A GRAMMAR or THE ARABIC LANGUAGE, ‘TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF CASPARI, ‘AND EDITED WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS BY W. WRIGHT, LLD., ATR PROFABROR OF ARASIO INTHE UNIVERETTY OF CAMMRIDOE. THIRD EDITION REVISED BY W. ROBERTSON SMITH, {LATE PROFESBOR OF ARABIC IM THE UNIVERAITY OF OAMBBIDOR ax M. J. pr GOEJE, {PROVRAOR OF ARARIO IH THR UNIVERSITY OF LETDRN, VOLUME I. WITH A PREFACE AND ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA BY PIERRE CACHIA LIBRAIRIE DU LIBAN BEIRUTLIBRAIRIE DU LIBAN Riad Solh Square - Beirut Associated companies, branches and representatives ‘ throughout the world. PREFACE ‘Wright's ARABIC GRAMMAR Generation after generation of English-speaking students of Ar have found Wright's Grammar an indispensable stand-by. Its popu is well-deserved and likely to endure yet longer, for it is a very practical work of reference. It does not concern itself much with the disputations of the theorists, but it does state clearly, and illustrate sufficiently, all the working rules of classical Arabic. It manages to do so within its modest bulk, not by ignoring fine distinctions, but by dint of very careful organization. The new “Addenda et Corrigenda’’ in this edition are not the result of a systematic revision of the text, but have grown out of marginal notes made during nearly half a lifetime of constant reference to it. That they are so New Impression, 1974 few is a tribute to the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the original. New Impression, 1996 Not the least of the virtues of the Grammar are its indexes. A useful adjunct to them is P. Cachia's The Monitor, A Dictionary of Arabic Grammatical Terms(Longman-Librairiedul iban, 1973),whichcumvulates the terminologies adopted by Wright and by M.S. Howell in his much more extensive Grammar of the Classical Arabic Language. Pierre Cachia Printed in Lebanon by A.JADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA VOL. 1 5 Arread: *isiS5A5 the liquids. , which are pronounced with the extremity of the tongue ( ys). The term is sometimes, although dubiously, made synonymous with 3io,08 or uid, oF ‘gliosis Which include not only the three liquids above but also three ‘of ‘the labials ~-- . They appear to be so called by association not with any part of a vocal organ, but with the meaning of chastness or profuseness of speech, in that every quadriliteral or quinquiliteral root of genuinely Arabicderivationis said to contain at least one of these six letters. All letters that are Not 3.5, are called {21+ made silent, mute, or speechless. For other groupings of letters based on varying criteria, see Howell's Grammar, iv. 1725 ff. 191 Cadd: REM. j. On * and its fem. , both, a pair~ which have similarities with the dual - see Vol. ii § 83 (p. 212 D). REM. k. 2 is generally taken to be the dual of equal, like.There are ications, however, that it has sometimes been regarded as an indeclinable word. Most MSS of Béidawi's Commentaryon Kor'an v.31 read of, 538 . A line ascribed to ‘Abi Du'aib is quoted as phen ieey Ae, And they were two like cases that they should not send forth cattle to pasture or send him forth with them when the tracts were very dusty (Lane, p. 1480, col. 2, following the Muhkam of Tbn Sida); but the Lisén'has = instead of -< , and the verse most closely resembling it in Hell’s edition of the poet's Diwan has = . Itisnot without significance that in the colloquial, which generally gives currency only to the oblique form of all duals, the word occurs as i is not used in the Kor'an, nor - so far as has been ascertained ~ in the hadith. 255 C_ add to § 320: They are diptote, however, when used as abstract numbers (Comp. Vol. i, § 309 (E), p. 241 DJ. VOL. I interrogative i may, on the other hand, be the direct object of a subsequent verb: €.g." is!+.iyi Which, then, of the signs of God will ye deny (Kor'an XI. v.81). If, however, the verb has a pronominal suffix which falls back upon ( % or ==») the interrogative pronoun, the latter is either nominative absolute or accusative, as being the direct object of a suppressed verb. Pierre Cachia PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. [THE Second Edition of Wright's Grammar of the Arabic language had been out of print long before the death of its author, but he was never able to find the leisure necessary for preparing a New Edition. The demand for it having become more and more pressing, Prof. W. Robertson Smith, who well deserved the honour of succeeding to Wright's chair, resolved to undertake this task, He began it with his usual ardour, but the illness which cut short his invaluable life soon interrupted the work. At his death 56 pages had been printed, whilst the revision had extended over 30 pages more. Robertson Smith had made use of some notes of mine, which he had marked with my is, and it was for this reason among others that the Syndics of the Cambridge University Prese invited me, through Prof. Bevan, to continue the revision, After‘earnest deliberation T consented, influenced chiefly by my respect for the excellent work of one of my dearest friends and by a desire to complete that which another dear friend had begun. Moreover Prof. Bevan promised his assistance in correcting the English style and in secing the book through the press T have of course adhered to the method followed by Robertson Smith in that part of the Grammar which he revised, Trifing corrections and additions and such suggestions as had already been made by A. Miller, Fleischer and other scholars, are given in square brackets. Only in those cases where it seemed necessary to take all the responsibility upon myself, have I added my initials, Besides the printed list of additions and corrections at the end of the Second Volume, Wright had noted here and there- PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. on the margin of his own copy some new examples (chiefly from the Nakaid) which have been inserted, unless they seemed quite superfluous, without any distinctive sign, I have found but very few notes by Robertson Smith on the portion which he had not definitely revised ; almost all of these have been marked with his initials, Wright's own text has been altered in a comparatively small number of passages (for instance § 252, § 358), where I felt sure that he would have done it himself. Once or twice Wright hhaa noted on the margin “ wante revision.” ‘The notes bearing upon the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic languages have for the most part been replaced by references to Wright's Comperative Grammar, published after his death by Robertson Smith (1890). Thave to acknowledge my obligations to Mr Du Pré Thornton, who drew my attention to several omissions, But my warmest thanke must be given to my dear friend and colleague Prof. Bevan, who has not only taken upon himeelf all the trouble of seeing this revised edition through the press, but by many judicious remarks has contributed much to the improving of it. The Second Volume is now in the printers’ hands, M. J. pe GOEJE. Levoex, February, 1896. