
angle, δ (°) values (kPa) values (MPa)
Very loose Sand 15 47.8 8 1.9
Loose Sand-silt
Medium Silt
Loose Sand 20 67.0 12 2.9
Medium Sand-silt
Dense Silt
Medium Sand 25 81.3 20 4.8
Dense Sand-silt
Dense Sand 30 95.7 40 9.6
Very dense Sand-silt
Dense Gravel 35 114.8 50 12.0
Very dense Sand
EXAMPLE VERTICAL PILE IN COHESIVE SOIL
z Pile
z Diameter, φ = 305 mm (12in)
z Length, L = 6 m (19.7 ft)
z Soft to medium CLAY
z Submerged density, γ′ = 950 kg/m³ (53.9 lb/ft³)
z Undrained cohesion, cu = 45 kN/m² (6.5 psi)
z Use factor of safety of 2.0
z Assess soil in three 2 m (78.7 in) steps
z More, thinner steps for more accurate pile capacity
z Assume a single full-depth, homogenous layer of soil
z Boreholes usually describe discrete horizons & properties
We are using a simple example to demonstrate the method.
Normally, a variety of soils each with its own properties will be encountered down
the pile. The steps will normally be thinner and take into account these variations in
density and cohesion with depth.
When more steps are considered, then the crude determination of α may either
slightly increase or decrease the capacity.
ANCHORS & PILES 461
VERTICAL PILE IN COHESIVE SOIL
z Skin friction
z Use the middle level of each step to assess f
z For first 2 m step (assessment at 1 m down)
z Overburden at middle = 1 m ⋅ 950 kg/m³ ⋅ g = 9.3 kPa
z Ψ = cu/ob = 45 kN/9.3 kPa = 4.8
z α = 0.5 ⋅ Ψ -0.5 = 0.337 (upper layer with Ψ >1)
z f = α ⋅ cu = 0.401 ⋅ 45 kN/m² = 15.2 kPa
z Skin friction = π ⋅ φ ⋅ 2 m ⋅ f = 29.1 kN
z Second 2 m step, assess at 3 m, skin friction = 38.3 kN
z Bottom 2 m step, assess at 5 m, skin friction = 43.9 kN
z Total friction = 29.1 + 38.3 + 43.9 = 111.2 kN (25.0 kip)
z End bearing = 9 ⋅ cu ⋅ π/4 ⋅ φ² = 29.6 kN (6.7 kip)
z SWL = (111.2 + 29.6) ÷ FoS = 70.4 kN (15.8 kip)
VERTICAL PILE IN COHESIONLESS SOIL
z Pile
z Diameter, φ = 305 mm (12in)
z Length, L = 6 m (19.7 ft)
z Closed end
z Medium dense SAND
z Submerged density, γ′ = 1050 kg/m³ (65.5 lb/ft³)
z Coefficient of friction, δ = 25°
z Limiting skin friction, 81.3 kPa (11.8 psi)
z Nq = 20
z Limiting end bearing, 4.8 MPa (696 psi)
z Use factor of safety of 2.0
Again we are using a simple example to demonstrate the method. The same pile is
used but now it is in sand instead of clay.
VERTICAL PILE IN COHESIONLESS SOIL
z Circumfl shaft area, As = π ⋅ φ ⋅ L = 5.7 106 mm² (8911 in²)

z Effective overburden pressure at tip, p0 = L ⋅ γ′ ⋅ g
= 6 m ⋅ 1050 kg/m³ ⋅ g = 61.8 kPa (9.0 psi)
z K = 1.0 for closed end piles
z Skin friction, f = K ⋅ p0 ⋅ tan(δ) = 1 ⋅ 61.8 ⋅ tan(25°) = 28.8 kPa (4.2 psi)
z Less than the limiting skin friction, 81.3 kPa (11.8 psi)
z Shaft friction, Qf = f ⋅ As = 28.8 ⋅ 5.7 106 = 467 kN (105 kip)
z End bearing area, Ap = π ÷ 4 ⋅ φ² = 73062 mm² (113 in²)
z End bearing pressure, q = p0 Nq = 61.8 ⋅ 20 = 1.2 MPa (179 psi)
z Less than the limiting end bearing, 4.8 MPa (696 psi)
z End capacity, Qp = q ⋅ Ap = 1.2 ⋅ 73062 = 351 kN (79 kip)
z Net, Qd = Qf + Qp = 467 + 351 = 818 kN (184 kip)
z Pile capacity or SWL = Qd ÷ FoS = 409 kN (92 kip)
Sands tend to have a substantially higher pile holding capacity than clays. In this
case and for these soils, the pile capacity increase is some six times.
Note that this capacity may be vertically up (pullout) or downward.

ANCHORS & PILES 463
SHEET PILE ANCHORAGE
SHEET PILING
z Used as dead man anchor for winches

z Use Arcelor’s Piling Handbook
z Often used for landfalls’ beach cofferdam design
z Beware!
z The method is designed for retaining walls
z Has in-built safety factor of ~2 against active failure
z Holding the piles against the active soil
z We are using it in reverse
z We are forcing the piles against the passive load of soil
z Hidden safety factors overestimate the tendency of the soil to
push the sheet-pile wall into a cofferdam or trench
Sheet piling is typically used for the cofferdam and the anchorage at a landfall.
Arcelor now produce the Piling Handbook (having bought the piling division of
Corus Steel). However, Corus do provide information on their website
(www.corusconstruction.com) in the form of an on-line technical manual.
However, since the design of sheet piling is more commonly used to restrain soil at
harbours or retaining walls, the user should be aware that there are hidden factors of
safety that must be allowed for.
The book recommends using a factor of 2 for any anchorages made from sheet piles.
See www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com for available section sizes and design software.

SHEET PILE ‘DEADMAN’ ANCHORAGE
Compacted sand berm on

existing ground surface
φ
Need to assess capacity of soil

when pushing both ways from piles
The figure shows sheet piles driven into the sand of the beach. A wedge of sand
resists the pull from the buried wires attached to the beam welded to the back of the
piles.
It is normal to have some stiffening where the wire hawsers are attached. This may
be a purpose made clamp or perhaps just a half section of pipe with web stiffeners on
the beam. The optimum location of the beam is 1/3 up from the bottom of the piles.
All the sand wedge is then in compression.
In truth, the shape of the volume of sand is a little greater than a simple wedge. Not
only does it extend slightly deeper (along a spiral curve), but there are ‘wings’ either
side which add to the resistance. In normal practice, the contribution of the wings is
ignored.
If the piles extend more than about 5 m, it will generally be difficult to excavate
down to the correct depth for the beam. This is especially true where the phreatic
surface is close to ground level. In this instance, we need to mobilise the cantilever
effect at the base of the piles. See corner sketch. The force at the beam and at the
base of the pile balances the resistance of the soil. A check is needed to ensure that
the pile will not bend when subject to these large forces.
In this case, use has been made of a berm of well-compacted sand above the ground
level. This can be an efficient way of using the excellent properties of dry sand. But
the berm must extend out for a distance equal to the depth of pile divided by tan(φ).
Use of a berm limits the amount of excavation for the wires (and consequential
ground disturbance in front of the sheet piles).
ANCHORS & PILES 465
TYPICAL SOIL PROPERTIES
Soil Bulk density, γ Subm density, γ′ Internal friction Cohesion

(kg/m³) (kg/m³) angle, φ (°) cu (kN/m²)
Loose Compacted Loose or compacted Loose Compacted
Fine sand 1750 1900 1050 30 35 0
Coarse sand 1700 1850 1050 35 40 0
Gravel 1600 1750 1050 35 40 0
Peat - 1300 300 - 5 5
River mud 1450 1750 1000 - 5 5
Loamy soil 1600 2000 1000 - 10 10
Silt - - 800 - 10 10
Sandy clay - - 900 - 0 15 to 40
Very soft clay - - 900 - 0 <20
Soft clay - - 900 - 0 20 to 40
Firm clay - - 1000 - 0 50 to 75
Stiff clay - - 1100 - 0 100 to 150
Very stiff clay - - 1200 - 0 >150
The above table abstracted from Corus’ Piling Handbook provides typical values for
soils.
This is a useful when no numerical data is available and we only have a description of
the soil from the borehole log.
Where better information exists from the ground investigation testing laboratory, then
this should be used in preference.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PRESSURES
Active Passive
Pa = Ka ·Ob Pp = Kp ·Ob
Where
• Ka = active coefficient
• Kp = passive coefficient
• Ob = overburden pressure
• Pa = active pressure
• Pp = passive pressure
If the pile is pushed to the horizontally to the right of the figure, making a slight gap
to the left-hand side of it, then the soil on that side would tend to slide down along a
steep slope.
This is termed the active pressure.
On the right-hand side of the diagram, a large resistance would be built up as a

shallow wedge of soil has to be raised.
This is termed the passive pressure.
In actual fact, the shape of the wedge is a logarithmic spiral (shown in amber) but for
most soil analysis, a straight line can be assumed.
For a typical pile then, the net resistance at any depth would be the passive minus the
active pressure.
For granular soils, both the active and passive pressures increase linearly with depth.
They are proportional to the active and passive coefficients multiplied by the
overburden pressure. This is shown on the two triangular pressure distributions either
side of the pile. In the next slide, we show how these simple equations are modified
to deal with mixed and cohesive soils.
ANCHORS & PILES 467
EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
z Active pressure at depth h

φ φ
Pa = γ ⋅ h ⋅ g ⋅ tan 2 ( 45 ° − ) − 2 ⋅ c ⋅ tan( 45 ° − )
2 2
Pa = γ ⋅ h ⋅ g ⋅ K a − 2 ⋅ c ⋅ K a
z Active coefficient, Ka = tan²(45°- φ/2)

z Normally ignore wall friction for Ka
W all friction, S oil friction, φ
δ 25° 30° 35° 40° 45°
0 0.41 0.33 0.27 0.22 0.17
10° 0.37 0.31 0.25 0.20 0.16
20° 0.34 0.28 0.23 0.19 0.15
30° - 0.26 0.21 0.17 0.15
Where c = soil cohesion.
Active pressures act upon the pile if it is moving away slightly from the face of soil.
They increase with depth using the above relationship.
It is common to simplify the equation by substituting values for Ka as shown.
Corus provides the above tabular relationship for Ka for different values of soil and
wall friction. However, they recommend that wall friction be ignored for active
pressures (δ = 0°).
Note that some hidden factors have been allowed for in the table.
EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
z Passive pressure at depth h

φ φ
Pp = γ ⋅ h ⋅ g ⋅ tan 2 ( 45 ° + ) + 2 ⋅ c ⋅ tan( 45 ° + )
2 2
Pp = γ ⋅ h ⋅ g ⋅ K p + 2 ⋅ c ⋅ K p
z Passive coefficient, Kp = tan²(45° + φ/2)
z Kp is modified for pile friction, δ
z Usually use ratio: δ = 2/3 φ
Wall Soil friction, φ
friction
15° 20° 22° 24° 26° 28° 30° 32° 34° 36° 38° 40° 45°
δ
0 1.7 2.1 2.2 2.4 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.6 5.8
1
/2 φ 2.0 2.5 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.4 5.0 5.8 6.6 7.8 9.0 -
2
/3φ 2.0 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.3 5.0 5.8 6.8 7.8 9.0 - -
Passive pressures act upon the pile if it is pushed towards the face of soil.
They also increase with depth, using the similar above relationship.
It is common to simplify the equation by substituting values for Kp as shown.
Corus provides the above tabular relationship for Kp for different values of soil and
wall friction. Here the relationship is tan δ = tan (2/3 φ), but the simpler form shown
above is sufficiently accurate for most calculations and can be read directly off the
table.
Note again that some hidden factors have been allowed for in the table.
Note that the net result of passive minus active pressures are what provides restraint
for the anchorage.
ANCHORS & PILES 469
SHEET PILE ANCHORAGE - SUMMARY
z Use of sheet piles for landfalls

z Arcelor’s Piling Handbook
z Pressure balance
z Triangular (or tapezoidal) soil pressure profile
z Typical soil properties
z Dry and submerged density, friction and cohesion
z Active and passive coefficients (Ka and Kp)
z Dependent upon friction (φ) and cohesion (c)
z Modification for pile friction and phreatic level
Any questions?
Sheet piling is commonly used as deadman anchors at landfalls.
The recommended reference is the Piling handbook published by Corus Steel

(formerly British Steel). Although this is originally designed for cofferdam
construction and has hidden factors of safety, with care it can be used to design
holdback anchors.
Soil pressures either side of the piles increase with depth in a triangular profile.
Typical values were given for a range of soils where no accurate survey information
is provided. These include granular and cohesive soils as well as organic deposits.
From the φ and c values, it is possible to determine the active and passive coefficients
(Ka and Kp), which are used to multiply by the overburden at different depth horizons.
The coefficients may be modified by the friction of the pile. Soil beneath the water
level has a reduced density so is able to resist less pressure.
WORKED EXAMPLE
IDEALISED SHEET PILE CROSS SECTION
Wire to winch
z Triangular soil pressure distribution

z Ideally, beam located 1/3 up from the base
z Difficult in wet ground
z Trench for beam and wires disturbs ground
z Loss of strength
Since for granular soils (such as beach sand) the soil pressure distribution is a
triangle, then the ideal location for the back beam would be at the centroid. This is 1/3
up from the base, the same as for suction anchors. This would provide the maximum
resistance from the soil and ensure the shortest length of sheet piling to resist the pull
of the winches.
However, in order to dig the trench to fit the back beam, and more importantly to
position the wires to the winch, CDM and H&S regulations demand shoring to these
trenches if they are more than about 1 m deep. This means that it is common to
position the beam somewhat higher and use a reverse loading at the bottom of the
piles to stop them rotating.
Where the phreatic water table is above the excavation level, (such as near to a beach)
then the soil pressure distribution is modified slightly by the reduction in resistance
with depth.
ANCHORS & PILES 471
In short, anything which can lift the level of the beam assists construction.
In the following more realistic example, a 2 m high berm is built at the front of the
piles enabling trenches to be kept shallower than 1 m.
But first, let us find the idealised holding capacity of a sheet pile with beam at the 1/3
position.
IDEALISED SHEET PILE RESTANCE
0 Wire to winch
6m
2m
6
Water level
z Sand, γ = 1700 kg/m³, φ = 35°, c = 0 kN/m²

z Pile length 6 m, beam at 4 m below ground
z Net pressure at 6 m = Pp - Pa = (Kp - Ka) ·Ob
z Pnet6 = (7.3 - 0.27) ·1700 kg/m³ · g · 6 m = 703 kPa
z Beam resistance = ½ · Pnet6 · 6 m = 2110 kN/m
In this example, the holding power of the beam is 2110 kN/m or 215.1 tonnef/m. The
length of the beam could be determined from this for any required holding capacity.
We will see later just how much reduction in holding power there would be for a real
case when the excavation for beam and wires has to be limited.
By cutting out slots in front of the sheet piling for the wires, the strength of the soil is
reduced. Also, excavations down to 4 m must necessarily be supported in order to
gain access to lay the wires and connect them to the beam. Remember that for a pair
of winches and perhaps a sheave block there would be six wires connecting at the
front.
It is usually more cost effective to limit the depth of beam and provide a slightly
longer sheet pile wall.
SHEET PILE CROSS SECTION
0 Compacted berm
6m 2m
Wire to winch
2
1m
φ = 35°
6 Water level
z Sand, γ = 1700 kg/m³, φ = 35°, c = 0 kN/m²

z 2 m high berm
z Beam located at 1 m below ground
z Pile length 6 m
z Phreatic level 4 m below surface
Note the three red force arrows must balance to avoid rotation of the piles.
Assume the above parameters. The berm has been constructed from the beach sand
and has been well compacted to provide the same properties as the undisturbed
natural layer beneath.
We first need to assess the overburden on either side of the sheet piles.
Use the top of the piles as reference point. Ignore the trench behind the piles when
calculating overburden since loads are transmitted from beyond and the trench may
become filled in.
ANCHORS & PILES 473
EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE
0 m (top of pile)
2 m (beach)
Net Net
3 m (beam)
Active Passive
Passive Active
x
6 m (bottom of pile)
Resistance at Resistance in Net force balance
rear of pile front of pile
(Push to left) (Push to right)
Because the bottom section of the pile is resisting the tendency of the pile to rotate,
we need to assess the resistance of the pile when moved to the right and to the left
respectively. In either instance, the net resistance is the difference between the active
and passive soil pressure. These increase with depth. Remember however, that the
surface is at a different level on both sides of the pile. We will ignore the trench cut
to insert the beam.
The left hand graph shows the active and passive pressures acting on the pile when
considering the soil capacity at the rear of the pile. There is less overburden behind
the pile than in front of it. The blue line gives the net soil pressure (passive in green
minus active in red).
The middle graph shows the equivalent resistance at the front of the pile. This net soil
resistance is what will be utilised by the anchor beam and wire to the winches.
Again, the blue line gives the net pressure.
The right hand graph shows how the two interact. The red arrows show how the
large force applied at the beam is resisted by the net force at the front of the pile with
a counteracting toe force at the rear.
We need to balance this force/moment system by finding the unknown level x from
the bottom of the pile.
OVERBURDEN AND SOIL FORCES
Depth Soil properties Overburden (kPa) Coeffs Soil pressures (kPa)

from
Dens φ Cu Rear Front Ka Kp Rear Front
top of
kg/m³ Pra Prp Pfa Pfp
piles
0m - 0 - - 0x0.27 0x7.3
=0 =0
Berm 1700 35° 0 0.27 7.3 0x0.27 0x7.3 33.3x0.27 33.3x7.3
=0 =0 = 9.0 = 243.4
2m 0 2x1700xg
= 33.3
Beach 1700 35° 0 0.27 7.3 0x0.27 0x7.3 33.3x0.27 33.3x7.3
=0 =0 = 9.0 = 243.4
6m 4x1700xg 6x1700xg 66.7x0.27 66.7x7.3 100x0.27 100x7.3
= 66.7 = 100.0 = 18.0 = 486.8 = 27.0 = 730.2
Depth from Net soil pressures = passive - active (kPa)

top of piles
Rear Pr Front Pf
0m - 0
2 m in berm 0 - 9.0 = -9.0 243.4 - 0 = 243.4
2 m in beach 0 - 9.0 = -9.0 243.4 - 0 = 243.4
6m 486.8 - 27.0 = 459.8 730.2 – 18.0 = 712.2
It is necessary to evaluate pressures above and below soil interfaces.
This is particularly important where cohesive and non-cohesive soils meet. It may be
that pressures drop below zero with firm clays.
EARTH PRESSURE BALANCE
0 m (top of pile)
Solve for x using moments about Pf0
the beam (beam contribution = 0)
2m
Clockwise rotation is positive A
1/ ·2 m
Area A x lever arm a + 2 m (beach) Pf2 laa 3
Area B x lever arm b + 1/ ·