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. A, SECOND ition of my revised and enlarged translation of Caspari's Arabic Grammar having been called for, I have thought it my duty not simply to reprint the book, but to subject it again to a thorough revision. In fact, the present is almost a new work ; for there is hardly a section which has not undergone alteration, and much additional matter has been given, as the very size of thie volume (351 pages instead of 257) shows. In revising the book I have availed myself of the labours of ‘Arab Grammarians, both ancient and modern. Of the former I may mention in particular the "Aliya (4:03) of ‘Tbn Malik, with the Commentary of Ibn ‘Akil (ed. Dieterici, 1861, and the Beirat edition of 1872); the Mufaggal (aici) of ‘el-Zamahsari (ed. Broch, 1859); and the Lamfyatu ‘L'Af& (UST Ha) of ‘Ton Malik, with the Commentary of his son Badru ‘d-din (ed. Volek, 1888). OF recont native works I heve diligently used the Afibahu ‘LTakb fe Baht -Matalid (Qh ST tos (5 aot ci , that is, the Bahtu ‘l-Mafalib of the Maronite Gabriel Fabs, with the notes of Bufrus ‘el-Bistani (Beirdt, 1854); ‘el-Bist&ni emaller Grammar, founded upon the above, entitled Mijtahu "LMigbah , second edition, Beirit, 1867); and Nagif ‘el Vasigi's Faglu ‘1-Higad (ptheli 25, second edition, Beirat, 1866). ‘Among European Grammarians I have made constant use of the works of 8. de Sacy (Grammaire Arabe, 2de éd., 1881), Ewald (Grammatica Critiea Lingus Arabic, 1881-83), and Lumsden (A Grummar of the Arabic Language, vol j., 1818); which last,x PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. however, is based on the system of the Arab Grammarians, and therefore but ill-edapted, apart from its bulk and rarity, for the ‘use of beginners. I have also consulted with advantage the grammar of Profesior Lagus of Helsingfors (Lirokurs i Arubiske Spriket, 1869), But I am indebted above all to the labours of Professor Fleischer of Leipzig, whose notes on the first volume of De Sacy’s Grammar (as far as p. 359) have appeared from time to time in the Berichte der Kénigl. Sdchsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (1863-64-66-70), in which periodical the student will also find the treatises of the same scholar Ueber einige Arten der Nominalapposition im Arabischen (1862) and Ueber das Verhiltnisa und die Construction der Sach- und Stoffwérter im Arabischen (1856). Tn the notes which touch upon the comparative grammar of the Semitic languages, I have not found much to alter, except in matters of detail. I have read, I belicve, nearly everything that has been published of late years upon this subject—the fanciful Tucubrations of Von Raumer and Raabe, as well as the learned and scholarly treatises of Néldeke, Philippi, and Tegnér. My standpoint remains, however, nearly the same as it formerly was. ‘The ancient Semitic languages—Arabic and Athiopic, Assyrian, Canaanitic (Phoonician and Hebrew), and Aramaic (so-called Chaldee and Syriac)—are as closely connected with each other as the Romance languages—Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Pro- vengal, and French: they are all daughters of a deceased mother, standing to them in the relation of Latin to the other European languages just specified. In some points the north Semitic tongues, particularly the Hebrew, may bear the greatest re- semblance to this parent speech; but, on the whole, the south Semitic dialects, Arabic and Asthiopic,—but especially the former, —have, I still think, preserved a higher degree of likeness to the original Semitic language. The Hebrew of the Pentateuch, and the Assyrian®, as it appears in even the oldest inscriptions, seem © As regards Assyrian, I rely chiefly upon the well-known works cof Oppert, Sayce, and Schrader. PREFAOE TO THE SECOND EDITION. xi to me to have already attained nearly the same \- matical development (or decay) as the Saeaeiiaietan spoken language of mediseval and modern times. TU have to thank the Home Government of India for con tributing the sum of fifty pounds towards defraying the expenses of printing this work; and some of the local Goveraments for subscribing for a certain number of copies; namely, the Govern- ment of Bengal, twenty, and the Home Department (Fort William), twenty-five; the Government of Bombay, ten; of Madras, ten ; and of the Punjab, sixty copies. My friend and former school fellow, Mr D. Murray (of Adelaide, S. Australia), has also given pecuniary aid to the same extent as the India Office, and thereby laid me, and I hope I may say other Orientalists, under a fresh obligation. Professor Fleischer of Leipzig will, I trust, look upon the dedication as a mark of respect for the Oriental scholarship of Germany, whereof he is one of the worthiest representatives; and as a slight acknowledgment of much kindness and help, extending over a period of more than twenty years, from’ the publication of my first work in 1852 down to the present year, in which, amid the congratulations of numerous pupils and friends, he has cele- brated the fiftieth anniversary of his doctorate. W. WRIGHT. Caxpriver, Let July, 1874,: CONTENTS. PART FIRST. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 1 Taw Lavvens as Comsomayts ©. IL. Tue Vowews awp Diratmonas. © 1 ee ee 7 IIL. Organ Ontuoomarato Sows... ww ee A Goma or Sukan 2 ee IBY Toate or OeMa eee C. Hémzs or Nobra rs soe 16 D. Wasla . . 19 B Madda or Matta 4 IV. Tw Same 2. ee 36 a7 38 PART SECOND. ETYMOLOGY OR THE PARTS OF SPEEOH. L THE VERB. A. GENERAL VIEW. 1, The Forms of the Triliteral Verb. 39 ‘The First Form : 30 ‘The Second Form a1 ‘The Third Form 38 Evy ‘The Fourth Formxiv sae L CONTENTS. ‘The Fifth Form. boo oO he ehth Oer ‘The Sevonth Form . oe ‘The Eighth Form oo ‘The Ninth and Hloventh Forme | ‘The Tenth Form The Twelfth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Forms . ‘The Quadriliteral Verb and ita Forms. 9. ‘The Voices . 5600 ¢ ‘The States (Tenses) of the Verb D0 ‘The Moods. bo: ‘The Number, Persons, ond Genders |. B. THE STRONG VERB. The Active Voice of the First Form. - - + - . The Inflexion by Persons. . so 1, Separate Pronouns. 2. Sufled.Pronouna expressing the Nom 3. Prefixed Pronouns, expressing the Nominati b. Forms of the Tenses and Moods ‘The Imperfect Indicative . a ‘The Subjunctive and Jussive . - ; ‘The Energetic. + ‘The Imperative. - ‘The Pamive Voice of tho Fiat Form. ‘The Derived Forms of the Strong Verb ‘The Quadriliteral Verb. ‘Vorbe of which the Second and Third Radical ar Tdeotioa ©, THE WEAK VERB. Verba Hommta Yerbe which are moro eopecially called Weak Verba ‘A. Verba Primm Radicalis 5 ot us go 5 B, Verba Medim Radicalis 9 etys ss ©. Verba Tortiso Radicalis 9 et S ca Vorbs that are Doubly and Trebly Weak. Doubly Weak Verbs. 5 ‘Trebly Weak Verbs eee sarees 0 on a 68 8 81 ~~ CONTENTS. v Appenoix A. “ [i iheveho e 96 Il. Tho Verbs of Praise and Blame BO 97 TIL ‘The Forms exprossve of Surprise or Wonder . 98 Aveenpir B. ‘The Verbal Suffixes, which express the Accusative... 100 IL THE NOUN. A. THE NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE. 1. The Derivation of Nouns Substantive and Adjective, and ther different Forms. Boo 108 ‘&. Tho Deverbal Nouns. (@) The Nomina Vebi 9... 1 eee MO (B) The Nomina Vicis Se {y) The Nomina Speci . . . . 1 e+ 188 (8) The Nomina Loci et Tomporis . . . . «124 (©) The Nomina Instrumenti - 10 (© The Nomina Ageotis ot Patontis and other Verbal Adjectives 2 ee ee TD b. The Denominative Nouns. (@) The Nomina Unitatis a uy (6) The Nomina Abundentio vel Multitudinis | |. 18 () The Nomina Vass. oe (®) The Nomina Relative or Relative Adjectives |. 149 I. Changes of the Ausilinry Consonants =. ©. 161 IL Ciange of the Final Radicals 9 sod oS 188 IIL Changes in the Vocalisation ne) (@) The Abstract Nouns of Quality . +. 166 (©) The Diminutive . . . . ee ws 188 (q) Some other Nominal Forms. |. 175 2 The Gender of Nouns . Be ir Formation of the Feminine of Adjectives. fee 188 Forms which aro of both Genders 5. ss. 188, 3 The Numbers of Nous. 2... ee ee BT The Dol 2. eT The Pluralis Sanus. wwe 198 ‘The Pluralis Fractus Se 188)xvi" CONTENTS. nox 4. The Declension of Nouns : i 1. The Declension of Undefined Nouns. = Diptotes | IL. ‘The Declension of Defined Nouns ur Ars Provominal Buflse, which denote the Genitive 3a B. THE NUMERALS. 1. ‘The Cardinal Numbers - i 3% ‘The Ordinal Numbers . a 3. The remaining Clase of Numerals (©. THE NOMINA DEMONSTRATIVA AND CONJUNCTIVA. 1, ‘Tho Demonstrative Pronouns and the Article 2% Tho Conjunctive (Relative) and Interrogative Pronouns (@) The Conjunctive Pronouns . 5 : (@) The Interrogative Pronouns 3, The Indefinite Provouns * IIL THE PARTICLES. ‘A. THE PREPOSITIONS. ‘The Insoparable Prepositions ‘The Soparable Prepositions . B. THE ADVERBS. ‘The Inseparable Adverbial Particles ‘The Separuble Adverbial Particles ‘Adverbial Acousstives : ©. THE CONJUNCTIONS. ‘The Inseparable Conjunctions ‘The Separable Conjunctions . D, THE INTERJECTIONS PARADIGMS OF THE VERBS 270 370 a4 370 e228 PART FIRST. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. 1 THE LETTERS AS CONSONANTS. 1. Arabic, like Hebrew and Syriac, is written and read from A Fight to left. ‘The letters of the alphabet Wg Bye, Gast ret, BOY Sacti, or pk Sat) are twenty-cight in id are all consonants, though threo of them are also used see § 3). They vary in form, acoording as they are con- nected with a preceding or following letter, and, for the most part, terminate in a bold stroke, when they stand alone or at the end of a word. The following Table gives the letters in their usual order, along with their names and numerical values. FIGURE. ‘Connected. [wowenicat| VALUE,2 Parr First.—Orthography and Orthotpy. 1 lwommercat} mame, — | Ynoom ‘VALUE. nected. i) Re 2 a 200 i ay a Lae 1 be Sin. o e - Sj 60 Ser Sin. e e 2 + 300 Sle Sad. w we 2 2 90 3S Dad. we ry 2 a 800 se Ts. » a » a 9 305 Za. & & s & 900 oe ‘Ain. é t . a 10 Sb Gain. |g & é a 1000 3G Fa 3 a 4 a 80 Su Ket 3 q i a 100 SS Kat 2 4a |e 6S 20 29 lam | J J ’ 4 30 ane Mim. | # ” * «6 40 si Nan. o o 3 a 50 sik Ha. ‘ “ . vt 5 3i3 Waw. ’ ’ 6 1G Ya “ we t e 10 §1] I. The Letters as Consonants. 3 Rew. a, | in connection with a preceding .) forms the figures A ¥, 9, %. This combination called laméliy, and is generally reckoned @ twenty-ninth letter of the alphabet, and inserted before (g- The object of it is merely to distinguish 8lif as the long vowel @, § 3, from élif as the spiritus lenis (élif with hémea, 1, § 15). Rew. 6. The order of the letters ¢ and 9 is sometimes inverted. The Arabs of Northern Africa arrange the letters in a different sequence ; viz. EewwvusdIBbissoer error! SIs* Fes ‘They distinguish 5 from J by giving the former a single point below, and the latter one above, thus: 9.4 f, but $4 £* At the ond of a word these points are usually omitted, A, vs. ‘Rew. c. In manuscripts and elegantly printed books many of the letters are interwoven with one another, and form ligatures, of which the following are examples. Oh. = sh. bie é af dhe Ly. ¢ = Gh £4 atl Ih. em afk uh [These ligatures, in which one letter stands above another, are very inconvenient to printers, especially when, as in this book, English and Arabic are intermingled ; and most founts have some device to bring the letters into line. Thus ee appears as assim, or, in the fount used for this grammar, ss gem. The latter ‘method is a recent innovation, first introduced by Lane in his D Arabic Lexicon, and its extreme simplicity and convenience have caused it to be largely adopted in modern founta, not only in Europe but in the East. But in writing Arabic the student ought to use the old ligatures as they are shewn in Mss. or in the more elegant Eastern fount.) * This is not confined, in the earliest times, to African Mss. In some old Mss., on the other hand, & has the point below, 2, a, or even Bh4 Parr Frnsr.—Orthography and Orthoépy. $1 Rew. d. Those letters which are identical in form, and distin- guished from one another in writing only by the aid of the small dots usually called diacritical points (4643, plur. Li), are divided by the grammerians into ses, the loose or free, i.e. unpointed, letters, and Lom roii Gaymii, the bolted or fastened, i.e. pointed, letters, ‘To the former class belong 7, 3, 3, us ues & And gto theater @, 3,4, ss, Band g. The letters op, , Sand cg are generally distinguished as follows: we is called iss a the 4 with one point (3); BG a UEITIG, the » with two points above (3); So Mead See BELT AGH, the » with t100 pointe below (2)*; 2 EST AST, the » with three points (3). ‘The unpointed letters are sometimes still further distinguished from the pointed by various contrivances, such as writing the letter in a smaller size below the line, placing a point below, or an angular mark above, and the like; so that we find in carefully written manuscripts & ECTS Sai ee A ew si bs E* G5 ote. Also ¢ or * by way of distinction from 3, In some a Mes, .5 has only one point above, and then .» takes a point below. Rum. « The letters are also divided into the following classes, which take their names from the particular part of the vocal organs that is chiefly instrumental in producing their sounds, HALT Spe or edi, the labials (414 @ lip), 3» 9. ET Geol, the gingivals, 4 $ &, in uttering which the tongue is pressed against the guia ( che SEOST yp 0i, the si with the tip of the tongue ( * [With final cg the use of the two points below is optional, Some modern prints, especially those issued at Bairit, alw. them excopt when the (¢ represents 2if makyiira (§ 7, rem. 6): we gg but ws] §2] I. The Letters as Consonants. 5 agit Sajodt or nounced with the extremity of the tongue (Gui or 3.hi). Aye bi Sepa, the letters c A US, which are uttered through the open orifice of the lips ( (padi), ab Gye or Sabi, the lettera cs > be, which are uttered by pressing the tongue against the rough or corrugated portion of the palate (abi or alc, Edt Ga5i, the lettors Gand Y, in uttering which the B uvala (3GLi) is brought into play. HOT Saye or SALT Sapahi, tho guttarals, f ceee? The letters 1 5 «gare called sbi Sy3e or ahi S. ajo, the soft letters, and asi Baym, the weak letters, 2. The correct pronunciation of some of these letters, for ex- ample ¢ and ¢, it is scarcely possible for a European to noquire, except by long intercourse with natives. The following hints will, C however, enable the learner to approximate to thelr sounds, S with Aamza (i, 1, see § 15) ia the spiritus lenis of tho Grecks, the 8 of the Hebrews (as in Tx, ON, aban. It may be com- pared with the A in the French word Aomme or English hour, wv is our b. is the Italian dental, softer than our ¢, + is pronounced like the Greck 9, or ¢h in thing. Tho Turks and Persians usually convert it into the surd s, as in sing. [In Egypt it is commonly confounded with <, less often with V».] © corresponds to our g in gem. In Egypt and some parts of Arabia, however, it has the sound of the Heb. 3, or our g in get. C: the Heb. Mm, is @ very sharp but smooth guttural aspirate, stronger than «, but uot rough like g. Europeans, as well as Turks and Persians, rarely attain the correct pronunciation of it. ¢ has the sound of ch in the Scotch word loch, or the German Racke. 