B 1m 3
Area C x lever arm c + 3 m (beam) lab (4 m-x)
Area D x lever arm d + + 2/ ·
3
Area E x lever arm e (4 m-x ) lac
=0 C
lae lad 3m
Therefore x = 0.745 m Prx Pfx
With x now known, we can D
/3 x 2 x
algebraically sum the forces 1/ x E
3
Pr6
and find the force in the beam 6 m (bottom of pile)
Moment and force balance
Beam resistance = 137.3 tonnes/m
Once the net forces are defined, the above procedure may be followed to balance the
moments about the beam.
ANCHORS & PILES 475
The following slide shows how these values may be tabulated in a spreadsheet.
The beam resistance now is just 137.3 tonnes/m compared with the 215.1 tonne/m of
the simple case.
TABLE
z Estimate a value for x = 0.745 m

z It is now convenient to use the following table:
Tri- Area equals Lever arm equals Moment
angle (kPa m) (m) = A x La
A ½ Pf2 · 2 m 243.4 -1 m – 1/3 · 2 m -1.667 -405.7
1
B ½ Pf2 · (4 m – x) 396.2 - /3 · (4 m – x) 0.085 33.7
2
C ½ Pfx · (4 m – x) 1017.2 /3 · (4 m – x) 1.170 1190.3
2
D -½ Prx · x -138.7 3 m – /3 · x 2.504 -347.2
E -½ Pr6 · x -171.2 3 m – 1/3 · x 2.752 -471.1
Sum 1346.8 0.0
z Since the net moment is zero, we can read

off the force, 1348.9 kPa (137.3 tonnef/m)
This table helps us to quickly establish the resistance of the beam.
However, we do not know the value of x. This is done either by trial and error or
using a solve facility of either Excel or MathCad.
At each stage, the net soil pressures at level x can be established by proportionality,
knowing the values at 2 m and 6 m below the top of the pile.
Once we have established a zero net moment at bottom right, it is easy to total the
force in the beam.
BEAM LENGTH AND SIZE OF BERM
z Holding a pair of 300 tonne linear winches

z Factor of safety of 2
z Resistance = 2 x 300 x 2 = 1200 tonnes
z Beam length = 1200 / 137.3 = 8.737 m8
9m .6 m
z For 600 mm wide piles,
beam length = 9.0 m
10.
6m
z Width of berm at top = 6 m/tan(φ) = 8.6 m

z Add 2 m to bottom (for 45° batter) = 10.6 m
z Volume of berm = width x length of beam
+ allowance on 3 sides for batter = 217 m³
Knowing what can be held by the soil at the level of the beam, we can work out the
length of beam (and length of sheet pile wall) needed for a pair of 300 tonnef linear
winches.
We also need to establish how wide the soil berm needs to be in front of the piles.
Using standard mensuration techniques, the volume of the berm and batter (the
triangular area times the length at its centroid) can be established.
ANCHORS & PILES 477
EXERCISE
EXERCISE
0 Compacted berm
6m 2m Wire to winch
2
Water level
1m
φ = 25°
6
z Silty sand, γ = 1800 kg/m³, γ' = 800 kg/m³
z φ = 25°, c = 15 kN/m²
z Phreatic level now at surface
z Berm, beam & pile heights remain the same
z Hint - net soil pressure >0 at top of pile
z Try x = 0.547 m
For your exercise, we have slightly reduced the friction resistance in the soil but
provided some cohesion, appropriate for silty sand. However, the main difference is
that the phreatic level is now at the natural surface of the beach. The submerged
density, γ ′ rather than dry density, γ needs to be taken for soil beneath this level.
Assume the above parameters. The berm has again been constructed from the beach
sand and has been well compacted to provide the same properties as the undisturbed
natural layer beneath. However, the calculation must use dry density for the berm
only.
Remember that because we have a c-φ soil, the net pressure will not be zero at the top
of the pile.
ANCHORS AND PILES - SUMMARY
z Temporary or permanent points of fixity

z Anchors
z Ships’ anchors and handling of laybarge anchors
z Anchor efficiency multiplied by mass
z Modern vertical pull plate anchors and clump anchors
z Piles
z Can (suction) and tubular piles
z Design considerations for horizontal and vertical pulls
z Pile driving dynamic analysis
z Sheet pile anchorage
z Soil properties
z Landfall back-anchorage design
Any questions?
Both anchors and piles provide a point of fixity. This may either be permanent or
temporary. Some movement may be acceptable with temporary anchoring of
laybarges.
We looked at different patterns of ships’ anchors and how laybarge anchors are
moved.
The traditional method of assessing holding power was to multiply the mass of the
anchor by an efficiency factor which depended on the type of seabed soil. The
exercise included the contribution from the groundleg studlink chain.
More sophisticated analysis can be carried out for permanent anchors such as vertical
pull plate anchors or even clump anchors. With these it is worth undertaking
geotechnical survey testing at location.
Suction anchors and tubular piles were described. Either can be designed to resist
horizontal forces. The latter can also resist vertical pull out or downward forces.
Design equations were given to estimate pile capacity.
We described how to size the hammer to drive hollow cylindrical piles and some
options when refusal is reached early.
Some typical soil properties were given during the sheet pile anchorage design
method which are also applicable to other piles (tubular or suction).
The exercise showed the triangular net soil pressure diagram.

ANCHORS & PILES 479
Survey Methods
GEOTECHNICAL SURVEY METHODS
z Permanent works
z Careful selection of borehole location
z Undisturbed sampling for clays
z Triaxial test to determine cohesion - c and cu
z Disturbed samples for sands
z Shear box test to determine angle of friction - φ
z Cores for rocks
z Triaxial shear strength test and assessment of bedding
z Temporary works
z Uses general data specified and collected for Client
z CPT, vibrocore or borehole sampling
For permanent structures such as a platform, careful geotechnical assessment and

testing is undertaken.
The samples are collected from carefully selected locations and tested in the
laboratory. Different tests are specified for the different types of soil and rocks.
These determine the loads able to be withstood at the foundations.
For temporary works, such as anchors and deadman piles, it is common to have to use
general data specified and collected by the Client for other purposes.
We may not have the samples taken from exactly the location that will be stressed.
We do not know how carefully the samples were collected and tested in the
laboratory - meaning that tolerances on data may be higher than we would like.
Typically, we have results from CPT or vibrocores on the seabed and boreholes at or
near the shore (shallow water to 30 m or so). The samples taken but not tested have
long since been disposed of and in any case, there is no time or budget to undertake
additional testing.
We have to design the temporary structures with a certain amount of general

appreciation both of the seabed variability and how the samples were obtained and
tested.
CONE PENETROMETER TESTING
z CPT test seabed soils

z Confirmation of seismic survey
z Correlated with grab samples
Seismic surveys will first have established a descriptive nature of the surface of the
seabed: whether it is sandy, silty or rocky. Grab samples may be used to extend these
description.
Geotechnical surveys establish numerical data for the soil along the pipeline route
and extend this to the immediate subsurface layers.
They typically use a cone penetrometer tester (CPT), as shown in the picture above.
This is a small device dropped onto the seabed with a coiled probe which is forced
into the seabed. On its way in, it measures the pressure at its tip and friction on its
side. By cross-referring to calibration data, these features can be used to determine
whether the soil is sand or clay and what strength or friction angle it has.
The results of the CPTs are then used to confirm and strengthen the sub-bottom
profile survey.
ANCHORS & PILES 481
CPT
z Types of soil or rock at or below seabed

z Thickness of layers
z Engineering characteristics
z Density
z Porosity
z Strength
CPT looks at:

cone resistance, sleeve friction,
friction ratio & pore pressure
to determine density, porosity
& undrained shear strength
of clay above sand at two points
From the measurements of friction and tip resistance, the above mentioned data can
be interpreted.
The upper trace shows a layer of clay some 1.7 m thick overlying sand.
The lower trace shows a similar arrangement but with a thin clay lens near the upper
level of sand, just below the interface.
Often these plots are originally in colour to differentiate the traces. The Client
supplies the contractor with a monochrome photocopy to decipher.
VIBROCORE
z Samples a column of soil

z Site or laboratory analysis
Vibrocoring is the state-of-the-art sediment sampling methodology for retrieving

continuous, undisturbed cores. Vibrocorers can work in up to 5000 m of water and
can retrieve core samples up to 12 m (40ft) in length.
The principle behind a vibrocore is the development of high-frequency, low

amplitude vibration that is transferred from the vibrocore head, down through the
attached barrel or core tube. This vibrational energy liquifies sediments, enabling the
core barrel attached to the vibrocore unit to penetrate into the liquified sediments.
A core-catcher is attached to the end of the barrel, which holds the sediment inside
the barrel when withdrawn.
A variety of vibrocore units are available. Some are small, lightweight and portable;
others are large, heavy units that can only be deployed from large vessels.
ANCHORS & PILES 483
SHELL AND AUGER BOREHOLES
z Onshore or in shallow water

z 150 mm (6in) diameter lining in loose ground
z 250 mm (10in) diameter in shallow waters
z Fixed drop drives auger
z Requires careful
interpretation of results
z Vane shear test and CPT
z Soil samples
z Disturbed and undisturbed
z Water level
It is possible to use coring techniques to recover soil from boreholes on land or in

shallow water. The latter can be done from a small flat-bottomed barge.
A cheaper alternative shown above is the use of shell and auger equipment.
Extreme care must be taken when making use of such data since a lot depends upon
the skill of the operator in undertaking the work.
Similar information is available as to the strength of the soil layers as that obtained
using CPT or vibrocore. The borehole deepening is stopped and tools inserted.
These include vane test to determine sand shear friction, a cone penetrometer to
determine strength etc. Soil samples may also be obtained both disturbed (bag
samples) and undisturbed (a sealed cylinder used for clays). These are then selected
for testing in the laboratory. Clays are normally assessed for undrained cohesion
using a triaxial testing machine. To assess the drained cohesion takes time and costs
more.
An important record is that of the water level. A high phreatic surface reduces the
ability of soil to hold load.
SOILS DATA ANALOGY
z Dart used to assess shed timber

z Strength of pine - needs 2 inch nail
z Doghouse may be softer (balsa)
z Buy a 3 inch nail to resist pull out forces
z Size hammer for 3 inch nail
z Assess for harder doghouse (mahogany)
An analogy may be drawn by sizing a nail to hold the dog chain to the kennel.
The strength of timber that holds the nail has been assessed by a third party. This was
done by throwing a dart into the adjacent shed and determining its density and
holding power. If done well, this could be within 10% of the true value. But we
don’t know because all we have is a report.
The pull of the dog can be determined exactly. If the wood is pine - as reported - then
we need a 2 inch nail.
We need to extrapolate to the kennel. Here the wood may be softer so we will have
to buy a 3 inch nail in order to resist the pull forces. (Piles are not cheap and cannot
be changed easily once on location at sea).
Now we have a larger nail (with a good factor of safety against pullout), we need to
consider the possibility that the doghouse wood is much harder than expected.
Perhaps it is mahogany. So we need a larger hammer to ensure that we can get it to
penetrate.
The adage “You pay for soils investigations - whether you do them or not.” is true.
Not only do we have a larger nail, but we have a bigger hammer too.
In piling terms, the pile needs to be larger and the piling equipment must be much
larger.
ANCHORS & PILES 485
TYPICAL INFORMATION PROVIDED
z Not located exactly at anchorage

z May be along pipeline route
z Seismic, vibrocore or borehole
z Undertaken early in job for various purposes
z Non-homogeneous nature of soil
z Missing surface layer
z Not recovered
z Often a soupy nature with no strength
z Sensitivity analysis
z Typically check on ½ or 2 times soil strength
This is typical soils information received by the contractor.
The information is not exactly where needed. It has been gathered by the client for
other purposes.
Soil is not homogeneous (like other materials commonly used by mechanical

engineers) and can vary from one area to another.
Being more interested in the surface layer for anchorages, it is often just this layer
that is missing from the geotechnical study.
For this reason, it is often wise to undertake a sensitivity analysis to consider stronger
or weaker soils than reported in the geotechnical report.
TYPICAL SOIL LOG
This is a typical soil log provided by a reputable company, and used by TJA to design
a clump anchor which penetrated less than a metre into the seabed.
Four layers of soil are indicated in the upper sections of this log. However, they were
unable to recover any soil in the top 0.4 m.
To the left, we have depths of penetration with graphical indication of the materials
are given. Location of the samples and tests is shown along with along with strata
thicknesses.
The description includes an indication of particle size and colour. It is normal to

capitalise the principal constant of the soil for ease of understanding.
Typical examples are:

• fine to medium, grey, shelly SAND with clay lenses.
• green silty, sandy CLAY.
• light grey, decomposed GRANITE.
The two right hand columns graphically indicate the results of tests both in situ and
laboratory results. The frequency of sampling and testing will be set by the
geotechnical specification. Some samples will then be selected by the Client’s
geologist to be fully tested in the laboratory.
The tests represented in the left column are: Plastic limit, Water content %, Liquid
limit, Carbonate content %, Relative density and Submerged unit weight kN/m³.
In the rightmost column we have: Pocket penetrometer, Torvane, Miniature vane,