5 is the Italian dental, softer than our d, 5 bears the same relation to > that does tom. It is sounded D6 Pant First.—Orthography and. Orthoépy. (2 A like the 8 of the modern Greeks, or th in that, with, ‘The Turk Persians usually convert it into s [In Egypt it is sometimes z but oftener d.] ‘2 is in all positions » distinctly articulated lingual r, as in run, 3 is the English =. ‘> is the surd o in sit, mist; US, sh in shut. G+, the Heb. pis strongly articulated «, somewhat like as in iss, BV is an aspirated ¢, strongly articulated between the front part of the side of the tongue and the molar teeth (somewhat like #4 in this), ‘The Turks and Persians usvally pronounce it like 2. [In Egypt it is an emphatic d, without aspiration, more difficult to an English tongue than the true Bedouin .6.] ‘, the Heb. 0, is » strongly articulated palatal ¢. & bears, strictly speaking, the same relation to b that < and do toc and ». It is usually pronounced like a strongly articulated palatal z, though many of'the Arabs give it the same sound as yo © [with which it is often confounded in Mes.]. ‘The Turks and Persians change it into a common z. ‘To distinguish it from wo, & is some- times spoken of as SLT sili, The 2 ia then called Aoghi7 bi. , the Heb. yy, is a strong (but to [most] Buropeans, as well as ‘Tarks and Persians, unpronouncesble) guttural, related in its nature tog, with which it is sometimes confounded. It is described as produced by a smart compression of the upper part of the windpipe ‘and forcible emission of the breath. It is wrong to treat it, in any of the Semitic languages, as a mere vowel-letter, or (worse still) ax Da nasal n or ng. 2 i8 8 guttural g, accompanied by a grating or rattling sound, a8 in gargling, of which we have no example in English. The y of the modern Greeks, the Northumbrian r, and the French r grasséyé, are ‘approximations to it*. Sis our f. G, the Heb. p, is a strongly articulated guttural #; but in parts of Arabia, and throughout Northen Africa, it is pronounced as a ee cee ens neem concen * [Honco p is sometimes replaced by y ar in the Yemenite B+ for ees, Hamdant ed, Miiller 193, 17 ete., and often in Mss.—De G.] $34) IL, The Vowels and Diphthonge. 7 hard g; whilst in [Cairo-and some parta of] Syria it is vulgarly con- A founded with lif hémzatum, as ’ultu, yo'iilu, for Fultu, yakilu, 9, J, +, and gy, are exactly our &, J, m,n, When immediately followed by the letter , without any vowel coming between them, takes the sound of m: as ce gomb, 32:5 ‘ambar, AE samba’ u, not ganb, ‘anbar, dnba’u, + ia our A. Tt in distinctly aspirated at the end, as well as at the beginning, of syllable; eg. 2 Aum, QUAI ’ahlaka, In the grammatical termination 32, the dotted 3 [called tstif la] is pro- nounced like <>, #)*. B 9 and (g are precisely our w and y. ‘The Turks and Persians usually give 9 the eound of », I THE VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 3. The Arabs had originally no signs for the short vowels, ‘To indicate the long vowels and diphthongs they made uso of the three consonants that come nearest to them in sound: viz. | (without Admza, see § 1, rem. a, and § 15) for d, ys for § and ai, » for dand au. B.g., Va, 3 Fi, GS hai, 95 da, 9) la, 4. Atallater period the following signs were invented to express the short vowels. (a) = foth (cH or fotha (dat5), a, 2 (a8 in pet), # (nearly the French « mut); 0g. Gide halaka, je idmsun, 4% kerimun. (0) > Rar (5-&) or Bera (F-S), i (as in pin), 3 (a dull, obscure i, resembling tho Welsh y, or tho #in bird); og. a biki, Lal afsfum. =D (©) 2 damm (25) or damma (425), u (as in bull, 0, 3 (neatly as 3 in Mértel, or the French eu in jeune); 0g. 2 laku, GDe haggetun, 522 ‘imrun. * In point of fact, this figure 3 is morely » compromise betwoon. the ancient 2 (Heb. N=, Nz), the old pausal ¢= (oA), and the modern + = (Heb. 77), in which last the ¢ is silent. .8 Parr Finst.— Orthography and Orthoépy. {55 A Raw. @. The distinction tetween the names féth, keer, damm, and fétha, k2era, damma, is that the former denote the sounds , 6, x the latter the marks =, ., 2. Compare tho Hebrew MMB, 2W, and Paap, The terms .~ai and Jj, commonly used of tho cxso- endings a, u, are sometimes applied to eT ay By y3c5 (Another name for damm is kabw, 525 aoe ¢, Sarr Rem. 5. A vowel is called 4550, a motion, plur. SiS; ; ite Aor Jykd. Rea. c. In tho oldest Mes. of the Kor’én, the vowels aro expressed by dots (usually red), one above for fetha, one below for késra, and one in the middle, or on the line, for damma, As re- gards the signs <, the third is a small y and the other two are probably derived from | and «4g or = respectively. 2 in othor positions; og. 5. Rules for the cases in which these vowel-marks retain their original sounds, a, i, u, and for those in which they are modified, through the influence of the stronger or weaker consonants, into 2, ¢, ©}, 0, or d, can scarcely be laid down with certainty; for the various dialects of the spoken Arabic differ from one another in these points; and besides, owing to the emphasis with which the consonants are uttered, the vowels are in general somewhat indistinctly enunciated. ‘The following rules may, however, be given for the guidance of the learner®, (a) When preceded or followed by the strong gutturals ¢ ¢ g 8, or the emphatic consonants Go us & & G, fetha is pronounced as a, though with the emphatic consonants ite sound becomes rather obscure, D approaching to that of the Swedish 8; e.g. pod Aamrun, 35 la‘bun, GH baRys, gddrun, Under the same circumstances késra is + [Learners whose ears and vocal organs are good, and who have an opportunity of hearing and practising the correct pronunciation of the consonanta, will find that the proper shades of sound in the three vowels come without effort when the consonants are spoken rightly and naturally. ‘The approximate rules for pronunciation hore given are mainly useful as a guide towards the right way of holding tho mouth in pronouncing the consonants as well as the vowels.) § 6] Il, The Vowels and Diphthongs. 9 pronounced as 3, eg. Je ‘mun, jam Sifrun, 325 Rérun; whilet A amma assumes the sound of an obscure o, inclining with the gutturals (especially ¢ and ¢) to 5; eg, Aki lafafa, ALLS lopfum, Ste boomum or fisnun, 8) ro‘bun, p28 ‘imrun, (&) In shut syllables in which there are neither guttural nor emphatic consonants,—and in open syllables which neither commence with, nor immediately precede, one of those letters,—fetha either has 8 weaker, less clear sound, approaching to that of a in the English words hat, cap, eg. Suid kutabta, j81 ‘akbaru; or it becomes a B simple 2 or ¢ (the latter expecially in short open allable followed by a long one), 6.8, J 8a, «ps mirkabun, Shes simdtun, Se seminun, 125 medindtun. It retains, however, its pure sound of « before and after r (which partakes of the nature of the emphatics), when that letter is doubled or follows a long @ or d, e.g. a: garratun, 52 marratun, 5 garatun, f5-0 siratun ; and also in general at the end of a word. . The long vowels a, i, a, are indicated by placing the marks C of the short vowels before the letters 1, (g, and, respectively, eg. SW bila, Bee B70, So sitkun ; in which case these letters are called SBT Soja, titeras productionis, “letters of prolongation.” ‘The com- binations (and y+ must always be pronounced i and @, not 4 and 4; though after the emphatic consonants y+ inclines to the sound of 3, and i to that of the French w or German i, 0g. 9, Gel, nearly forun, tinun, Rew, a, @ was at first more rarely marked than the other yy long vowels, and hence it happens that, at a later period, after the invention ofthe vowel: points it was indioated in some very common words merely by a fathe i Si, Kali, & exactly, however, the fath this case, so as to resemble og thi, Goel earl, Salt, Gazi, Us, 15, GA, Wisi More should ‘be written, perpendicularly in tog Bi, uta LS, Sy, ac2ali (the renurrection, to be carefully distinguished ‘trom ®. 210 Part Firat.—Orthography and Orthoépy. &7 A Keli wpimatu, price, oahu), Gy, Sub. ‘The words 395, 1554, , 7 ively £45, 13 and GSI, are also frequently written defectively 15, 333, GsHlS; and occasionally some other vocables, such ss dpi} and GS; SpE and LS; Gok, Dds, and other proper names ending in Giz; Gbehil; yas; Sut, Jus, 405i ii, ana other proper names of the forms Jeti and Jetiif; S435 ote. This is more common in Magribi Mes than in others —Tho long vowel Tis in a vory few instances written defectively at the end of a word, ong, Hadi, WHafs, otal, 0:20, Aol Go Mladen, Hodeifetu mu LYemant, for ial, gota, lea; waSi tor wohl. Ram, 5. Tho letter o, preceded by damma, is used by the Arabs of North Africa and Spain to indicate a final o in foreign words ; e.g. ASI, Carlo ; pba cgi, Don Pedro; 131 gly, the river Guadiaro, Rex. ¢, The sound of te inclines, in later times and in certain localities, from @ to 2, just os that of fetha does from @ to 2 (seo § 4, a, and § 5,6). This change is called ai i Urimala, the deflection” of the sound of « and 4 towards that of i andi Tho ‘Mogribt Arabs actually pronounce 4 in many cases aa i, Hence Sid, riba, 3S takin, DY ba, E15) liadn, aro sounded rikib, Takin, bb, lisin ; snd, conversely, the Spanish Beja, Jaen, Caniles, Lebrilla, are written ami, ters Ai ‘7. 1 corresponds to fetha, «g to ktera, and 9 to amma; whence D Vis called an$iit LL, the sistr of fatha, vs, sai eal, the sister of Hawa, and 9, 22407 Call the sistr of damma. Fetha before ug anc '5 forms the diphthongs ai and av, which retain thoir original clear ‘sound after the harder gutturals and the emphatics, 0.g. hee saifun, EE © [The omission of final gg in those cases is hardly mere ortho. graphical irregularity, but expresses a variant pronunciation in which the final § was shortened or dropped. See Naldeke, Geach. d. Qordn's, p. 261) _——— $7) Il, The Vowels and Diphthongs. n SL haufun; but after the other letters become nearly # (Heb. *=) A and 6 (Heb. §-), e.g. Cis ad¥fun, 252 m'otun (almost sifun, motun). Rex, a, After y at the end of a word, both when preceded by damma and by f&tha, | is often written, particularly in the plural of verbs ; e.g. Igya5, Iyay, '9j8). This |, in iteclf quite superfluous (Qlif otiosum), is intended to guard against the possibility of the preceding being separated from the body of the word to which it belongs, and so being mistaken for the conjunction 3 and, Tt is called 531 Gul, the guarding dif, or Dott GNI, the separating Ram, 6. (g at the ond of a word after a fetha is pronounced B Tike |, e.g. cg fatd, ge) rama, Jl da", and is called, like | itself in the same position (0.g. Lp Belinesd, Yik jaza), dyyak St BS the by that oan be abbreviated, in contradistinction to the lengthened Mis, Big ASI (see § 22 and § 23, rem. a), which is protected by haémza. It receives this name because, when it comes in contact with a Aémza conjunctionis (see § 19, rem. ), it is shortened in Pronunciation before the following consonant, as are the g and (gin gil and cyl before zes3hT (soe § 20, &)t. Re. ¢ If a pronominal suffix be added to » word ending g in .,<, the (g is sometimes retained according to old custom, as in 4¢2) OF 4eay, but it is commonly changed into |, as ol4;. * [But (=, with the mark gézma (s00 § 10), a8 in 5, (35 the diphthong ai.) ‘The diphthong ai, whon final, is often marked i old Mss, by the letters , whence the later 2, instead of the common £ or 4. In some old Mes. of the Kor‘én a small horizontal (red) stroke is used, 10. g anil», when they form a diphthong with Pthe, are marked with a geama, as Joi, 252, G, Codd; but when they stand for dif productionis they do not take this sign (eee § 7, rem. 6, c,d). Rew. In many nfnuscripte a gézma is placed even over the letters of’ prolongation, eg. J wes; and over the élif raakalra, 0g. ld, (Sa for gle, gah B. Tesdid or Sadda. 11. A consonant that is to be doubled, or, as the Arabs say, strengthened (334), without the interposition of a vowel (see rem. a), is written only once, but marked with the sign *, which is called14 Pant Finst.—Orthography and Orthoépy. gu A Sea83i, the atid (orentining al Meiulla, $2 kullan, A tevnmi, 7 amnin, PO temurra, 5 murrun. It corresponds ‘therefore to the Daghesh forte of the Hebrew. Rew, The solitary ‘exception to this rule, in the verbal forms gsh rtwita and gpd ubicta, instead of gS and Jyh, admits of an easy oxple (oee § 159).—When consonant is repeated in such @ manner that a vowel is interposed between its first and second occurrence, no doubling, properly so called, takes place, and consequently the tédid is not required ; eg. 5; mato, Port. of 33; S345, 3d pers. sing. fem. Perf. of the fifth form of J5. Raw. 5. A consonant can be doubled, and receive tdédtd, only when # vowel precedes and follows it, The cases treated of in § 14 form no exception to this rule Rew. c, All consonants whatsoever, not even lif bémzatum excepted, on of boing doubled and take thidid. ‘Hence we speak and write ok ra”asun, ok ea" dun, Pagun, Rew, d. + in an abbreviated ¥%, e first radical of the name Saad, or the firet lettor of the name 455, which the African Arabs ‘use instead of the other. Orit may stand for wi (from 3.24), since in the oldest and most carefully written manuscripts its form is. Tea opposite i war, i.e, wide (from GAL tightened, single); 0. we EM pe evoretty and openly Rem. ¢. TeSdid, in combination with 4,4, is placed be- tween the consonants and these vowelmarks, as may be seen from the above examples, In combination with -.the Egyptians write ‘4 instead of $5 but elsewhere, at least in old manuscripts, 7 may stand for 2 as well as 2. The African Arabs constantly write &, 3, % for 2, 7,4, In the oldest Mes. of the Kor'an, taédid is expresso] by ~ or v, which, when accompanied by ktera, ie some- times written, ae in African Mss., below the line In African. ‘Men. tho vowol is not always written with the éidda ; & alone may be = 4, do. * [The nomen unitatis is 3ayat3.