Unconsolidated undrained triaxial, Consolidated undrained triaxial, In-situ vane,
Estimated N values from CPT (with open symbols referring to remoulded tests) and
Unconfined shear strength graph kPa. The right margin gives the percent passing a
75 μm sieve.
ANCHORS & PILES 487
Soil Types and Properties
SOILS
z Granular material (sand or gravel)

z Classified by its density and angle of friction (φ)
z Clays and silts
z Cohesive soil (c) - no friction
z Mixed soil
z Has both friction & cohesion (c, φ)
z Harder material (rock and marl)
z Cored samples - triaxial shear strength and joints
z Carbonate soil
z Needs specialist geotechnical knowledge
Sands and gravels are classified as granular material (or non-cohesive). The soil
properties needed are its grain size distribution, its density, its angle of internal
friction (ability to withstand loading) and its pore water pressure. Finer grains may
mean that pore water rises quickly when loaded. For example, it may be difficult to
cut through fine sandy soil with a plough or to easily hammer in a pile. This is
because the interstitial water cannot flow through the pores quickly enough and
pressure builds up, resisting the force. Sometimes a lighter hammer can insert a pile
quicker than a heavier one.
Clays have cohesion but no friction angle. They are made up of stacked microscopic
platelets which deform slowly under pressure. For this reason, it is necessary to
undertake tests which are relevant to the forces being applied. Long term drained
triaxial tests are more appropriate to permanent structures. Undrained triaxial tests
should be used for forces applied for a short fixed period, such as those of laybarge
anchors. The results can be used to plot normal and shear stresses on Mohr’s circle
for clays.
Most soil is mixed - certainly on land - and has both friction and cohesion.
With harder material, it may be better to assess it using cored samples. Triaxial
strength testing can be carried out in the laboratory on recovered samples. Other
parameters to consider are porosity, bedding plains, fissures and joints. Some rocks
decompose or break down to form soils.
Carbonate soils require specialist geotechnical knowledge to determine their

engineering properties. These soils are found in tropical areas (between 30° latitude
North and South of the equator) and cover some 35% of the ocean floor, including the
Gulf of Mexico. They are composed of biogenic remains and may be well or only
partly cemented. The optimum testing regime for these needs to be determined once
their exact nature has been assessed.
COHESIVE SOILS (CLAY AND SILT)
z Field identification
Class Description
Very soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed in a fist
Soft Can be readily excavated with a spade and can be easily
moulded with the fingers
Firm Can be excavated with a spade and can be moulded with
substantial pressure in the fingers
Stiff Requires a pick or pneumatic spade for its removal and
cannot be moulded with the fingers
Very stiff Requires a pick or pneumatic spade for its removal and
will be hard or brittle or very tough
z Very stiff clay has joints or fissure network

z Underwater samples
z Only partial recovery may be made of extremes
The descriptive classification for clays comes from BS 5930 : 1999 Code of practice
for site investigation.
It may be that all we have for design are grab samples or description of the type of
soil.
Note that very stiff clays have fissures similar to a rock.
Where the samples are not recovered in underwater cores, this may indicate one of
the extremes (either very soft or very hard).
Clays do not generally distribute pore water pressures during the time that they are
stressed by applied anchors loads.
ANCHORS & PILES 489
COHESIVE SOILS
z Shear strength
Description PI (%) Cohesion (kN/m²) φ′ (°)
Undrained, cu Drained, c′
Very soft Over 80 Below 20 0 15
Soft 80 20 - 40 0 15
Firm 50 50 - 75 0 20
Stiff 30 100 - 150 0 25
Very stiff 15 Over 150 0 30
z Typical tests
z Density
z Atterberg Limits: LL, PL and PI
Typical shear strength properties for clays are given above. They follow the same
classification as the previous table.
Where testing has been carried out, then these values should take precedence.
An approximate relationship that may be used to interpret the preliminary undrained

cohesive strength from the cone resistance (qs) of a CPT is cu = qs / Nk, where Nk is 17
to 18 for normally consolidated clays or 20 for overconsolidated clays (such as
London clay).
Note that different countries have different classifications for soils. For example,
ASTM D-2488 uses values for cohesion that are some 2/3 that of the UK values given
in the above.
COHESIONLESS SOIL (SAND AND GRAVEL)
z Relationship between in situ tests and RD

Relative density SPT ‘N’ value CPT qs (MN/m²) φ′ (°)
Very loose 0-4 2.5 25
Loose 4 - 10 2.5 - 7.5 28
Medium dense 10 - 30 7.5 – 15.0 30
Dense 30 - 50 15.0 - 25.0 36
Very dense Over 50 Over 25.0 41
z Typical laboratory tests 10

Clay
Clayey silt Sandy silt
& silty clay & silt
Silty sand Sand
z Specific gravity 8
(qc/pa)/N60
z Shear value 4
z Grain size distribution 2
0
z Compaction 0.001 0.01 0.1
Mean particle size D50 (mm)
1
Sand and gravels are commonly assessed for density using the standard penetration
test (SPT) and cone penetrometer test (CPT).
These (SPT and CPT) are essentially standard empirical means to assess the
properties of soil.
Again, data obtained using laboratory tests should take precedence over field
descriptions.
A number of studies have been presented over the years relating SPT N-value to
CPT. The graph shows one such relationship.
Where
• qc = cone resistance in kPa
• pa= atmospheric pressure (100 kPa)
• N60 = SPT N-value (energy ratio of about 60%)
• D50 = mean particle size in mm
For non-cohesive soils, this gives the approximation: shear strength = 6 x N.

ABANDONMENT &
RECOVERY
ABANDONMENT & RECOVERY 493
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
z When is A&R used

z Case study for reel lay A&R
z Determined maximum seastate for recovery
z Software used for analysis
z Examine pipe stresses during recovery
z Pull head at a range of heights above seabed
In this module, you will be able to identify why we need to determine pipeline and
wire stresses for abandonment and recovery operations and how the first may need to
take place during worsening sea states.
We will provide typical analysis details of a reel lay barge lifting a pipe from 395 m
(1300 ft) of water. The stresses were determined at critical steps such as when the
pipe is lifted off the seabed (spanning as a beam) and also when the pulling head is
being recovered at the water surface onto the barge. From these studies, the
maximum operating sea state was determined.
A range of analytical methods are described from simple hand calculations through to
full dynamic analysis which takes account of the vessel and pipe-span motion in
waves and currents. When the head is close to the seabed, the wire catenary becomes
significant. As the head lifts more from the seabed, the weight of the wire becomes
insignificant when compared with that of the pipeline, and the wire is assumed to be a
straight line.
In the exercise, you will compare the pipeline stresses using a simple procedure with
the head at various heights above the seabed.
ABANDONMENT AND
RECOVERY
ABANDONMENT AND RECOVERY
z Abandonment - Laying pipeline end down on

seabed
z Recovery - Picking pipeline end up from
seabed
z Variations
z Initiation from pre-installed string (eg directionally
drilled landfall)
z Initiation from landfall pulled off-shore
z Termination - end of pipelay
The pipe is ‘abandoned’ when pipe laying operations stop and the end of the pipeline
is set down on the seabed.
The recovery operation is the reverse of this operation.
Some variations on this may involve initiation or startup when an existing pipeline is
recovered from shore. This may have been preinstalled either by directional drilling
or using a pull barge and pipe-pull offshore. At the end of pipelay operations, the
pipe is terminated often with a pigging skid or valve assembly attached.
In all cases, similar analysis is needed. The only difference being the water depths
and seastate likely to be encountered.
BASIC PROCESS
z Terminate or cut end of pipeline

z Attach a cap to the end of the pipeline
z Shackle on a large diameter wire
z Lowered by winch on the barge
z Pipeline laid on seabed with recovery buoy
Laydown head Weld Pipeline
Thimble D shackle
Crimped
Wire ferrule
The diagram shows the typical arrangement for a small diameter line in shallow
water. The head may be either welded or bolted to the pipeline. The former demands
a full weld time to complete.
Where the loads are higher, a wire socket termination and purpose-made two-pin link
would replace the thimble and D shackle.
Once the head is fixed to the end of the pipeline, the wire from an A&R
(Abandonment & Recovery) winch is connected to maintain tension in the pipe wall
through the touchdown sag bend. The pipeline tensioners are released and the
pipeline may be lowered to the seabed as the vessel moves forward.
This process is reversed to recover the pipeline.

A&R OPERATION
Barge direction
Abandonment Recovery
Recovery Recovery
head A&R
buoy
winch
Lowering
cable
Catenary
profile
Beam
profile
The figure illustrates the process of abandonment of the pipeline. The pipeline is
being laid by the J-lay technique. The recovery head is lowered towards the seabed
on a cable . The lowering is controlled by the A&R winch to maintain the correct
tension in the pipeline to prevent sagbend buckling. Lowering involves moving the
barge forwards whilst paying-out the winch cable from the rear.
Calculations of the required tensions and resulting pipe stresses for abandonment
should consider that as the length of winch cable paid-out increases it to will adopt a
catenary profile.
The bending profile of the pipe is initially assumed to be a catenary curve during pipe
lay. At the start of abandonment the pipe maintains the catenary profile. However,
as the pipe end approaches the seabed, the bending profile tends towards that of a
deflected beam. With the smaller pipe deflections, the stiffness of the pipe becomes
increasingly significant.
The entire process is reversed for the later recovery of the pipeline.
NEED FOR A&R OPERATION
z Emergency
z Breakdown on laybarge
z Problems with tensioners or dynamic positioning system
z Deteriorating weather
z Prevention of fatigue at sagbend touchdown
z Recovery from pipeline buckle
z Planned
z Normal pipelay during startup and termination
z Limit on reel barge length
z At end of each spool of pipeline
Contingency A&R plans are needed for the exceptional emergency condition should
the barge suffer a breakdown.
In deteriorating sea conditions, when it is unsuitable to continue the laying process,

the pipeline can be lowered to the seabed. This prevents fatigue and overstress due to
the dynamic response of the pipeline span and the vessel in severe weather
conditions.
We may be unfortunate enough to buckle the pipe during laying. Then a contingency
measure is needed to recover the pipe from the seabed and continue laying.
All pipelines need to carry out the operation at the start and end of lay operations.
There is a limit on the length of spooled pipe that can be carried on a reel barge.
Therefore, at the end of each spool the pipe is laid on the seabed and recovered to
connect the next section.
At landfalls, we may need to recover the end of a pipeline pre-installed using the pull-
offshore method, or lift the tail of a directionally drilled line.
SEA STATES AT DESIGN STAGE
z Beaufort wind speeds

z 13 levels related to speed in knots
z 0 is calm - 12 is hurricane
z Extended to sea states - but no wave heights
z Weather forecasting 3 or 5 days ahead
z Provides detailed wind speeds and wave heights
z Often errs on side of safety
z Improving weather
z Worsening conditions
z At all times ensure safe operation
The classic description of wind speeds use the Beaufort scale.
This translates sailors’ terms such as calm, light airs, light to strong breeze, moderate
to whole gale up to hurricane force winds into a 13 level scale. From this, each
description can be given a numerical range of wind speeds in knots.
Although we are interested in wind speed - perhaps for safe operation at the top of a
J-lay tower, vessels are designed to operate in certain wave heights and periods.
It is now possible to obtain good 3 or 5 day ahead weather forecasting.
We need to check for wind speeds and significant wave heights. A maximum
operating level will have been specified prior to work commencing.
If we are likely to reach the operating levels, we also need to look ahead to see if the
conditions are improving or worsening.
If work needs to stop but the weather is improving, then we may choose to ride the
conditions out on station. However, if there is a likelihood of the weather worsening,
it may be advisable to cut and run.
Safety is the overriding parameter.

WEATHER-RELATED ABANDONMENT
z Wind speeds
z Measured on board
z Waves - assess Hs and Hmax
z Modern lay vessel
z Stops laying pipe at Hs= 5 m
z Abandons at Hs= 8.5 m
z Fatigue
z At touchdown and overbend
z Release short lengths
z Head released over stinger
Normally, vessels receive regular weather forecasts giving wind speeds and wave heights.
Currents can be predicted as they vary between spring and neap tides. Although used in the
risk assessment, they are not part of the lay parameter specifications.
Wind speeds can be measured using an anemometer. Whilst information will be available
from the 3 or 5 day forecast, it is often the case that the report errs on the side of safety. The
argument that then ensues in the bridge is, ‘Just what height are those waves that we are
facing?’
Significant wave heights are those that an experienced sailor would assess them as.
Consistency of assessment over the centuries has been found. However, DNV RP2 Sea
Transportation gives a relationship between the visual and significant wave heights: Hs = 1.68
(Hv)0.75, where both heights are in metres. This reduces larger visual heights and increases
smaller heights (<10 m).
Hs is numerically equal to the mean of the highest one third of the waves and is sometimes
written as H1/3. The maximum wave height is normally set at 1.8 or 1.85 times as high as Hs.
As the weather worsens, pipelaying operations initially stop and the vessel holds station. Care
needs to be taken to avoid fatigue in the pipe at touchdown or, for an S-lay barge, over the
stinger. Sometimes, small lengths of pipe can be released from time to time to ensure that the
fatigue is spread over different sections.
If the weather forecast remains poor and worsening, at some stage the decision will be taken
to abandon the line. This will have previously been set down in the lay procedures.
The actual weather conditions are dependent upon the vessel and its capacity to operate in
different sea conditions or wind speeds (especially for a lay tower). The first generation
vessels could only withstand a few metres wave heights. However, modern vessels are
designed for rougher seas.
As an example, the reel lay vessel Deep Blue only abandons pipe when the significant wave
height is approaching 8.5 m.
The head is attached at a workstation and lowered into the water. The photograph shows it
going down the firing line over an S-laybarge stinger.
A&R OVERVIEW - SUMMARY
z Meaning of A&R
z Needed at startup and termination of lay
z Needed in bad weather
z Specified levels for stopping lay operations
z Specified levels for cutting pipe and run for shelter
z Weather forecasts of wind speed and wave heights
Any questions?
We have looked at all the different operations which come under the category of
A&R.
All pipelines will require A&R at startup and termination of lay with long reeled
pipelines needing intermediate operations.
However, contingency plans are needed prior to laying operations for bad weather
conditions.
CASE STUDY
FIELD LAYOUT
Grid FPSO
North Anchors
FPSO
FPSO Anchors
FPSO Anchors
I
W FPSO Anchors
in
12
The FPSO anchors are arranged in four sets of four. Their exclusion area on the
seabed is shown.
Between them the Water Injection line approaches from the SW quadrant as close as
possible to the FPSO.
The area is congested with existing production lines, gas lift lines, water injection
lines and control umbilical cables.
From the laydown location of the FTA, a flexible riser connects to the FPSO vessel.
ANALYSIS
z Original study used Offpipe static analysis

z Final installation study used Orcaflex
z 3D, non-linear, finite-element software
z 15 minute (900 s) random sea simulation
z Full dynamic analysis
z Direction of sea considered
z Dominant wave direction is SW
z Vessel will face NE during installation of FPSO FTA
z Worst conditions under stern seas -
z Critical end for analysis is at FPSO
TJA was involved in this particular recovery study located in the West of Shetland
fields in some 395 m (1300 ft) of water.
Two finite element packages were used: Offpipe and Orcaflex.
The first was limited to static analysis to determine which load cases were critical.
The second was used to undertake full dynamic analysis of the critical cases using
random sea simulation.
At this stage, it was necessary to examine which head (the laydown head at the FPSO
or the initiation head at the field) caused most problems for the vessel rolling.
The dominant wave direction is from the South West.
The bow of the reel lay vessel had to face NE during installation of the flowline
termination assembly (FTA) at the floating production storage and offloading (FPSO)
vessel. At the field it would be facing the other direction. However, the worst
conditions for laybarge stability is under stern seas.
Therefore, we need to complete the analysis for the FPSO end.