—De G.] § 14] III. Other Orthographic Signe. DB. Teédid or Bddda. 15 12, ‘Teédid in either necessary or euphonic, 18. The necessary (26did, which always follows a vowel, whether af ne short (as in GLE) or long (as in 314), indicates a doubling upon which the signification of the word depends. ‘Thus yal (Amara) means he commanded, but jo! (ammara), he aygninted some one commander ; B (murrun) in bitter, but a word 5 (murun) does not exist in the language. Rem, The Arabs do not readily tolerate a syllnble containing a long vowel and terminating in a consonant. Consequently ¢2idid “necessarium scarcely ever follows the long vowels y and as in ShT 543, though it is sometimes found after |, as in SUR, (see § 25) Nor does it occur after the diphthongs $< and 5<,save in rare instances like Layyde, dayg5.and Sezss [see § 277]. 14, ‘The euphoric @édid always follows vowelless consonant, which, though expressed in writing, is, to avoid harshness of sound, passed over in pronunciation and assimilated to a following consonant, It is used (a) With the letters , 2, 9,3, 515, oh Ut Ge, 8, b, &, Us &» Gentals, sibilants, and liquids,) after the articta Ji; e.g. peal at-mru; Ssemegh “ar-rabmanu; Gabi sims ; Lbs ‘ag-golmu ; Sehi az-itu, or, in African and Spanish manuscripts, Jai, Rex, a These lottors are called S387 ype, the solar Lettere, because the word Gcue5, oun, happens to begin with one of thom ; and the other letters of the alphabet £487 Saya, the Tunar letters, because the word 545, moon, commences with one of them, Tew, This woimation ia extend by ome to the J of J and J, especially bofore y, as 2 Ja. (® With the letters 5, J, *, 9, os, after m with gam, og. Jd coe, JEG oF; and after the nunation, e.g, eT Ssegt pee Fitdbum mubinun, for ditaun mubinun, The n of the 6 coe mir radi A16 Pant Finsr—Orthography and Orthogpy. ($18 ‘A words Gus, cb2, oi, is often not written when they are combined with wT; eg coe for Sse or Ses ce, US for Uw, J for Tol. Raw, a. If to tho above lsttera we add cy itself, as C28 gf, the mnemonic word is Gpheyz- Rew, 5. J ois equally common with Si, but Cie, Ste, ey U5, are hardly over written separately; J cea, on tho contrary, always, Similarly we find i for Sop if not, Ut for Laut (; with B redundant la) and occasionally Usl for Lacs} (that, with redundant te). (© With the letter © after , 2, 3, 48, b, & (ental), in 215 pitty for Zt5 bite; Ssh certain parts of the verb; &. a weg on seratta for SM aradta ; 3551 ‘attakattum for SiH attabadtum ; “tbe basttum for 2384 basaitum. Many grammarians, however, Toject this kind of assimilation altogether, aud rightly, because the Abeorption of a strong radical consonant, such as a, 2 or b, by @ © weaker servile letter, like <, is an unnatural mutilation of an ess part of the word. Rem. a. Still more to be condemned are such assimilations as 3b for 338, Bid for Edad. ‘Rem, 6. If the verb ends in ©, it naturally unites with the nocond in the above cases, 0 that only one < is written, but the indicated by the t&sdtd ; as 223 for E23. union of the two i ©. Himza or Nebra. D. 18. Biif, when it is not a mere letter of prolongation, but a con- sonant, pronounced like the spiritus lenis, is distinguished by the mark t Kamza (Jab or Sj, compression, vit, of the upper part of the windpipe, see § 4, rem. a), whick is also sometimes called ndbra & leation); 0-8. SA, Se, 45, SA, ih, Sabi, ae, J, tea. Rem, a. In cases where an if conjunctionis (seo § 19, a, b, ¢, and rem. d, ¢) at the beginning of s word receives its own vowel, ‘the grammarians omit the hémza and write merely the vowel ; e.g. hs 525i praietelonge to God, 1, Sit, § 17] IIL Other Orthographic Signe. C. Himsa or Nebra. 17 Rex. &. £ is probably a small p, and indicates that the Bf is to A be pronounced almost as ‘ain, In African (and certain other) Mas, it is sometimes actually written $; og. $1, Ghat In the oldest ’ ‘Mas, of the Kor’sn, hémza ia indicated by doubling the vowel-points; 28 OTM GBI, oyiegell = Gategell, It is also marked in such Mss. by a large yellow or groen dot, varying in position accord- ing to the accowpanying vowel (see above, § 4, rem. ¢). Rina. ¢, Hémza is written between the 1 and the vowel that accompanies it, or the gezina (see the examples given above) ; but B we often find Getelé for Semld, x” for pos (see § 16), and occa- sionally (ini or Und. for thin, Si or Gi for Sy, JE tor Je or Je, and the like. i ° Rex. d, The effect of the hémza is most sensible to a European sensi mm ear at the commencement of a syllable in the middle of a word, precoded by a shut syllable; eg BU, masalatun (not ma-satatun) ONGH, Akor-ann (not sko-ranu). 16. (5 and 4 take htmza, when they stand in place of an eif0 Amzatum* (in which ease the two points of the letter (g are com- monly omitted); e.g. Coe for Sle, Getald for Gull, iy) for ete obey od 7 + ae wl, way for wah 217. Hema alone (+) is written instead of f, 1, (%, 5, in the fol- lowing cases. : (@) Always at the end of a worl, after a letter of prolongation or a consonant with gama, eg. # ise Wa, D 145935 £635, tabs, or more commonly Eb (sco § 8, rem, u); and in the middle of a word, after an dif productionis, pro- vided the hi » Ditsel (but for 2258) and LS iTaEk the Arabs usually write Sse! and £33024), Hae, ayy tye, sun; wa has the vowel fétha, as Cygi' Rew, Accusatives like U2 and Ejis are often written, though * [See below, $§ 131 seq]© 18 Pant Finst—Orthography and Orthoépy. 17 5, Liss; and in old Mos. we find such instances contrary to ru 1s i, for sy (W) Frequently in the middle of words, after the letters of pro- Tongation 5 and qs, or after @ consonant with glume, og igi for Byqpha, Stange for St Sy, 2935 for iss GES for GUS ; and also after Kia anit danma before the gs and. 3 of prolongation, 6: Goeth for Getbts, th for Sasgy Homan between 14, ai, a, , anda, is, however, more frequently, though improperly, place over the letter of Prlongation itself; e. ‘i Syl for bugjde, Had for Big or Babad, Sop) for sigh ot Seah}, which wortts must always be pronounced mukra'utua, bagVatun, r'isun. Rew, a. After a consonant with gézma, which is connected with 1 following letter, hinlaa and its vowel may be placed abovo the connoeting line; a» JE, for SU Rew, b. A hime precedad by w or é, and followed by « or dy to pure 9 or 4g 8s ier for yey Spo for au —If preceded by a or i, or the be changed into 9 be changed diphthong ai, the hiinza iay like 5 for See from fuyehs Rape for deyyy, from By ? for 53, C5 for ELEAF the héman hus gezma, it may [lose its consonautal power and] be changed into the letter of prolongation that is how gencous with the preceding vowel, ns uly for 7 os for Bh Jat for 25 necesnsily wy if the procding vonsonant bo wn éif with hemun, as Gall or Gol, Sesh Shap for all, ooh EGS, [This is called Soll Sight. Teen, ¢ ‘The name 39315 oF 3gil3, David, in often written 33, bout must nlways be pronounced Da'idn, $19] IIT. Other Orthographic Signe. D. Wasla. 19 D. Wala, so 18. When the vowels with hémza (1 11), at the commencement of A ‘a word, are absorbed by the final vowel of the preceding word, the ion of the spiritus lenis is marked by the sign =, written over the if, and called JLo3, or 2155, or Ale (see § 4, rem. a), i.e. union eg. MUST Se ‘abd Dmaliki for SUS raditu "bnaka for So} Sh ratitu ‘ibnaka, Rew. a. 7 scoms to be nn abbreviation of ye in Jog or XLa ; or rather, it is the word Ze itself. In the oldest Mas. of the B Kor'n the wagl is indicated by a stroke (usually red), which some- times varies in position, according to the preceding vowgt. In ancient Mugribi Mss. the stroke is used, with a point to indieate the original vowel of the elided tif; e.g., aL ~ igh i edi: 2 inet, ie _ Hence even in modern African Mss. wo find TPT L instend of the usual 7, Rew. 6, Though we have written in the above examples 431 and Ai, yet the student must not forget that the more correct orthography is SUG and JLj1. See § 15, rem. a, and § 19, rem. d. 19. This elision takes place in the following cases. (a) With the 4 of the article Jf; as 25931 g/l for yejgii gil, the Sather of the wrzir. “ = (8) With the 1 and 1 of the Imperatives of the first form of the regular verb; as oat JU for 2551 JU, he said, listen ; JEST Jub for D Si IU, he said, Kill. (©) With the | of the Perfect Active, Imperative, and Nomen actionis of the seventh and all the following forms of the verb (eee § 35), and the | of the Perfect Passiv aig for js! 54, he was put to flight ; Baily for eit and he wus appointed governor; j1a8H the being able (to do something) ; aba Si ill the dnonfull ot extinction,20 Parr Firen—Orthography and Orthoépy. $19 A (a) With the J of the following eight nouns: SA, and 21 or 28), a son. S41, « daughter. . oh two (mase.). Bs or So Eat, the anus. aman. ip, Je (rarely sl), a name Raw, a. With the articlo $21 and Hija) take, in classical B — Arabie, the form Jail and 3, Rew. &, ‘The hamza of csetl, oaths, is also clided after the assoverative particle Jj, and occasionally after the prepositions A and J (which then takes fBtha instoad of gdzma); a8 bi by God (it. by ta onthe of Gedy for which we may ‘alo write ahi G25) omitting the 1 altogether, or, in a contracted form, ai Rem. c. In the above words and forms, the vowel with hémza in in part original, but, has beon wenkened through constant uso (as the article, and in cad after J); in part merely prosthetic, that is to say, prefixed for the sake of euphony to words beginning with ‘a vowelless consonant, and consequently it vanishes as soon as a vowel precedes it, because it is then no longer necessary. See § 345. Reem. d, Tt is naturally an absurd error to write 1 at the begin- ning of a ed instead of @lif with hémza, as deed! instead ot Ztait ‘The Arabs themselves never do so, but, to indicate D__ that the dlif is an 24 conjunctionis (see rom. f), they omit the himnza and express only its aecompanying vowel, ax a Gomi. Seo § 15, rem. a, and § 18, rem, 0. Ram, ¢ In more modern Arabic the elision of the: 2if con- Junction (900 rem. f) is neglected, especially after the article, ss i, ab Sh aot AE, Anpath 33); but the gramma- brand this mm het Sats yal IS SE Cant §20) IIL. Other Orthographic Signe. D. Wasla. 21 Rew. f The dlif which takes wasla is called gesil Hf ai or yk A veal Buf or hemea conjunctionis, the connective alit; the opposite being ear i, if egjunctionis or separationia, the disjunctive alit, 20. The aif conjunctionis may be preceded either by a short vowel, a long vowel, a diphthong, or # consonant with gtama. To these different cases the following rules apply. (a) A short vowel simply absorbs the alif conjunctionis with its vowel; see § 19, 6 and c, B (®) A Tong vowel is shortened in pronunciation, according to the rule laid down in § 25; e.g uti S fi “andi, among men; 25331 oil ‘abis "Lwbciri, the father of the wizir, for fi and ‘aba. ‘Thin abbreviation of the naturally long vowel is retained even when the Jam of the article no longer closes the syllable containing that vowel, but begins the next syllable, in consequence of the elision of a following lif (either according to § 19 or by poetic license). Cat, e of these examples the ; in the other two it is an alif soparationis, but hae been changed for the sake of the metre into an alif conjunctionis, ‘The suffixes of the Ist pers. tat. way, instead of ot equally admissible. (© A diphthong is resolved into two simple vowel, accon- ing to the law stated in § 25, vi, ai into ai, aud au into ai; as ui ee ay 9B ALS shia “Lhauma, foar the people abit 52% mustasai ‘Mahi, the elect of God, for af sigas. The silent alif (§ 7, rem. a) does not prevent the resolution of the diph-22 Part First.—Orthography and Orthoépy. _—_[§ 20 Athong, a8 Glpeil tye ramil Thipdrata, they threw the stones; Ea CL fa-lamma ra'ti’n-s2gma, and after they saw the star. But 31 and gi take Mora, as dal gh or his name ; Sokal 95 if he went to meet. . (@) A. consonant with gtzma either takes its original vowel, if it had one; or assumes that which belongs to the élif conjunctioni or adopts the lightest of the three vowels, which in ite nature ap- proaches nearest to the gézma, vir. ktsra. Hence the pronouns of the Bed and 34 pers. phir. mase., 251 you, and 6 they, the pronominal suffixes of the samé pronouns, x2 yonir, you (nccus:), and sh thei them, and the verbal termination of the 2d pers. plur. mase. Perf. 13, take damma (in which they originally ended); as GogiSi8i ABI ye are the Hare; abit 72355 may God curse them! Jangit 222 ye have seen the man. The same is the cake with Js, since, from which time forth, because it is contracted for Ls. The preposition cee, from, takes C fatha before the article, but in other cases A2sra; as deat ony ‘ai, All other words ending in a consonant with fézma take A2sra ; vie. nouns having the tnwin, as cgiil Aeaee Mokammadun ’n-ndbiyu: mani "Lkaddilu ; verbal forms like the pronoun 2, as ptdSt aie as agp CdS hatalati ’r-Riomu; and particles, such a8 32, St, Ji, 35, Ja, 55, ete. D Rew. a. In certain cases where ts becomes ies (soo § 185, rem, 5) the wasl may be made either with damma or ktera, a» or eh Rew. 5. If the vowel of a prosthetic lif be damma, the wasl is sometimes effected by throwing it back upon the preceding vowel oe ane kn eek cea typist JS gett Sits 5 Wyhbst 2S ectamunu 'dhula. Rew. c. ‘The final gy of the second Energetic of verbs (see § 97) is rejected, s0 that the wasl is effected by the preceding fétha; as § 21] IIL. Other Orthographic Signe. D. Wasla 23 BGT SayBi j 1a tautriba "bnaka, and not YOM cripbi °§ la tactribani A "naka : 21. Tis altogether omitted in the following cases. (a) In the solemn introductory formula abi," for abi_pG, in the name of God, DYTONT DWI. As a compensation for the omission of the |, the copyists of Mas. are accustomed to prolong the upward stroke of tho letter wy, thus: J. @ Iw the word Sot when the name of the son precedes, and that of his father follows in the genitive ; provided always that the said series, as a whole, forms part cither of the the predicate of a sentence. For exainple, AN oe yh BE SE SRS ak SF SG 5 Zale, the son of Hid, struck Sa'd, the som uf ‘Auf, the son of ‘Abdu "lah. (Cf. §315, rem. 6.) But if the second noun be not in apposition to the frat, but form part of the predicate, so that the two together make » complete sen- tence, then the 1 is retained; as iT a5 Zoid (és) the som of © ‘Amr, pUacst Sei 528 ‘Omar (is) the am of e-Lattab. is retained, if that |, son, in a gencalogical series, that is to say, B Rex. a, Even in the first case the Fof word happens to stand at the beginning of a line, Rex. 6, If the name following cyl be that of the mother or grandfather, the T is retained ; as Jip Gul cgtee, Jesus the son of Mary; yale SHIGE, Ammar the (grand)won of Mangir, Like- wise, if the following name be not the real name of the father, but a [) surname or nickname; as 35-50 Gil Stade, Mikdad the son of lewad (the real name of 8’Amwad, “the black,” being ‘Amr, ‘gyeé). Or if the series be interrupted in any way, as by the interposition of an adjective ; 0.6: Cpeee ST nT Getty Vols Ue noble, the son of Méimin; sige Gil csipli& «gisy Ridba (pronounced like the word girba) the aun of Misa. (© In the article Jf, when it is proceded : (©) by the preposition J to, as larg 10 the man, for glaz%).