DESIGN INPUT DATA
z 323.9 mm (12in) water injection line

z Water depth 395 m (1300 ft) at FPSO
down to 450 m (1476 ft) at field
z Seven heights above seabed examined
z Two assessed in full using software package
z Just below surface and 6 m (19.7 ft) of wire - highest tension in
FTA so highest stress in adjacent pipe wall
z Near seabed with maximum stress in sagbend
z Wave height, Hsig = 3 m (9.8 ft)
z Range of four wave periods examined
z Tz = 5.7 s, 6.4 s, 7.1 s and 8.0 s
z Tp = 8.0 s, 9.0 s, 10.0 s and 11.3 s
Four lines were to be laid by the same method: a 219.1 mm (8in) gas line, a 273.1
mm (10in) WI, a 273.1 mm (10in) production and the 323.9 mm (12in) WI line. The
latter produced the critical stresses being the largest and heaviest and creating the
longest spans.
Water depths varied up to 395 m (1300 ft). The initial analysis assessed seven
heights for the complete recovery operation: the head was at Waterlevel +12 m (39 ft)
for step 1 and at -84 m (276 ft), -176 m (577 ft), -266 m (873 ft), -322 m (1056 ft), -
380 m (1247 ft), -395 m (1296 ft), for the subsequent steps up to 7 (the last is with the
head on the bottom).
The analysis was carried out for significant wave height of 3 m (9.8 ft).
Since we do not know what the period might be (random seas), a check is made for
four zero crossing periods (Tz) and their associated Tp.
LAYDOWN STEPS
The seven steps of laydown are shown.
Note the proximity of the laybarge to the FPSO during laybarge operations.
With the laydown head near the surface, the wire is bar tight. Only with the pipeline
head near the seabed is there a significant catenary in the wire.
At each step, the wire angle near the barge is calculated. For much of the operation
the angle remains fairly constant. There is a slight decrease as the pipeline
approaches touch-down on the right. But then when the catenary in the wire becomes
significant and the pipeline approximates a beam, the wire angle increases again
immediately before touchdown.
PIPESTRESS OUTPUT DATA
z Output data from static and dynamic

analysis similar
z Near surface
z Offpipe was just 45 MPa (6.5 ksi) more than Orcaflex
z Due to the improved modelling of the FTA in latter
z Near seabed
z Almost identical results at sagbend with FTA
z Peak stress is 89% of SMYS
z DNV 1981 permits 72% using static analysis
z Results were factored for Hsig = 2.5 m (8.2 ft)
z Operations can be undertaken in good weather
The results from the two analyses were similar.
Stresses for the static were slightly higher than for the dynamic for the step with the
Flowline Termination Assembly (FTA) head near the surface. This was due to the
better detailed modelling of the head attachment points.
With the head near the seabed, the results at the sagbend were almost identical.
The peak equivalent stress for the full dynamic analysis is 89% of SMYS. However,
DNV 1981 permits 72% using static analysis.
For this reason, it was decided to factor the loads down for a smaller wave height.
Since the timing for the operation could be selected and would only take 12 hours,
recovery work could be carried out in good weather.
OPERATIONS OUTPUT DATA
z Ramp for reel pipe lay operations was 70°

z Wire departure angles varied
z from 65° at step 5
z to 77° at step 7
z Ramp angle had to be adjusted to suit
z Wire tensions varied
z from 420 kN (94 kip) at top (step 1)
z to 96 kN (22 kip) at bottom (step 7)
z Wire 800 m (2625 ft) long maximum: scope=2
z Vessel moves axially 426 m (1398 ft) in steps
At the vessel, the operational data is shown above.
The ramp angles varied slightly throughout the operation.
As expected, loads increased as more of the pipeline was raised from the seabed.
The maximum length of wire on the drum was 800 m (2625 ft). This is
approximately twice the water depth. That is, it has a scope of 2. (You are about to
size the wire for a FoS of 5.)
The vessel moves in discreet stages as the operation progresses. The distance is
approximately the same as the water depth.
CASE STUDY - SUMMARY
z Controlled recovery of pipe end to fit FTA

z Analysis carried out in 7 steps
z Initial study Offpipe static analysis
z Simplistic static design of forces
z 72% SMYS for pipe
z Full random sea analysis using Orcaflex
z Similar results for the calm sea conditions selected
z Determined maximum operational sea state
z Sized wire to be used
z FoS = 5
Any questions?
The case study was to recover a pipeline end in order to fit the FTA. The pipe had
been prelaid close to a FPSO.
Seven steps or heights of the head were examined and two were deemed to be critical.
One was with the head near the seabed and the other with it at the barge above water
level.
A simple static analysis was first carried out using Offpipe. This permitted a stress of
72% of yield in the pipeline.
Then a full random sea state analysis was undertaken using Orcaflex.
Both gave similar results because the sea was relatively calm with a maximum 3 m
(9.7 ft) wave height. From this it was possible to use the permitted stress level in the
pipe wall to scale down to a maximum wave height for operations.
Wire sizing (diameter and length) were determined.

A & R ANALYSIS
A&R ANALYSIS
z Determines pipe stresses as laid down or

picked up
z Calculates loads on cable
z First pass analysis
z Static
z Catenary calculation
z Detailed analysis
z Dynamic
z Specialist software
The objectives of the A&R analysis are:

• determine the stresses in the pipe as it is laid-down or picked-up
• determine the tensions necessary to maintain acceptable stresses in the pipe
• determine the strength/size of cable required
Simple first pass calculations can be performed using catenary calculations for the
pipe and assuming a straight cable (ie ignoring the cable catenary as the weight is low
compared to the pipe and the tension is high)
A detailed analysis, incorporating dynamic effects of pipe and vessel, environmental

loadings and non-linear reactions and loads is performed using specialist software.
SOFTWARE
z Offpipe
z OrcaFlex
z MCS Pipelay
z FE packages
Many different packages can be used to analyse the dynamic forces at A&R
operations.
Different companies also have their own in-house or bespoke software suited to the
particular vessel being used and the particular RAOs in the waters being operated.
The above is just a sample of what is available.
SIMPLE J-LAY AND REEL LAY ANALYSIS
z Assumptions
z Ignore current forces on wire during operations
z Wire is almost straight - negligible catenary
z Compared to pipeline insignificant weight and current loads
z Angle of wire at barge varies only a little
z Different approach when head near seabed
z Pipe bending analysis
z Check for beam bending near seabed (small δ)
z Check for catenary bending near surface (large δ)
z Check stresses
z Immediately behind pull head
z In sagbend at touchdown point
For Reel-lay and J-lay the wire is almost straight and at a steep angle (typically 70°)
from the seabed to the vessel. We can assume that the wire catenary is almost
negligible when the pipeline adopts a catenary shape. This is due to the effect of the
relatively much stiffer and heavier pipeline. To simplify the analysis, it is often the
practice to ignore the effects of current on the wire and concentrate on the forces
acting on the suspended length of pipeline.
The only exception to this is when the pullhead is close to the seabed and the pipeline
can be modelled as a beam. In this case, software must take into account the wire
catenary.
The assumption is made that at small deflections (height of head above the seabed),
the pipeline acts as a beam. That is, it has some stiffness. When the deflection gets
larger (as the head rises through the water column), the analysis changes to catenary
bending.
We need to check for stresses throughout the length of the pipeline. However,
normally two areas need to be examined: these are in the pipe just behind the flange
of the recovery head and at touchdown in the sagbend area.
ADAPTION OF STANDARD CATENARY
xab
y Vb
Wire catenary equations b
αb
⎛w ⋅x ⎛V ⎞⎞ H
Vb = H ⋅ sinh⎜⎜ w ab + sinh −1⎜ a ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ H ⎝ H ⎠⎠
H ⎛⎜ −1 ⎛ w w ⋅ y ab ⎛ ⎛V ⎞⎞⎞ ⎛V ⎞⎞
xab = ⋅ cosh ⎜⎜ + cosh⎜⎜ sinh −1⎜ a ⎟ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟ − sinh −1⎜ a ⎟ ⎟
w w ⎜⎝ ⎝ H ⎝ ⎝ H ⎠⎠⎠ ⎝ H ⎠ ⎟⎠
H
sab = ⋅ (tan(α b ) − tan(α a ))
ww
sab
yab
A&R wire
a αa
H
Heavier pipe
origin Va
x
When combining equations for the catenary in the pipeline and the lighter wire, it is
necessary to account for the angle at the pulling head. This is particularly so for the
condition when the head is close to the seabed and there is only a short length of
pipeline suspended.
The vertical lift on the end of the pipeline must equal the downwards force acting on
the wire. The horizontal forces must also be equal.
We need to use some of the equations appended to the catenary module to determine
the geometry of the A&R wire, which does not pass through the origin. The
necessary ones are shown above.
In the above equations:

• H = the horizontal force component, N (lbf)
• Va = the vertical component of tension at the pullhead, point a, N (lbf)
• Vb = the vertical component of tension at the barge, point b, N (lbf)
• ww = the submerged weight per unit length of wire, N/m (lbf/ft)
• yab = the vertical depth from barge to the pullhead, m (ft)
• αa = the angle at the pullhead, point a
• αb = the angle of wire departure at the barge, point b
• sab = the length of wire span from barge to pullhead, m (ft)
TYPICAL S-LAY A&R ANALYSIS
z S-lay requires higher tension

z Longer and stronger wire
z Now not vertical
z Subjected to current forces
z Barge may move laterally and axially
z Lateral current forces on pipe and wire
z Use of smaller pennant
There are some changes with S-lay A&R.
Because the pipe is under higher residual tension, the span is longer. The wire needs
to be longer to prevent sagbend buckling. The diameter of the wire is larger to
provide the additional tension.
We now consider the effect of lateral currents on both the pipe and wire. This may
mean that the barge will need to move laterally as well as axially during laydown and
recovery to prevent sideways movement of the pipeline on the seabed.
Again, with a larger diameter and heavier recovery wire, it is normal practice to
connect a smaller pennant wire onto the end of the main wire up to the buoy.
A&R ANALYSIS - SUMMARY
z Simple static design and dynamic analysis

z Check pipe stress at pull head and touchdown
z Software packages
z Sized wire to be used - diameter and length
z Different approach needed with S-lay
Any questions?
We have looked at the two approaches needed for A&R analysis. It is common to
undertake a simple static design first. Once this is complete, a more computer hungry
full dynamic analysis is undertaken to fully assess the seastate in which A&R can be
undertaken. Critical pipestresses are checked at the pull head and touchdown
locations.
A number of computer packages have been identified.
A further requirement of A&R is to ensure that the wire is strong enough to withstand
the operation and that sufficient length of that diameter can be held on the recovery
winch on the vessel.
The case study was for a relatively steep recovery angle associated with reel lay. J-
lay has a similar configuration. We identified the differences needed with S-lay
where longer wire is needed to ensure there is sufficient pipeline tension at
touchdown to prevent overstressing.
EXERCISE
WIRE DIAMETER / FINAL BARGE POSITION
z Maximum wire tension with head at surface

z Ignore
z Vessel movements
z Current and wave effects
z Assess using the catenary equations
z Adapt Catenary module exercise
z Limit pipe stress to 72% of SMYS
z Adjust tension at pulling head
z What diameter wire do you want?
z Use FoS = 5 for wire
z Assess barge position relative to target box
For this simplified analysis, we can use the static catenary equations you used in the
catenary module exercise.
First, assume that the head is at the water level (zero length of wire) and there are no
effects from vessel movement, current or wave.
Limit the equivalent stress in the pipe steel to 72% SMYS.
Adjust the pipe tension at the pulling head until stress is just below permitted.
Select a wire diameter from the table given.
Calculate where the barge needs to be in plan relative to the final target location on
the seabed for the end of the pipeline pull head.
EXERCISE - WIRE PROPERTIES
Diameter Unit mass MBL MBF

mm inch kg/m lb/ft tonnef US short ton kN kip
40 1 37/64 6.37 4.28 103 113.5 1008 227.1
44 1 49/64 7.71 5.18 124 136.7 1220 273.4
48 1 57/64 9.17 6.16 148 163.1 1452 326.3
52 2 3/64 10.76 7.23 174 191.8 1704 383.6
54 2 1/8 12.48 8.39 187 206.1 1837 412.3
56 2 13/64 14.33 9.63 201 221.6 1976 443.1
60 2 23/64 16.61 11.16 231 254.6 2268 509.3
Steel core Blue strand wire rope 1770 tensile grade 6 x 49 construction from Bridon
Rope catalogue.
BARGE MOVEMENT DURING LOWERING
z Calculate unit weight of wire

z Now assume the head is a percentage up
from the seabed - say 5%, 25%, 50% or 75%
z Adjust the tension at the pull head until the
pipe stress is 72% of SMYS
z Use the angle of wire at pullhead to calculate
where the barge must be, relative to target
z Estimate the tension needed in wire at barge
In the worked example, we have actually calculated the catenary in the wire. In
general there is not much curvature, so a straight wire set at the pipe angle for the pull
head is a good approximation.
Note that only for the height of 5% of water depth is there a significant difference
between the true wire catenary length and the bar tight one.
As guesses for the pull head tensions, use the following:

• 5% - 74.4 kN (16.7 kip)
• 25% - 128.6 kN (28.9 kip)
• 50% - 196.3 kN (44.1 kip)
• 75% - 264.1 kN (59.4 kip)
• 100% - 331.9 kN (74.6 kip)
EXERCISE - INPUT DATA
z Pipe diameter = 273.1 mm (10.75 in)

z Wall thickness = 20.6 mm (0.82 in)
z Young’s modulus, E = 207 GPa (30 000 ksi)
z SMYS = 414 MPa (60 ksi)
z Allowable stress = 72% SMYS
z Water depth = 400 m (1313.3 ft)
z Initial wire length = 0 m (0 ft)
z Density of steel = 7850 kg/m² (490 kg/ft³)
z Density of seawater = 1025 kg/m² (64 kg/ft³)
The original was in slightly less water depth and used marginally less lay tension
(318 kN).
EXERCISE - DERIVED DATA AND METHOD
z Area of pipe steel = 16.341 10³ mm² (25.3 in³)

z Subm. pipe weight = 669.2 N/m (45.9 lbf/ft)
z Selected wire diameter = 52 mm (2.0in)
z MBL of wire = 174 tonnef (383.6 kip)
z Method
z Follow pipe stress method from catenary exercise
z Find vertical force at pull head using equations given earlier
z Calculate height and distance from pull head to barge
z Find angle at pull head and sea surface
z Determine tension in wire at barge
z Find length of wire
ABANDONMENT & RECOVERY - SUMMARY
z A&R overview
z Case study
z Analysis
Any questions?
We have compared why we need A&R analysis for all pipeline laying operations.
A reel-laybarge case study showed the steps and two analysis packages used.
Other techniques and packages have been identified along with the different approach
needed with S-lay.
Equipment Used for A&R
LAYDOWN HEAD
z Welded or bolted to pipe end on

barge
z Seals pipeline end to prevent
flooding
z Provides lug or hook for
attachment of A&R cable
Morgrip laydown head
The laydown head is attached to the pipeline end prior to abandonment to seal the
pipeline end to prevent flooding of the line. The head also provides a lug or hook to
allow for attachment of the abandonment and recovery cable.
BIG INCH LAYDOWN HEAD
z Bolted on to pipe end

z Buoy and pennant not needed
z ROV hooks on to recovery wire
ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT
z Laydown heads can also be fitted with:

z Launcher for pigs
z Separates water from air during purge
z Handling lugs
z Flood and vent valves
z Protection framework
z Swivel
z Location devices
As mentioned, it is sometimes necessary to design laydown heads which incorporate

other items such as listed above.
If the line is to be hydrotested subsea using the head and a ROV operated flood skid,
then it is useful to have a number of pigs set into a length of the pipe. Behind each is
a tee and valve which permits the pigs to be launched individually.
The slide photograph above also shows protection framework to prevent accidental
damage during launch of the initiation head from a J-laybarge.
It is important that the torque in the wire is not transmitted into the pipeline. This
would mean that the pipe would tend to roll to one side during lay. This may result in
the valves being unreachable by the ROV. A swivel between the wire and the head
provides a means of removing any tendency of the pipe to rotate.
If the laydown head will have the wire detached then a trisponder location device
may be fitted.
WET BUCKLE RECOVERY
z Cut damaged pipe subsea

z Install recovery head by ROV or diver
z Attach A&R cable
In the event of a pipe buckle, it may be necessary to cut the pipeline and install a head
subsea. The following slides illustrate some of the equipment necessary for these
operations.
BUCKLE REPAIR CUTTER
z Sonsub-Saipem Bluestream project

z Wet buckle repair system on ROV
Diamond
cutter unit
This cutter can be used to repair a wet buckle at depths of up to 2200 m. It was
developed for use on the Bluestream Project in the Black Sea, but fortunately was not
needed.
The intention was to cut the pipe below the buckle and insert the recovery head. The
evacuated pipe would then be brought back to the surface and J-lay continued.
BLUESTREAM HEAD
z Bluestream depth 2150 m of water

z ROV-operated equipment
z Use of cutter to produce ‘square end’
z Pressure to force pipe onto anvil
z Pipeline plastically deformed to form seal
z Single use unit
Pipeline Anvil Deformed pipe wall
Pressurised
volume
The second tool designed to be used by the ROV sealed the end of the pipe enabling
water to be removed and allowing the pipe to be lifted.
A thin walled can was inserted inside the pipe and expanded. This plastically
deformed the end of the pipe onto an anvil. The latter deformed elastically.
When the pressure was released, the anvil recovered (elastically) and held the
permanently deformed pipe wall using friction.
Valves (not shown) permitted the pipe to be purged. This reduced the weight
enabling the pipeline to be recovered onto the laybarge, where the unit could be cut
off.
Fortunately, it was a contingency item only. Although proven technology, it was not
used in anger.
BSW BALL GRAB RECOVERY
z Ball and taper mechanical

connection
This proprietary end can be used to recover pipes which have suffered damage (such
as a buckle) and have been cut off by an ROV-operated saw.
The small balls are retracted into tapered slots and the unit fed into the cut end of
pipe. Once the unit is fitted, the balls are released and they exert a force which grips
the inside of the pipe. Each ball individually adjusts and redistributes the load in
response to vibration or cyclic forces.
The benefits are that the unit is strong: once connected, it cannot release until the load
is removed. There is no possibility of overloading since the benign compressive
stress in the pipe wall remains well within the code allowances for normal handling.
The unit is operated by pure mechanical lift: there are no hydraulics involved. It is
self acting and is vibration and fatigue-resistant.
Extensive use has been made of these units in the Gulf of Mexico for fixing anchor
wires (and Dyneema ropes) for barges and semi-permanent structures. The anchor
remains on the seabed and the ball grab can be fitted into a swivelling cradle using an
ROV.
A&R WINCH
z Alongside firing line on S-lay vessel

z Accommodates large diameter wire
z Reeving device
A typical A & R winch mounted adjacent to the firing line aboard an S-lay vessel.
Note the reeving device, which ensures that the wraps of wire are evenly positioned.
The wire passes through the arm suspended from the helically grooved steel bar. As
the drum turns, the arm is moved from side to side laying an even wrap at each layer.
BUOYS
z Size of buoy determined by weight of wire

z Wire length typically three times water depth
z Weight plus reserve buoyancy
z Needs to withstand hydrostatic pressure if
likely to submerge
z Ensure that current forces on pipe do not
move pipeline
z May need to attach a pennant
z Provides groundleg weight
z Can be smaller diameter
If a buoy is to be used, then the submerged weight of the whole length of the cable is
used to calculate its size. This ensures that it will not sink below the surface and be
crushed.
Typically, the length of wire to a buoy is set at three times the water depth. This
permits it to move and take up any current or wind forces acting on the system.
The buoy is designed to carry 1½ the weight of the wire. Some codes quote the
reciprocal of this, giving a value of carrying capacity of 65%, and a reserve buoyancy
of 35%. The self weight of the buoy is included in the calculations.
Alternatively, the buoy may be designed to submerge. These are more costly but can
be used with shorter length of wire. They need to be at the surface in calm conditions
for recovery.
A check also needs to be made - especially with short wires and submerged buoys -
that the force is not sufficient to move the pipeline end itself. If this is the case, then
a length of additional pennant wire may be added to the pull wire in order to provide
some additional groundleg weight. The pennant wire may be smaller diameter to
lessen current forces.
Buoys tend not to be used where the laydown is in busy shipping channels. A ROV-
operable wire/head connection is required in such cases.
VERTICAL LAY SYSTEM OR TOWER
z Used for flexibles

z Use of pipe follower to lift
z Gripped by tensioners
Tower on CSO Wellservicer
PIPELINE FOLLOWER
Tensioners
on tower (VLS)
Grippers
Pipe follower
Moonpool
Pipe follower
Plan view of cruciform

tensioners
Head Flexible pipe
The grippers for flexible pipes are typically on all four sides to prevent crushing of
the pipe wall.
If a wire and winch were to be used then this might either damage the grippers or
cause congestion in the area at the top of the tower. This could occur at either
initiation or termination.
The use of a pipe follower rather than cable to lower the flexible allows the tensioners
to be used for the laydown process rather than a separate winch.
The follower is a length of identical diameter to the flexible but designed for use as a
‘rope’.

PROFILES
PROFILES 529
TREVOR JEE
MANAGING DIRECTOR
MA CEng FIMechE
Date of Birth: 30th June 1958

Nationality: British
Education: Oxford University (MA)
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Engineering Science
Professional Qualifications: Chartered Engineer
Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers
Current Position at Trevor Jee Associates

Trevor Jee is a mechanical engineer with over twenty years’ experience in the design
construction and operation of oil industry pipelines. Since 1988 he has built up and
run Trevor Jee Associates as a specialist pipelines engineering consultancy. In
January 2002 Trevor was elected as a Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers.
Specific Expertise and Experience at Trevor Jee Associates
Joint Industry Projects

Trevor has recently been involved in two joint industry projects. He provided
technical support to the “low cost pipeline connection systems JIP”, advising on the
loads which could be experienced by connectors, and therefore what testing should be
done to qualify them for use on pipelines. He project managed and provided the
technical lead for the “trenching guidelines JIP” which developed the methodology
for assessing whether pipelines need to be trenched in areas subject to trawling.
Other areas which Trevor has been involved in since establishing the company
include the following:
Use of connectors in pipeline systems

Trench versus non-trench decisions and the prediction of fishing gear loads
Computer analysis of fluid, mechanical, structural, soils and thermal
problems
Vortex induced vibrations and pipeline freespans
Arctic pipeline design
Setting up and running company ISO 9001 quality system
Summary of Previous Employment

Trevor spent nine years with BP involved in:
Magnus project construction
Forties riser designs
North Sea operations support
Research on diverless systems
He then spent four years working with Andrew Palmers and Associates on:
Project Manager on Shell Nelson
Lead engineer on British Gas North Morecambe project
Design and construction of harbour entrance ranges
PROFILES 531
MIKE HAWKINS
OPERATIONS DIRECTOR
BTech(Hons) CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 19th May 1962

Education: Loughborough University
Academic Qualifications: Honours Degree in Mechanical
Engineering
Member of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers

Mike Hawkins is a mechanical engineer with nineteen years experience in the oil and
gas industry. Having worked with operators, design contractors and consultants, his
experience includes design, construction and operation of oil industry pipelines. Since
1994 he has been working with Trevor Jee Associates as a Senior Pipeline Engineer.
Since joining Trevor Jee Associates, Mike has been responsible for many studies.
Particular fields of expertise include:
Computer analysis of fluid, mechanical, structural, soils and thermal
problems
Trawl gear interaction with pipelines and the prediction of fishing gear loads
Trench versus non-trench decisions
Upheaval and Lateral buckling
Modelling of impact and denting
Heat transfer and modelling of transient behaviours
Creep of foam insulation systems
Loads, testing and repair techniques for mechanical connectors in pipelines
Risk and reliability analysis
ABAQUS finite element analysis
Detailed design of pipeline and rigid riser systems

Mike spent 10 years with BP working in research and engineering roles, involved in
various aspects of design, construction, testing and operational support for major
pipelines and subsea production systems.
Between 1990 and 1994 he worked with Andrew Palmer & Associates and Brown
and Root Marine on major North Sea pipeline conceptual and detail design projects.
His responsibilities during this period included lead engineering positions.
PROFILES 533
PHIL MEDLICOTT
PIPELINE ENGINEER
BSc PhD CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 13 February 1952

Nationality: Irish
Education: 1970-73 Nottingham University (BSc)
1973-78 Nottingham University (PhD)
Academic Qualifications: BSc in Mechanical Engineering
PhD in Acoustics - Mechanical
Engineering
Engineers

Phil Medlicott is a pipeline engineer and joined Trevor Jee Associates in July 2000.
He has been responsible for carrying out the following activities:
Fishing field trials to assess trawl gear interaction with pipelines

Laboratory trials to assess vortex induced vibration characteristics of strakes
Design and cost studies of alternative subsea pipeline schemes
Development of ISO Standard for the testing of subsea mechanical
connectors
Developing specifications for testing of components and assessment of
system performance
Presentation of training courses covering pipeline design, pipeline integrity
management and use of composite materials in offshore applications
Pipeline design and installation

Design of a subsea LNG pipeline system
S lay and reel lay Installation cost comparison
Suitability of mechanical connectors for S and J-lay
Assessment of vortex induced vibration reduction devices by laboratory
testing
Pipeline fishing interaction studies

Model testing of trawl board impact
Setting up and conduct of fishing gear overtrawling field trials
Fishing gear interaction with trenches and spoil heaps
Specifications and standards

Preparation of DIS/ISO 21239 and FDIS/ISO21329 for the testing of
mechanical connectors for use in pipeline service
Development of specifications for testing of components, e.g. fatigue
Specification of equipment for monitoring system performance, e.g. vortex
induced vibration
Training courses
Preparation and presentation of the following training courses
Pipeline design (3 day course)
Pipeline integrity management (3 day course)
Pipeline stability and use of PRCI pipeline stability software (3 day course)
Overview of properties and implementation of polymer composite materials
in offshore applications (1 day course)
Parallel activities
In 1994 Phil Medlicott established his own engineering consultancy business which
specialises in the use of polymer/composite materials technology to meet oil industry
and transport requirements. He still continues to operate this business and has
provides the following services:
Project manager of a £280,000 Joint Industry Project to develop the
qualification methodology for FRP lined downhole tubing and flowlines. This
work was completed at the end of 2003 and included the successful testing of
FRP lined steel tubing systems in 160°C and 5000 psi production service
environments over 4000 hrs
Preparation of ISO 14692:2002 GRP piping Standard for use within the oil
and natural gas industries
Implementation of composite applications on BP Davy and BP Bessemer (9%
of topside weight)
Numerous studies covering range of applications and performance issues
PROFILES 535
Publications and conference presentations

'Composite Material Selection & Implementation in Oil & gas Applications',
Materials Selection for Upstream Oil and Gas" IQPC conference, Aberdeen,
27th January 2004
'Static Electricity and the Use of GRP materials Offshore', CMOO-3 Houston
31st October to 2nd November 2000
'Composite Materials: Addressing Static Electricity Issues in Offshore
Applications' ETCE/OMAE 2000 Conference in New Orleans, February 14 -
17th, 200
'Progress towards a Qualification Methodology for FRP Lined Tubing and
Flowlines in Production Service", Oilfield Engineering with Polymers
Conference 26th October 1998
'Use of Non-Metallic materials Downhole' Aberdeen 24th April 1998. IBC
conference 'Advances in Downhole Technologies'
'Qualification Methodology for FRP Lined tubing for Production Service: A
Joint Industry PROGRAM' 2nd International Conference on Composite
materials for Offshore Operations (CMOO2), Houston, October 28-30 1997.
'Using Composite Materials to Minimise Weight and Maintenance and
Maximise Safety' Euroforum Offshore Platforms '96, London, 18-19th March
1996
'How can Composite Materials be Successfully Applied to your Current and
Future Offshore Projects? IIR Conference Aberdeen, 15-16th November 1995
'Overviewing the Diverse Applications and Advantages of Composites in the
Offshore Industry' IIR Conference Aberdeen, 7 - 8th December 1994
'GRP and HDPE: Alternative Solutions to Corrosion', UK Corrosion, London
19-21st October 1993

Phil Medlicott was a senior mechanical engineer at BP for 16 years and provided
company focus for identifying scope and cost benefit for applying polymer based
engineering materials technology within business operations.
PROFILES 537
MARTIN EAST
PIPELINE ENGINEER
BSc (Hons) MSc NRA CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 23 August 1965

Education: Crewe Boys Grammar School
University of Sheffield
Loughborough University of Technology
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Mathematics
MSc in Computer Integrated Engineering
Engineers
NAFEMS Registered Analyst
(Advanced)

Martin joined Trevor Jee Associates in 1996. He is responsible for supervising and
carrying out most of the finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) work within TJA.

Finite Element Analysis
Martin has eight years experience of the ABAQUS finite element analysis software
and has used it in the design of umbilicals and pipeline coating systems. Structural
analyses have included
many lateral buckling assessments of surface-laid pipelines
the analysis of concrete spool-piece protection covers
span assessments for flowlines on undulating seabeds
seismic analyses of risers in a GBS platform leg
pipeline crossing design
trawl gear pulling over a pipeline
the energy absorption capability of an elastomeric coating
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Martin has used both Fluent and CFX packages for fluid flow analysis. Analyses
have included
the hydrodynamic effects of helical strakes on a riser
the effect of strake pitch and profile on performance for a helical strake
the flow of backfill spoil onto a trenched pipeline
the influence of chord length on the performance of a streamlined riser fairing
heat flow and natural convection inside a cabinet containing pipework
Other Analysis Work
Martin has done hundreds of calculations, primarily using Mathcad. Calculations
include
Stability assessments of pipelines
Pipeline spanning assessments
Rock berm assessments
Lateral buckling calculations
Heat transfer and cooldown of a pipe-in-pipe system with annular flow
Wellhead protection structure design
Training Courses
Martin regularly presents training courses in pipeline design and integrity
management.

Prior to joining Trevor Jee Associates Martin worked for EMRC Europe Limited for
eight years, doing a wide variety of finite element analysis work including
consultancy, training, benchmarking and software development. Analyses included
static, dynamic, thermal and fatigue problems on structures ranging from printed
circuit boards to ships
PROFILES 539
ALAN KNOWLES
PIPELINE ENGINEER
Eur Ing BSc (Hons) CEng MICE
Date of Birth: 17 October 1951

Education: Park High Grammar School for Boys,
Birkenhead
Birkenhead Technical College
Liverpool Polytechnic College
Academic Qualifications: Honours Degree in Civil Engineering
Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers
FEANI European Engineer

Alan joined Trevor Jee Associates in 2002. He has authored and presented the
Installation Calculations course and Landline Construction course. Recent studies
include development of a subsea clamp for VIV and current monitoring, and
overtrawling trials of trawl gear over bundles.

Alan has particular expertise in the following:
Design and specification of onshore and offshore pipelines
Subsea pipe bundles
Flowlines, landfalls, directional drilling, river crossings, marine structures
and sea defences
Both conventional and single-point moorings for tankers
Finite element analysis of subsea equipment and finite difference analysis in
soils
Calculations for coated pipelines with regard to both stability and thermal
insulation
Design and construction of outfalls including investigation of primary and
secondary effluent dispersion patterns

Prior to joining Trevor Jee Associates, Alan has worked for over twenty years’
experience in the design of oil, gas and water pipelines. He has also been involved
with the nuclear industry, in particular substantiating structures for the safety issues
associated with seismic events.
PROFILES 541
STUART JOYNSON
PIPELINE ENGINEER
B.Sc.(Hons) P.Eng.
Date of Birth: 18th February 1943

Education: Salford University
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Civil Engineering
ONC in Mechanical Engineering
Professional Qualifications: Registered Professional Engineer
Associate Member of Institution of Civil
Engineers
Member of Pipeline Industries Guild

Stuart Joynson is a Civil Engineer with more than 30 years of experience in the
construction of pipelines for the Offshore Oil & Gas Industry. He has been
extensively involved in the Engineering and Project Management of a wide selection
of projects both in the UK and overseas and has been presenting courses for Trevor
Jee Associates since 2001.
Stuart is currently working with Corus Construction and Industrial promoting the use
of various steel products in both the offshore and renewable energy industries. Prior
to this he was operating as an independent Consultant undertaking studies for a
number of major Offshore Contractors, Oil Companies and Trevor JeeAssociates.
Stuart's particular areas of expertise include :-

Offshore pipeline installation
Landfall construction
Flowline bundle fabrication and installation
Subsea trenching
Estuary crossings
Marine outfalls
Pipeline refurbishment
Decommissioning

Stuart has worked with Brown & Root and the Land & Marine companies. He has
been involved in:
Project engineering for offshore pipelines and marine terminals at various
locations around the world
Project management with responsibility for the design, fabrication and
installation of flowline bundles in the North Sea
Operational management including business development, identification of
suitable projects, tendering and contract negotiation
PROFILES 543
PAUL JOB
PIPELINE ENGINEER
MEng CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 13 March 1979

Education: Exeter College
University of Surrey
Academic Qualifications: Masters degree in Mechanical
Engineering
Engineers
Basic Offshore Safety Induction and
Emergency Training (BOSIET)

Paul Job joined Trevor Jee Associates in 2002. His main responsibilities in the
department are based around finite element analysis, design and CAD work for the
offshore oil and gas industry, and also presenting and writing training courses for
both the public and in-company. Other duties include studies for clients, which
commonly involve developing spreadsheets in MathCAD and Microsoft Excel and
writing technical reports.
Finite Element Analysis

Paul has worked on a number of FEA jobs since joining TJA, using both ABAQUS
and ANSYS. These include analyses as follows:
Riser analysis - investigating operational and earthquake loads of the risers
supported inside a concrete gravity base structure, to be used on the Sakhalin
project. This included a two-week placement based at Aker Kvaerner’s
offices in Oslo, Norway.
Parametric flexible pipeline analysis, to determine the effect of trenching on
the interaction of trawl gear in the North Sea.
Analysis of pipe pull, installing a pipeline in a pre-dredged trench using the
bottom-tow method
Parametric upheaval analysis on a flexible pipeline, to determine an
installation methodology to ensure the pipeline does not upheave during
hydrotest or operation.
Analysis of a hot-tap tie-in to a spoolpiece, to determine the stresses during

operation and the allowable hydrotest pressure
Analysis to prove a fabricated wye piece fit-for-purpose
Parametric thermal analysis of an insulated flexible pipeline
Other analysis software

Paul has recently been involved in a number of stability analyses using the
PRCI/AGA pipeline stability software package, including both flexible and rigid
pipelines. He has also attended training courses on using the marine dynamics
program Orcaflex for static and dynamic analysis of flexible pipeline and cable
systems in an offshore / marine environment, and also the computational fluid
dynamics package CFX.
FEED studies
Paul was recently involved in a FEED study, which included the steady state two
phase modelling of pipelines using Pipesim, and finite element analysis for upheaval
buckling and overtrawling of fishing gear.
Umbilical overview course

Paul wrote a one-day overview course on umbilical design, installation and operation
towards the end of 2004. Since then he has co-presented the in-house course to
Saipem, and it has now been added to the regular courses offered by TJA.
Training Courses
Paul has been presenting training courses since September 2003, both in-company
and to the public, including the following:
Subsea pipeline design (3 days)
Umbilical overview (1 day)
Offshore pipeline construction (3 days)
Subsea pipeline installation calculations (3 days)
Overview of pipeline engineering (3 days)
These courses have been in various locations around Europe and USA.
Clamp Connector Tool Design

Paul has worked on this project for the last three years, developing a tool to install
mechanical connectors on subsea pipelines using an ROV. This has included
developing the design from concept to a detailed design with fabrication drawings.
The tool has now been fabricated and is awaiting final testing.
QA System
Paul has upgraded TJA’s Quality Assurance System, to ensure it is in compliance
with the new requirements of ISO 9001:2000.

Paul worked for Exxon Mobil for one year during his MEng degree course. He
worked for their Supply and Distribution Department, which dealt with the operation
of a multi-product onshore pipeline network, distributing oil and gas to storage
terminals in the UK. Whilst there, he completed two major projects, the first of
which was a study into improving the efficiency of the pumping operation on the
network. The second project involved the installation and implementation of a
condition monitoring system on the pumps, to monitor the condition of shaft bearings.
PROFILES 545
DAVID APPLEFORD
PIPELINE ENGINEER
MEng AMIMechE
Date of Birth: 15 May 1979

Education: Gordonstoun School
University of Bristol
Engineering
Professional Qualifications: Associate Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers
Basic Offshore Safety Induction and
Emergency Training (BOSIET)

David Appleford joined Trevor Jee Associates in 2003. His main responsibilities
include finite element analysis, performing studies and research projects for clients,
developing spreadsheets in MathCAD and Microsoft Excel and writing technical
reports. David is continuing to develop his skills in pipeline engineering with the aim
of achieving Chartered Engineer status. He has recently attained his Basic Offshore
Safety Induction and Emergency Training certificate and is keen to gain some
offshore experience on survey or pipelay vessels.
David has also attended an LRQA Internal QMS Auditor Course and is involved in
performing internal audits for Trevor Jee Associates. He is also involved with
developing a new TJA website.

Finite element analysis
David has worked on several FEA jobs since being trained by ABAQUS in August
2004. He has worked on beam, shell, solid and acoustic models including analysing
the vibration of subsea flow termination assemblies and an analysis to verify fitness-
for-purpose on fabricated wye pieces applicable to generic class 600 pipeline systems.
Pipeline Engineering Studies

David has been involved with over-trawling analysis and scale model testing of
subsea protective structures. This has included preparing and running scale model test
in a flume tank, calculating over-trawling and impact loads and performing studies
into types of fishing activity in various locations around the North Sea. David has
worked on a JIP on overtrawling large diameter pipelines which included

communication between the companies involved in the JIP and the fishing industry.
David has also worked on the development of a Microsoft Excel and Visual Basic
spreadsheet to analyse deepwater pipe-lay capabilities of pipelay vessels. He has also
been involved in writing various MathCAD calculation sheets.
Pipeline stability
David has been involved in a number of stability analyses using the PRCI/AGA
stability software package, including both flexible and rigid pipelines. In addition he
has done calculations on vortex-induced-vibrations and has performed a study on the
effectiveness of self-burial-spoilers in the Southern North Sea.
Training courses
Since joining Trevor Jee Associates David has attended the following TJA pipeline
engineering training courses:
Overview of Pipeline Engineering

Offshore Pipeline Construction
Pipeline Operations and Integrity Management
Subsea Pipeline Design
David has also been trained in using the finite element analysis package ABAQUS
and in using the marine dynamics program Orcaflex for static and dynamic analysis
of flexible pipeline and cable systems in an offshore / marine environment.
David has recently been involved in writing a half-day training course on the use of
BP’s pipeline related Engineering Technical Practices.
Other experience at Trevor Jee Associates

David recently attended an LRQA Internal QMS Auditor Course and is now involved
in performing internal audits for Trevor Jee Associates. He is currently working on
upgrading TJA’s Quality Documents.
David is also involved with developing a new TJA website.

David’s degree involved collaboration between Ford Motor Company and the
University of Bristol to develop a non-destructive testing system for use on car body
panels. David also spent three months on an internship with Procter and Gamble
analysing mechanical properties of polymers for use in manufacturing processes.
PROFILES 547
GRAHAM WILSON
GRADUATE ENGINEER
MEng AMIMechE
Date of Birth: 11th June 1981

Education: Runshaw College
Lancaster University
Engineering
Professional Qualifications: Associate Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers

Graham Wilson joined Trevor Jee Associates in October 2004 as a Graduate
Engineer. Since then he has worked on a number of projects, mainly focussing on
engineering design and the creation of MathCAD calculation sheets. Graham has
started a structured training program to develop his skills in pipeline engineering
within TJA, aiming to achieve chartership with the IMechE through the MPDS
scheme.

Pipeline Engineering Studies
Graham has been involved in a number of pipeline engineering studies since joining
TJA in 2004. He has recently carried out the mathematical modelling of a pig and
liquid slug impact on a variety of riser bends using MathCAD and has also been
involved in the design of a test rig to analyse the fatigue effects of acoustic resonance
on a subsea structure. Graham has experience in the use of AutoCAD and used this
package for the design of the test rig components.
Pipeline stability
Graham has written a number of MathCAD sheets to analyse stabilisation
methodologies that can be applied to pipelines. These sheets cover the design and
placement of rock dumps and mattresses to stabilise pipelines, as well as the
determination of the force reductions on unstable pipelines due to trench shielding.
Training courses
Since joining Trevor Jee Associates Graham has attended the following TJA pipeline
engineering training courses:
Overview of Pipeline Engineering

Offshore Pipeline Construction
Other experience at Trevor Jee Associates

Graham recently completed an Orcaflex training Course and is also involved in the
development of the new TJA website.

ACRONYMS &
ABBREVIATIONS
ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS 551
+ve positive
-ve negative
°C degree Celsius
°F degree Fahrenheit
30D bend radius of 30 times the pipe diameter
3D three-dimensional
3rd Third
AC Alternating Current
AGA American Gas Association
AGI Above-Ground Installation
Al Aluminium
ALARP As Low As Reasonably Possible
ALS Accidental Limit State
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API American Petroleum Institute
approx. approximate
ASB Above SeaBed
ASD Allowable Stress Design
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
AVTUR Aviation Turbine (fuel)
Bar g Bar gauge (1 bar = 100 kN/m²)
BAT Best Available Technology
bbl US oil barrel (1 bbl = 0.159 m³)
BHP Brake Horse Power (1 BHP = 745.7 W)
BLEVE Boiling Liquid, Expanding Vapour, Explosion
BMP Best Management Practice
BOP Blow-Out Preventer
BP British Petroleum Ltd
bpd barrels per day
BPEO Best Practical Environmental Option
BS British Standard
C2H4 Ethene (Ethylene)
C2H6 Ethane
C3H6 Propene (Propylene)
C3H8 Propane
C4H10 Butane or Isobutane
C5H12 Pentane or Isopentane
C6H5CH3 Toluene
C6H6 Benzene
C6H14 n-Hexane
C10H8 Napthalene
CA Corrosion Allowance
CALM Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring
CAPS Cranfield Automated Pipe-welding System
CBM Conventional Buoy Mooring
CDT Controlled Depth Tow
CDTM Controlled Depth Tow Method
CDUs Crude oil Distillation Units
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CH4 Methane
CHP Combined Heating and Power

CITHP Closed-In Tubing Head Pressure
Cl2 Chlorine
CNS Central Nervous System
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COMAH Control Of Major Accident Hazards
CP Cathodic Protection or Code of Practice
cP Centipoise (1 cP = 1 x 10-3 Pa·s)
CPF Central Processing Facitlity
CPT Cone Penetrometer Test
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
cSt CentiStokes (1 cSt = 1 x 10-6 m2/s)
CSO Coflexip Stena Offshore
CSOL Coflexip Stena Offshore Limited
CTE Coal -Tar Enamel
CTOD Crack Tip Opening Displacement
D/t Diameter to wall thickness (ratio)
DC Direct Current
DD Directional Drilling
dia, diam. diameter
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (German
standards)
DnV Det Norske Veritas
DP Dynamic Positioning (vessel)
DPI Dye Penetrant Inspection
DRA Drag Reduction Agent
DSAW Double Submerged Arc Welding
DSV Diver Support Vessel
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage
ECA Engineering Criticality Assessment
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EMIT Examination, Monitoring, Inspection and Testing
EN Euronorm
EOR Enhanced Oil Recovery
EP Evacuation Plan
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
ERD Extended Reach Drilling
ERP Emergency Recovery Plan
ERW Electrical Resistance Welding
ESD Emergency Shut-Down
ESDV Emergency Shut-Down Valve
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
ETAP Eastern Trough Area Project
ESV Emergency Shut-down Valve
FBE Fusion Bonded Epoxy
FEA Finite Element Analysis
FEED Front End Engineering Design
FEHM Fire and Explosion Hazard Management
FHM Fire Hazard Management
Fi Fi Fire Fighting
FLAGS Far north Associated Gas System
FLS Fatigue Limit State
FP Foam Pourers or FluoroProtein
FPS Forties Pipeline System
FPSI Forties Pipeline System and Infrastructure
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading (facility)
FRP Fibre Reinforced Plastic
FSM Field Signature Measurement (or Method)
ft foot (1 ft = 0.3048 m)
gal US US gallon (1 gal US = 3.785 litre)
GAEL Graben Area Export Line
GBS Gravity Based Structure
GCHPL Grangemouth Combined Heat and Power Limited
GEBCO GEneral Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans
GIS Geographic Information System
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
GoM Gulf Of Mexico
GOR Gas Oil Ratio
GPR Ground Penetrating Radar
GPSS Government Pipeline and Storage System (UK)
GRP Glass-Reinforced Plastic
GSPU Glass Syntactic PolyUrethane
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
H2 Hydrogen
H2O Water
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
HAL Hiden Analytical Limited
HAT Highest Astronomic Tide
HAZ Heat Affected Zone
HAZAN HAZard ANalysis
HCl Hydrogen Chloride
HCV Hydrant Control Valve
HDD Horizontal Directional Drilling
HDPE High Density PolyEthylene (PE-HD)
He Helium
HEPC Hose End Pressure Coupling
HFI High Frequency Induction
HFW High Frequency Welding
HIC Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
HICC Hydrogen-Induced Corrosion Cracking
HIPPS High Integrity Pressure Protection System
HP High Pressure
HP/HT High Pressure/High Temperature
HSE Health and Safety Executive
ID Internal Diameter
IFC International Finance Corporation
in inch (1 in = 25.4 mm)
IP Institute of Petroleum or Inspection Plan
ISGOTT International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and
Terminals
ISO International Standards Organisation
JIP Joint Industry Project
JONSWAP JOint North Sea WAve Project

KP Kilometre Point (chainage in km)
LAFB Local Authority Fire Brigade
LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
LCP Lack of Cross Penetration
LFS Lack of Fusion Surface
LFSS Lack of Fusion Subsurface
LHD Linear Heat Detection
LLDPE Linear Low Density PolyEthylene
LNG Liquid Natural Gas
LP Low Pressure
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
lpm Litres Per Minute
LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design
LRP Lead Replacement Petrol
M Monitors
MAOP Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
MATIS Modular Advanced Tie-In System
max maximum
MDPE Medium Density PolyEthylene
MEG Mono Ethylene Glycol
MFL Magnetic Flux Leakage
MIG Metal Inert Gas (welding)
mil thousandth of an inch (1 mil = 25.4 μm)
mile 1 mile = 1.609 km
min minimum or minute
MMA Manual Metal Arc (welding)
MMboe Million barrels of oil equivalent
MMscfpd Million standard cubic feet per day (gas flow)
MOL Main Oil Line
MP Medium Pressure
MPI Magnetic Particle Inspection
MPRE Military Pipeline Repair Equipment
MSL Mean Sea Level
N° number
N2 Nitrogen
NACE National Association of Chemical Engineers
Nd Neodymium
NDT Non-Destructive Testing
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NGL Natural Gas Liquid
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NH3 Ammonia
NNF Normally No Flow
NPSH Net Positive Suction Head
NUI Normally Unattended Installation
OD Outer Diameter
OHTC Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
op. operating
OPA Oil and Pipelines Agency (UK)
OTDR Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry
PCR Pipeline Cost Reduction
PD Positive Displacement (flow meters)
PDF Probability Density Function

PDQ Production, Drilling and Quarters (platform areas)
PE PolyEthylene
PFP Passive Fire Prevention
PGD Permanent Ground Deformation
PIMS Pipeline Integrity Management System
PL Pipeline
PLEM PipeLine End Manifold
PP Polypropylene
PPA Pressure Point Analysis
PPE Personal Protection Equipment
PPF PolyPropylene Foam
ppm parts per million
psi pounds per square inch (1 psi = 0.069 bar)
PSV Pressure Safety Valve
PU PolyUrethane
PUF PolyUrethane Foam
QC/DC Quick Connect/Disconnect (coupling)
RAO Response Amplitude Operators
RD Relative Density
ROT Remotely Operated Tool
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
ROW Right Of Way
RP Reference Publication or Recovery Plan
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
SAC Special Area of Conservation
SAGE Scottish Area Gas Evacuation
SALM Single Anchor Leg Mooring
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
SAWL Submerged Arc Welding (Longitudinal seam)
SAWH Submerged Arc Welding (Helical seam)
SBM Single Buoy Mooring (See SPM)
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking
SCR Steel Catenary Riser
sec second
SFR Strategic Fuel Reserve
SG Specific Gravity
SIWP Shut-In Wellhead Pressure
SLS Serviceability Limit State
SMAW Submerged Metal Arc Welding
SMYS Specified Minimum Yield Stress
SPM Single Point Mooring (See SBM)
SPU Syntactic PolyUrethane
SRB Sulphuate Reducing Bacteria
SS Stainless Steel
SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking
SSIV SubSea Isolation Valve
SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest
TAPS Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
TARA TArtan Riser Access
TFHE Tactical Fuel Handling Equipment
Tg Glass transition temperature
Ti Titanium
TIG Tungsten Inert Gas (welding)

TLP Tethered or Tensioned Leg Platform
TMAW Tungsten Metal Arc Welding
TMS Tethered Managament System (for ROVs)
TOFD Time of Flight Diffration
TOM Total Oil Marine
TRB Through (or Three) Roller Bending
TRF Thermal Radiation Flux
U/C Undercut
UD Uni-directional
UI Ultrasonic Inspection
UK United Kingdom
UKCS United kingdom Continental Shelf
UKOOA United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association
ULS Ultimate Limit State
ULSD Ultra-Low Sulphur Diesel
UOE U-ing, O-ing and Expanding (method of pipe
manufacture)
USA United States of America
UT Ultrasonic Testing or Thickness (measurement)
UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength
V Vanadium or Volt
VIV Vortex-Induced Vibration
VP Vapour Pressure
X52, X65, X80 API pipe steel grades
YAG Yttrium Aluminium Garnet
ΔP Change in pressure
σeq Equivalent Stress
σh Hoop Stress
σl Longitudinal Stress

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
& REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND REFERENCES 559
The following companies have kindly provided images, videos or help with this
course. Their help is gratefully acknowledged.
ABANDONRITE ALYESKA PIPELINE SERVICE

Enviro Services Nabors Industries Inc COMPANY
3000, 500 - 4th Avenue S.W. (Trans-Alaska Pipeline System, or
Calgary TAPS)
Alberta T2P 2V6 1835 South Bragaw St
Tel +1 (403) 508-7900 MS-542
Fax: +1 (403) 508-7909 Anchorage
Email info@abandonrite.com Alaska 99512
www.abandonrite.com www.alyeska-pipe.com
ABAQUS FINITE ELEMENT ARCELOR RPS - Sheet Piling

SOFTWARE 66, rue de Luxembourg
See Hibbitt, Karlsson & Sorensen L-4009 Esch/Alzette (Luxembourg)
Tel: (+352) 5313-3105
ADAS ENVIRONMENTAL Fax: (+352) 5313-3290
MANAGEMENT SERVICES E-mail: sheet-piling@arcelor.com
Woodthorne www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com
Wergs Road
Wolverhampton WV6 8TQ APPLIED INSPECTION LTD
Tel: +44 (1902) 754 190 (NDT)
Fax: +44 (1902) 743 602 Applied House
www.adas.co.uk Old Colliery Lane
Holmewood
ADVANTICA TECHNOLOGIES Chesterfield
LTD Derbyshire S42 5RB
(Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij – Tel: +44 (1246) 851864
with BP and Transco) Fax: +44 (1246) 852243
Ashby Road E-mail: info@appliedinspection.co.uk
Loughborough www.appliedinspection.co.uk
Leicester LE11 3GR
Tel: +44 (1509) 282 000 AQUADEVICE
Fax: +44 (1509) 283 131 Yokota Manufacturing Co Ltd.
E-mail: service@advanticatech.com 1-3-6 Minami Yoshijima
www.advanticatech.com Naka-ku
Hiroshima
ALLSEAS GROUP SA Japan
(Solitaire and Lorelay Laybarges, Tel: +81 82-241-8672
Digging Donald & Trenchsetter) Fax: +81 82-504-1115
81, Route de la Coula www.aquadevice.com
CH 1618, Chatel-st. Denis
SWITZERLAND ARC MACHINES, INC
Tel: +41 (21) 9489191 (Automatic pipe welding equipment)
Fax: +41 (21) 9489141 10500 Orbital Way
E-mail: info@allsea.com Pacoima
www.allseas.com CA 91331
USA
www.arcmachines.com
ARCELOR RPS UK LTD BOSKALIS OFFSHORE BV

(Sheet steel piling) Rosmolenweg 20, PO Box 43
Queensway Business Centre 3350 AA Papendrecht
Dunlop Way The Netherlands
Scunthorpe Tel: +31 78 696 9011
North Lincolnshire, UK Fax: +31 78 696 9571
DN16 3RN E-mail: royal@boskalis.nl
Tel: +44 (870) 770 8057 www.boskalis.nl
Fax: +44 (870) 770 8059
E-mail: sheet-piling@arcelor.com or
www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com
WESTMINSTER DREDGING
ASHTON GATE ENGINEERING COMPANY
LTD Westminster House
(Hot pipe bending, fabrication welding Crompton Way
and tube rolling) Segensworth West
Baynton Road Fareham
Ashton Hants PO15 5SS
Bristol BS3 2EB Tel: +44 1489 885 933
Tel +44 (117) 966 1337 Fax: +44 1489 578 588
Fax +44 (117) 953 8496 Email: wdco@boskalis.co.uk
Email info@ashtongateeng.co.uk www.boskalis.co.uk
www.ashtongateeng.co.uk
BJ PROCESS AND PIPELINE
ASPLUNDH TREE EXPERT CO SERVICES
708 Blair Mill Road Beeston Royds Industrial Estate
Willow Grove Geldered Road
PA 19090 Leeds LS12 6EY
Tel +1-800-248-TREE (8733) Tel: +44 (113) 251 1300
www.asplundh.com Fax: +44 (113) 251 1391
www.bjservices.com
BIG INCH MARINE SYSTEMS
INC BP PLC
A Subsidiary of Stolt Offshore Inc (Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij –
(Flexiforge connector) with Advantica and Transco)
Northwoods Industrial Park West 1 St James's Square
12235 FM 529 London SW1Y 4PD
Houston Tel: +44 (207) 496 4000
Texas 77041-2806 Fax: +44 (207) 496 4630
Tel: +1 (713) 896 1501 www.bp.com
Fax: +1 (713) 466 1283
E-mail: connectors@big-inch.com BREDERO PRICE COATERS
www.big-inch.com LTD
(BPCL)
Bredero House
Imperial Dock
Leith,
Edinburgh EH6 7DT
Tel: +44 (131) 553-9640
Fax: +44 (131) 553-9699
www.bredero-shaw.com
BRITISH GAS CORRIDOR PIPELINE LTD

(Walney Channel crossing Case (Case study Bruderheim Alberta)
Study) Springwood Business Centre
See Transco Suite 14, 363 Sioux Road
Sherwood Park
R J BROWN Alberta T8A 4W7
See Coflexip Tel: +1 (780) 416 2446
Fax: +1 (780) 416 2447
CCP (CORROSION CONTROL E-mail: info@corridorpipeline.com
PRODUCTS COMPANY) AND www.corridorpipeline.com
PACTIV CORPORATION
(Rockguard foam pipe coating) CORROSION CONTROL
1480 West Artesia Blvd PRODUCTS COMPANY
Gardena See CCP
CA 90248-3215
Tel: +1 (310) 532-9314 CORROCEAN
Fax: +1 (310) 532-1472 Teglgaarden
E-mail: ccp@ccpcc.com Hornebergvn 7
www.farwst.com/ccp Trondheim
Norway
CLOCK SPRING COMPANY, LP Tel: +47 73 82 5000
(Pipeline repair) Fax: +47 73 82 5050
14107 Interdrive West
Houston, TX.77032 CORROSION COST
Tel: +1 (281)-590-8491 CC Technologies
Fax: +1 (281) 590 9528 6141 Avery Road
E-mail: sales@clockspring.com Dublin
www.clockspring.com Ohio 43016-8761
Tel: +1 (614) 761 1214
COBHAM FLUID SYSTEMS Fax: +1 (614)-761-1633
Holland Way E-mail: info@cctlabs.com
Blandford Forum www.corrosioncost.com
Dorset
UK DT11 7BJ CORTEC® CORPORATION
Tel: +44 (0) 1258 486600 (Corrosion inhibitor)
Fax: +44 (0) 1258 486601 4119 White Bear Parkway
sales@cobhamfluidsystems.com St. Paul, MN 55110
www.cobhamfluidsystems .com Tel: +1 (651) 429 1100
Fax: +1 (651) 429 1122
COFLEXIP SA www.cortecvci.com
See Technip-Coflexip
CORUS
CONOCO FLOW IMPROVER (Steel & Hydrotherm)
SOLUTIONS 30 Millbank
(LiquidPower™ DRA, Texaco Basin London SW1P 4WY
Case Study and Heidrun drilling riser) Tel: +44 (20) 7717 4444
Conoco Center Fax: +44 (20) 7717 4455
600 North Dairy Ashford www.corusgroup.com
Houston, TX 77079
Tel: +1 (281) 293-1000
Fax: +1 (281) 293-1440
www.conoco.com
CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY DIXON MARINE CONSULTING

Cranfield LTD
Bedfordshire MK43 OAL 11 White Hart Street
Tel: +44 (1234) 750 111 Aylsham
Fax: +44 (1234) 750 875 Norwich
www.cranfield.ac.uk Norfolk NR11 6HG
Tel: +44 (1263) 733 530
Fax: +44 (1263) 733 730
CRC-EVANS PIPELINE E-mail: mail@dmcltd.com
INTERNATIONAL INC www.dmcltd.com
(Automatic welding, pipe installation
equipment and PIH) DSND SUBSEA(DET
11601 N. Houston-Rosslyn Rd SONDENJFELDS NORSKE
Houston TX 77086 DAMPSKIBSSELSKAB)
Tel: +1 (281) 999 8920 (Vessels)
Fax: +1 (281) 999 8724 Serviceboks 506
Bark Silasvei 5
or 4898 Grimstad,
Norway
AUTOMATIC WELDING Tel.: +47 37 29 55 00
The Pipeline Centre Fax: +47 37 29 55 45
Farrington Rd www.dsnd.no
Rossendale Road Industrial Estate
Burnley BB11 5SW EMC EUROPEAN MARINE
Tel: +44 (1282) 415 323 CONTRACTORS LTD
Fax: +44 (1282) 457 890 (Now part of Eni Saipem group)
E-mail: autoweld@pih.co.uk Saipem House
Station Road
CRP GROUP LIMITED Motspur Park
Stanley Way Surrey KT3 6JJ
Stanley Tel: +44 (0) 20 - 8296 5171
Skelmersdale Fax: +44 (0) 20 - 8296 5104
Lancashire E-mail: business.development@e-m-
WN8 8EA c.co.uk
England www.e-m-c.co.uk
Telephone: +44 (0)1695 712000
Facsimile: +44 (0)1695 712111 EPRIS INTERNATIONAL LTD
www.crpgroup.com (Emergency pipeline repair and
isolation system)
CSO, CSOL Middlefield Road
See Coflexip Middlefield Industrial Estate
Falkirk FK2 9HU
DIGGING DONALD AND Tel: +44 (1324) 623 682
SUPPORT VESSEL, Fax: +44 (1324) 632 570
TRENCHSETTER E-mail:
(Mechanical subsea trencher) eprisinternational@btconnect.com
See Allseas www.eprisinternational.com
ESSO PETROLEUM FORCE TECHNOLOGY

(Chad-Camaroon pipeline and Park Alle 345
UK multi-product lines) DK-2605
ExxonMobil House Brondby
Ermyn Way Denmark
Leatherhead KT22 8UX Tel. +45 4326-7000
Tel: +44 (1372) 222000 Fax +45 4326-7011
www.esso.com www.force.dk
EUROPIPE FOSTER WHEELER

Formerstraße 49 PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT
40878 Ratingen, Germany (Kadanwari Field Case Study)
Tel: +49 (2102) 857 0 Shinfield Park
Fax +49 (2102) 857 285 Reading
E-mail: europipe@europipe.com Berkshire RG2 9FW
www.europipe.com Tel: +44-(118) 913 1234
Fax: +44-(118) 9132333
FINE TUBES LTD www.fwc.com
Estover Works
Plymouth FUEL SUBSEA ENGINEERING
Devon, UK, PL6 7LG (DMaC umbilical connector tool)
Tel: +44 (1752) 735 851 (Now part of Intec
Fax +44 (1752) 733 301 Engineering/Heerema)
E-mail: smccoy@fine-tubes.co.uk Bourne House
www.finetubes.com Lansbury Estate
102 Lower Guildford Road
FLEXCOM & FREECOM 3D Knaphill
OFFSHORE SOFTWARE Surrey GU21 2EP
Tel +44 (1483) 795300
See MCS International Fax +44 (1483) 795315
www.fuelsubsea.com
FMC KONGSBERG OFFSHORE
(UTIS - Universal Tie-In System) FUGRO NV
(An FMC Corporation Subsidiary) Veurse Achterweg 10
PO Box 1012 P.O. Box 41
N-3601 Kongsberg, Norway 2260 AA Leidschendam
Tel: +47 32 73 98 98 Tel: +31 (70) 311 1422
Fax: +47 32 73 96 60 Fax: +31 (70) 320 2703
E-mail: subsea.systems@fmcti.com E-mail: holding@fugro.nl
www.fmckongsbergsubsea.com www.fugro.nl
FMC MEASUREMENT GEO-GRAF, INC

SOLUTIONS (GPR gas pipeline leak detection)
(Oil and gas flowmeters) 511 Beechwood Drive
6677 Gessner Kennett Square
Suite 315 PA 19348
Houston Tel: +1 800 690 3745
TX 77040 Fax: +1 (610) 444 3191
Tel: +1 (713) 510 6970 E-mail: info@geo-graf.com
E-mail: www.geo-graf.com
measurement.solutions@fmcti.com
www.fmcmeasurementsolutions.com
GEOLINE APS HEEREMA MARINE

Sage Profile CONTRACTORS NEDERLAND
(Subsea pipeline analysis) BV
Vinagervej 11, 1 (Balder laybarge)
2800 Kgs, Lyngby Vondellaan 47
Denmark 2332 AA Leiden
Tel: +45 45875855 The Netherlands
Fax: +45 45875855 Tel: +31 (71) 579 9000
E-mail: info@geoline.dk Fax: +31 (71) 579 9099
www.geoline.dk E-mail: info.hmc@heerema.com
www.heerema.com
GETMAPPING PLC
(Aerial photography) HIBBITT, KARLSSON &
The Old Toy Factory SORENSEN INC
10 The Business Park (Abaqus finite element software)
Jackson Street 1080 Main Street
Coalville LE67 3NR Pawtucket
Tel: +44 (1530) 835 685 RI 02860-4847
www.getmapping.com Tel: +1 (401) 727 4200
Fax: +1 (401) 727 4208
HDI HORIZONTAL DRILLING E-mail: info@abaqus.com
INTERNATIONAL INC www.hks.com
(Colville River HDD case study)
3430 Rogerdale Road HYDRATITE SWEENEY
Houston TX 77042-5016 (Morgrip subsea connectors)
Tel: 713-785-3369 Bentley Road South
Fax: 713-785-4094 Darlaston
www.hdiinc.com West Midlands WS10 8LQ
Tel: +44 (121) 505 0600
HEAMAN PIPE BENDING INC Fax: +44 (121) 505 0800
6030 - 30 Street E-mail: enquiry@hydratight.com
Edmonton www.hydratightsweeney.com
Alberta
Canada INTERLIANCE LLC.
Tel: +1 (780) 440 1955 Associates for the California Energy
Fax: +1 (780) 468 6117 Commission
E-mail: info@heaman.com (Gulf Coast to California Pipeline
www.heaman.com Case Study)
151 Kalmus Drive, Suite K-2
HEAT TRACE LTD Costa Mesa
(Pipeline heat tracing) California 92614
Cromwell Road Tel: +1 (714) 540 8889
Bredbury Fax: +1 (714) 540 6113
Stockport E-mail: info@interliance.com
Cheshire SK6 2RF www.interliance.com
Tel: +44 (161) 430 8333
Fax: +44 (161) 430 8654
Email: webmail@heat-trace.com
www.heat-trace.ltd.uk
ITAS LASMO PLC

(Pigging and isolation plugs) Now part of Eni Saipem Group
Tankbåtveien 1 (Kadanwari Field Case Study)
4056 Tananger 101 Bishopsgate
Norway London
Tel: +47-51 69 08 00 EC2M 3XH
Fax: +47-51 69 08 01 Tel: +44 (20) 7892 9000
E-mail: itas@itas-no.com Fax: +44 (20) 7892 9292
www.itas-no.com www.lasmo.com
ITP INDUSTRIAL THERMO LEIGH PAINTS

POLYMERS LTD Tower Works
(Pipeline insulation) Kestor Street
2316 Delaware Avenue Bolton BL2 2AL
Suite 216 Tel: +44 (1204) 521 771
Buffalo Fax: +44 (1204) 382 115
NY 14216 E-mail: enquiries@leighspaints.co.uk
Fax: +1 (905) 846 0363 www.wjleigh.co.uk
Tel: +1 800 387 3847
www.tundrafoam.com LIFTEX CORPORATION
(Pipeline lifting slings)
JME LTD 7266 Wynnpark
(NDT equipment) Houston, TX 77008
Crown House Tel: +1 (800) 863 0900
Crown Street West Fax: +1 (713) 868 3234
Lowestoft www.liftex.com
Suffolk NR32 1SG
Tel: +44 (1502) 500 969 LINCO EQUIPMENT INC
Fax: +44 (1502) 511 932 (Mobile soil sampling)
E-mail: info@jme.co.uk I-39 & U.S. 24 West
www.jme.co.uk El Paso
IL 61738
KONGSBERG Tel: +1 (309) 527 6455
(UTIS - Universal Tie-In System) Fax: +1 (309) 527 6600
See FMC Kongsberg E-mail: info@linco.com
www.linco.com
LAND AND MARINE PROJECT
ENGINEERING LTD LØGSTØR RØR A/S
(Directional drilling, landfalls and (Pre-insulated pipelines, pipe-in-pipe)
bundles) Løgstør Rør A/S
(Formerly part of Costain / Smit Danmarksvej 11
Groups) DK-9670 Løgstør
Dock Road North Tel.: +45 99 66 10 00
Bromborough Fax: +45 99 66 11 80
Wirral E-mail: info@logstor.com
Merseyside www.logstor.com
CH62 4LN
Tel: +44 (151) 641 5600
Fax: +44 (151) 641 9990
www.landandmarine.com
MCCONNELL DOWELL MILLER ELECTRIC

(Natural Gas Line Australia) MANUFACTURING CO
Tally Ho Business Park (Welding equipment)
16 Lakeside Drive 1635 W Spencer St
Burwood East PO Box 1079
Victoria 3151 Appleton WI 54912-1079
Australia Tel: +1 (920) 734 9821
Tel: + 61 3 8805 5200 www.millerwelds.com
Fax: +61 3 8805 5376
www.mcconnelldowell.com MOLESEYE LTD
(Records of underground services)
MACCAFERRI LTD Washington Court
(Gabions and geotextiles, Washington Lane
Severn River Bank - Case Study) Edinburgh EH11 2HA
7400 The Quorum www.moleseye.com
Oxford Business Park
Garsington Road MORGRIP
Oxford OX4 2JL (Underwater connector)
Tel: +44 (1865) 770 555 See Hydratight Sweeney
Fax: +44 (1865) 774 550
www.maccaferri.co.uk NKT FLEXIBLES I/S
(Flexible subsea pipelines)
MAT AND TIMBER SERVICES Priorparken 510
Division of Sarum Hardwood DK-2605 Broendby
Structures Ltd Denmark
124-126 Stockbridge Road Tel: +45 43 48 30 00
Winchester Fax: +45 43 48 30 10
Hampshire SO22 6RN E-mail: nkt.flexibles@nkt.dk
Tel.: +44 (1962) 87 75 00 www.nktflexibles.com
Fax: +44 (1962) 84 22 92
E-mail: sarumhs@interalpha.co.uk NORFRA A/S
www.grootlemmer.com/Groot- (Dunkirk landfall)
NL/Mats.htm Strandveien 106
N-9292 Tromsø
MATIS MODULAR ADVANCED Norway
TIE-IN SYSTEM Tel: +47 77 60 24 00
See Stolt Comex Seaway Fax: +47 77 60 24 25
E-mail: postmaster@norfra.no
MCS INTERNATIONAL www.norfra.no
(Flexcom & Freecom 3D offshore
software) OIL STATES INDUSTRIES LTD
Lismoyle House (Merlin pipe connectors)
Merchants Road 7701 South Cooper Street
Galway Arlington, TX 76001
Ireland Tel: +1 817 548 4200
Tel: +353 (91) 566 455 Fax. +1 817 548 4250
Fax: +353 (91) 566 457 E-mail: headqtrs@oilstates.com
E-mail: info@mcs-international.com www.oilstates.com
www.mcs-international.co.uk
MERLIN CONNECTORS
See Oil States Industries
OLYMPIC PIPELINE COMPANY PSI PLUGGING SPECIALISTS

(Whatcom Creek / INTERNATIONAL AS
Bellingham Gas Pipeline Case Study) (Smartplug)
2319 Lind Ave SW Fabrikkveien 15
Renton PO Box 8011
WA 98055 Postterminalen
Tel: +1 (425) 235 7736 N-4068 Stavanger
www.olypipeline.com Norway
Tel: +47 51 44 32 40
ORCINA LTD Fax: +47 51 44 32 41
(Orcaflex software) www.plugging.com
Daltongate
Ulverston RAHCO INTERNATIONAL INC
Cumbria LA12 7AJ (Onshore pipeline construction
Tel: +44 1229 584742 vehicle)
Fax: +44 1229 587191 8700 N Crestline
E-mail: enquiry@orcina.com Spokane WA 99217
www.orcina.com Tel: +1 (509) 467 0770
Fax: +1 (509) 466 0212
PACTIV CORPORATION E-mail: rahco@rahco.com
See CCP www.rahco.com
PETROBRAS RENDA MARINE INC

Maracal Adhemar de Queiroz (Marshland dragline and dredging)
EDISE 17128 Market Street
Avenida Republica do Chile 65 Channelview
Centro TX 77530
Rio de Janeiro RJ Tel: +1 (281) 864 9552
Brasil Fax: (281) 864 9554
Tel: +55 (21) 2534 4477 E-mail mail@rendamarine.com
Fax: +55 (21) 2534 2288 www.rendamarine.com
www.petrobras.com.br
R J BROWN
PII PIPELINE SOLUTIONS See Coflexip
Atley Way
North Nelson Industrial Estate ROCKWATER
Cramlington (CDT)
Northumberland NE23 1WW See Haliburton Subsea – now Subsea
Tel: +44 191 247 3486 7
Fax: +44 191 247 3419
www.piigroup.com ROYAL DUTCH SHELL GROUP
See Shell
PIPE INDUCTION HEAT LTD
(PIH) RSK ENVIRONMENT LTD
See CRC-Evans Spring Lodge
172 Chester Road
Helsby
Cheshire WA6 0AR
Tel: +44 (1928) 726 006
Fax: +44 (1928) 725 633
www.rsk.co.uk
RUPTURE PIN TECHNOLOGY SHELL EXPLORATION &

(Pressure safety systems ESDVs) PRODUCTION
8230 SW 8th Street (Nigerian Pipeline sabotage)
Oklahoma City Shell Centre
OK 73128 London SE1 7NA
Tel: +1 (405) 789 1884 Tel: +44 (20) 7934 1234
Fax: +1 (405) 789 1942 Fax +44 (20) 7934 8060
www.rupturepin.com www.shell.com
SAGE PROFILE SIERRA PACIFIC CORP

(Subsea pipeline analysis) (Infrared thermography)
See GeoLine 284 Sea Rim Ave
Las Vegas
SASOL GAS LTD NV 89148
(Mozambique river crossing case Tel: +1 (702) 369-3966
study) Fax: +1 (702) 369-397
32 Hill Street www.x20.org
Ferndale
Randburg 2125 SMIT INTERNATIONALE N.V.
South Africa (CDT – see also Land and Marine)
Tel: +27 (11) 889 7600 Zalmstraat 1
Fax: +27 (11) 889 7956 3016 DS Rotterdam
www.sasol.com The Netherlands
Tel: +31 (10) 454 9911
SEAEYE MARINE LTD Fax: +31 (10) 454 9298
Sister company to Hydrovision www.smit.com
(Panther ROV)
Seaeye House SONAR RESEARCH &
Lower Quay Road DEVELOPMENT LTD
Fareham See SRD
Hampshire PO16 0RQ
Tel: +44 (1329) 289 000 SPM INSTRUMENT AB
Fax: +44 (1329) 289 001 (Condition monitoring systems)
E-mail: rovs@seaeye.com Box 4
www.seaeye.com 645 21 Strängnäs
Sweden
SEAWAY FALCON Tel: +46 152 225 00
(Reel barge) Fax: +46 152 150 75
See Stolt Comex E-mail: info@spminstrument.se
www.spminstrument.se
SERIMER DASA
(Automated pipe welding) SRD SONAR RESEARCH &
Serimer Dasa DEVELOPMENT LTD
8 rue Mercier (Underwater video)
77290 Mitry-Mory Grovehill Industrial Estate,
France Beverley
Tel: +33 1 60 21 67 00 East Yorkshire HU17 0LF
Fax: +33 1 60 21 67 01 Tel: +44 (1482) 869 559
www.serimerdasa.com Fax: +44 (1482) 872 184
E-mail: enquiries@srduk.com
www.srduk.com
STARTRAK PIGGING TECHNIP-COFLEXIP

TECHNOLOGIES (Apache, Pliant wave and S risers)
(Pigging and river crossing 22 rue Jean Moré
inspections) BP 7 – 76580 Le Trait
27235 Highway Blvd France
Katy Tel +33 2 95 05 50 00
TX 77493 Fax +33 2 95 37 49 60
Tel: +1 (281) 599 7557 www.technipcoflexip.com
Fax: +1 (281) 578 9181
E-Mail: startrak@starpig.com TECHNICAL TOOLBOXES INC
www.starpig.com (TTI)
(Software products for the energy
STATOIL ASA industry)
N-4035 Stavanger Technical Toolboxes
Norway P. O. Box 980550
Tel: +47 51 99 00 00 Houston, TX
Fax: +47 51 99 00 50 77098-0550
www.statoil.com
THRUST SHORE
STOLT COMEX SEAWAY MS See Trench Shore
LTD
(MATIS Modular Advanced Tie-In TIG TITANIUM INFORMATION
System GROUP
and Talon Trencher) Unit B2
See also Land & Marine Dudley Central Trading Estate
Bucksburn House Shaw Road
Howes Road Dudley
Bucksburn West Midlands DY2 8TP
Aberdeen AB21 9RQ Tel: +44 (1384) 254563
Tel: +44 (1224) 718 200 Fax: +44 (1384) 258381
Fax: +44 (1224) 715 129 www.titaniuminfogroup.co.uk
E-mail: info@stoltoffshore.com
www.stoltoffshore.com TOTAL DUNBAR
(Insulated pipe connector)
SUBSEA 7 See Total
(Formed from Halliburton Subsea and
the subsea activities of DSND) TOTAL EXPLORATION UK PLC
Stoneywood Park (formally TotalFinaElf)
Dyce 2 place de la Coupole
Aberdeen AB21 7DZ La Défense 6
Tel: +44 (1224) 722 877 92400 Courbevoie
Fax: +44 (1224) 795 459 France
www.subsea7.com Tel: +33 (1 47) 44 45 46
Fax: +33 (1 47) 44 78 78
TALON SUBSEA TRENCHER www.totalfinaelf.com
See Stolt Comex Seaway
TTI
TAPS TRANS-ALASKA See Technical Toolboxes
PIPELINE SYSTEM
See Alyeska
TDW
See Williamson
TRANSCANADA VERMEER MANUFACTURING

TransCanada Tower COMPANY
450 - 1 Street SW (Rock trenchers and HDD)
Calgary 1210 Vermeer Road
Alberta T2P 5H1 Pella
Tel: +1 (403) 920 2000 Iowa 50219
Fax: +1 (403) 920 2200 Tel: +1 (641) 628 2000
www.transcanada.com Fax: +1 (641) 628 4283
www.vermeer.com
TRANSCO
(Gas transmission pipelines for British VIA+ VISITLESS INTEGRITY
Gas) ASSESSMENT LTD
(Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij, – (Satellite earth condition monitoring)
with BP and Advantica) Lacey Court
31 Homer Road 344 12th Ave SW
Solihull Calgary
West Midlands B91 3LT Alberta T2R 0H2
Tel: +44 (121) 626 4431 Tel: +1 (403) 265-8420
www.transco.uk.com Fax: +1 (403) 243-0042
E-mail: info@via-plus.net
TRENCH SHORE LTD www.via-plus.net
(Landline trench support products)
Unit 22 T D WILLIAMSON INC
Amalgamated Industrial Park (Shortstopp® connection)
Cheddington Lane 6801 S 65th W Ave
Long Marston Tulsa
Tring Ohio
Herts HP23 4QR Tel: +1 (918) 447 5100
Tel: +44 (1296) 661 622 www.tdwilliamson.com
Fax: +44 (1296) 668 234
E-mail: info@trenchshore.com WWW.X20.ORG
www.trenchshore.com (infrared thermography)
See Sierra Pacific Corp
TRENCOR INC
(Landline trenching machines) X100 STUDIES
1400 East Highway 26 See Shell Global Solutions,
Grapevine TransCanada, Advantica, Serimer
TX 76051 Dasa, Cranfield University and BP
Tel: +1 (817) 424 1968
Fax: +1 (817) 421-9485
www.trencor.com
TRIAD WESTERN
CONSTRUCTORS INC
(Auger boring, pipe ramming and
HDD)
512 North Broadway
PO Box 850
Cortez
Colorado 81321
Tel: +1 (970) 565 4257
Fax: +1 (970) 565 1057
E-mail: twc@fone.net
www.triadwestern.com
Additional Help
Additional help was provided by individuals:
Cyril Bishop
(Pipe freezing and hot tapping)
Herman Duff
(Malaysian pipeline)
Mike Mosedale
(Cartoonist)
Frank Gibbons
(Marsh and wetlands)
References
“Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States”, G.H. Koch, M.P.H.
Brongers, N.G. Thompson, Y.P. Virmani, and J.H. Payer, Study by CC Technologies,
Report FHWA-RD-01-156, September 2001.
“Oman India Pipeline: Development of Design Methods for Hydrostatic Collapse in

Deep Water”, C Tam, P Raven, R Robinson, T Stensgaard, A M Al-Sharif & R
Preston, Offshore Pipeline Technology Conference (OPT96) Amsterdam, 15-16
February.
“Liquefaction hazards and their effects on buried pipelines”, T D O’Rourke and P A

Lane (1989), Tech Rep NCEER-89-0007, National Center for Earthquake
Engineering Research, Buffalo, NY, 1 February.
Web Sites
The following web contact addresses may also be of use:
API
American Petroleum Institute
www.api.org
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
www.amse.org
ANSI
American National Standards Institute
www.ansi.org
BS
British Standards Institute
www.bsi-global.com
DTI
Department of Trade and Industry
www.dti.gov.uk
DNV
Det Norske Veritas
www.dnv.com
GIS RESOURCE
University of Edinburgh
(Geographic Information System)
www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html
HSE
UK Health and Safety Executive
(Offshore Safety Reports and
Contact Research Reports)
www.hse.gov.uk
IP
Institute of Petroleum
www.petroleum.co.uk
ISO
International Organisation for Standardization
www.iso.org
NACE - THE CORROSION SOCIETY

National Association of Corrosion Engineers
www.nace.org
OS
Ordnance Survey (of Great Britain)
www.ordsvy.gov.uk
SHEET PILING SPECIFICATIONS

Search engine for sheet piling specifications
www.pilespecs.com
DEAL DATA REGISTRY FOR UK OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

Data and information about offshore oil and gas exploration and production for the
UK
www.ukdeal.co.uk
USDA US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(Forestry. drainage, energy and environment)
www.usda.gov

Subsea Pipeline Installation Calculations - Volume-Two

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Subsea Pipeline Installation Calculations - Volume-Two

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© Trevor Jee Associates 2006

Worked Example ..................................................................................................104

PIPE LIFTING................................................................... 303

ANCHORS & PILES......................................................... 433

Worked Example ..................................................................................................470

ABANDONMENT & RECOVERY..................................... 491

PROFILES ........................................................................ 527

z Develop an understanding of the processes

z Attaching pipe to strops

z Safe Working Load (SWL) of slings

SWLstrop = 1 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 1.4 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 1.4 x SWLwire

SWLstrop = 2.1 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 2.1 x SWLwire SWLstrop = 2 x SWLwire

SAFE WORKING LOADS

z Factor of Safety - typically:

z Allows for dynamic effects, such as wave / current

z Main parts of a crane:

z Dependent on load weight and boom length

Another consideration when selecting an appropriate crane is the height required

TYPICAL CRANE SELECTION TABLE

z Select mobile crane capacity (in tonnes) based on load and

z (Numbers given are for illustrative purposes, and vary

z Straps are more common offshore

Other items may have permanent lugs or releasable clamps.

2, 3 AND 4 POINT LIFTS

z How do we choose the number of lift points?

z Pipeline / spoolpiece material properties

2, 3 AND 4 POINT LIFTS

z Example lift configurations:

2 point lift on 3 point lift on 4 point lift on Extension

fabricating strops to tight tolerances on individual lengths must be considered.

COMPARISON OF LIFT CONFIGURATIONS

z How many lift points are required?

z Strop lengths must be accurate, otherwise:

Potential for one or two

FOUR POINT LIFT OF SUBSEA STRUCTURE

The structure is designed to be overtrawlable by typical North Sea fishing vessels.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND BUOYANCY

z CoG and CoB may not be aligned

z Not a problem for lifts in air

CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND BUOYANCY

z Correct by re-aligning CoB and CoG

CODES AND STANDARDS

2, 3 AND 4 POINT LIFTS - SUMMARY

z Determine the forces in the sling

z Determine the minimum breaking load (MBL)

WEIGHT OF OBJECT AND RIGGING

z Weight of object to be lifted

If the object is weighed, there should be a consideration of inaccuracies in the

DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTOR

z Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)

DYNAMIC AMPLIFICATION FACTOR

z Typical values of DAF

z Above factors only apply if:

Why do factors reduce as load increases?

MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD

z De-rating factor - applies if one or more of

z Tugger or guide lines - special loads (SPL)

MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD

z Minimum breaking load (MBL)

z Nominal safety factor (FoS)