% Pant Finsr—Orthegraphy and Orthotpy. [§ 22 ALE the first letter of the noun be J, then the J of the article is also omitted, as Aigh to the night, for 2c, and that for 09. (B) by the affirmative particle J truly, wrily, as Sau, tor dave, @ In nouns, verbs, and the article Jj, when preceded by the interrogative particle Ff, ie thy om? STE ie it (fom.) broken? SB3LH, for ISLET, save yo receivad? BAGH, for AST, is the water—? "the alif of the article may however be retained, so that 4,1 with the interrogative | is often written i Rem. a, In this last case, according to some, when the ead Gif has fétha, the two élifs may blend into one with middda (see below); a Soke GLH, ia &Husan in thy house ? for (mail; CAE S258, ke of Kort on he of Tabi? Legs abi Sati, iv thy oath ‘by God"? (aoe § 19, rem. 6) for abil Cnet c Rew. 5, The prosthetic Bf of the Imperative of Jt, to ask is frequently omitted, in Mss. of the Kor'an, after the conjunction 5; 08 JUS, for JUG, [oF § 140, rem. a.) for E. Madda or Matta. 22, When lif with hemea and a simple vowel or tonwin (|, etc.) is preceded by an élif of prolongation (I=), then a mere hémza is written instead of the former, and the sign of prolongation, = madda or matta D (34, 355 or AE:, i.o. lengthening, extension), is placed over the Inter; eg. 105 sema’un, she gaa, SCS yatasd'atina, for fc, ie Oss Rem. a. As mentioned above (§ 17, a, rem.), we find in old tee ke Ps ‘Mes, such forma as iG, iiyy, for slp, yy. Rem. 6. In the am and best Men, to form of the médda is . [Note also the cases, in poetry, cited in § 958, rem. ¢ further the contracted tribal names sais), cyl for gait 94%, Soe 94 —DeG.} § 28] IIL. Other Orthographic Signs. E, Médda or Matta, 25 this is but rarely written. In some old Mes. of the Kor’an médda A is oxpressed by a horizontal yellow line = 23. When, at the beginning of a syllable, an alif with hémza and fétha (1) is followed by an elif of prolongation or an lif with t hhomea and gézma (1), then the two are commonly represented in writ ingle alif with médda; e.g. St} for ML, Gghet for Split, acts a * for Gait (see § 17, rem. B). In this ease it is not usual to write either the hémza, or the vowel, slong with the médda. [But wo some- B times find &, see §174.] Raw, a. Tis called Ssgaeeil GNI, the lengthened or long Rif, in opposition to y-akt GAN, the Rif that can be abbreviated or shortened (§ 7, rem. b). Rex. 6. Occasionally a long élif at the beginning of a word is written with héinza and a perpendicular fetha, instead of with mada (see § 6, rem. a); © instead of ai or ath Rem. c. Médda is sometimes placed over the other letters of © prolongation, 9 and 4g, when followed by an 8lif hémzatum, only the hémza being written (§ 17, 4); a8 15%, \igmea. Also over the final vowels of the pronominal forms 23, 4, @ 0 and the verbal termination U3, when they are used a8 Tong in poetry; &g. Bi, os Riu, d. The mark +, often written over abbreviations of words, has nothing in common with médda but the form. So J for JUS, He (God) is exalted above all; 42 for Sait ale, peace be D upon him / gslleo tor as sole Abi Lo, God biees him and grant hhim peace ! aby for 23a BF 5, may Gab ‘well pleased with, or gracious to, him! Ey oF aby for ahi inj, may God have merey spon him Qh tor pick gh or Uy GS for Base, he narrated to ws lor U for scat, he informed us; E for tiym, then. —The letters » » aro written over words or Yorses that have been erroneously transposed in » manuscript, for ™ 4 Fash, fo the ond of it, i.e. ete;26 Parr Finst.—Orthography and Orthoépy. p24 A singe, t0 be placed last, and Sais, to be placed first.—On the margin of Mas. wo often find words with the lottors ¢, cy and ge over them, The first of these indicates a variant, and stands for 43, @ copy, another manuscript ; the second means that a word has been indistinctly written in the toxt, and ia repentod more clearly on the margin, lg, explanation ; the third implies that the marginal roading, and not thet of the text, is, in the writer's opinion, the correct one go, it ie correct, or Cremmal, correction, emendaton B Written over a word in the text, po stands for @o, and denotes that the word is correct, though there may be something peculiar in its form or vocalisation.—Again lee (ie. (es, together) is written over a word with double vocalization to indicate that both vowels are correct, ala) over a word on the margin implies & conjectural emendation ala), perhaps it is, IV! THE SYLLABLE. C a The vowel of a syllable that terminates in a vowel, which wo call an open or simple syllable, may be either long or short; as JE kita. 25. The vowel of a syllable that terminates in a consonant, which we call a shut or compound syllable, is almost always short ; as JB bil, not Job (Heb. by). Generally speaking, it is only in pause, where the final short vowels are suppressed, that the ancient ‘Arabic admita of such syllables as in, im, dm, ete. D Rex. Before » double consonant @ is however not infrequent (200 § 15, rem). [Such « long & preceding consonant with gézma sometimes receives a médda, as (gid) 26. A syllable cannot begin with two consonants, the first of which is destitute of a vowel, as ¢f or fr. Foreign words, which com- rence with a syllable of this sort, on passing into the Arabic lang take an additional vowel, usually before the fist consonant a8 ‘) expen; yb Th, urdu; Fi, the Fronts (Buropeans); soob, an elizir, +3 Eqpdv (medicamentum siccum). 27. A syllable cannot end in two consonants, which are not either separated or followed by a vowel (except in pause). §31) V. The Accent. 27 V. THE ACCENT. A 28. The last syllable of a word consisting of two or more syllables does not take the accent. Exceptions are : (a) The pausal forma of § 29 and § 30, in which the accent remains unaltered ; as yo 7Al, ki-n6n, mu'-mi-nfn, ka-ti-bdt, f-rind, ‘aka, ma-fér, ku-béil, billéur, bu-ndi. Rie But words ending in (>, 3» i. or HS, ty" and 46> throw back the accent far as powsible in their passa forma; Eh Koratt yun becomes Kora, dos nebtanun, nd: BS eat. wun, Geli; $Uabl "ietindun, ‘tend; pgm hamrd'u, hme ; B tyke mak-rd-tun, mék-ri; tela) bugésn, bof. () Monosyllables in com! The only exception to this rule in old Arabic is the ve enclitic 4; as 44 bi-ma, a lima, in contrast with C Uy bimd, Us timd, Soe § 351, rem. 29. ‘The penult takes the accent when it is long by nature, i.e. is an open ayllale containing a loug vowel; a8 JU ki-la, J9it ya-kt-lu, S530 fa-nt-nun, Seueye mu-mi-ni-na, Ste ka-ti-bd-tun. 30. The penult has likewise the accent when it is a shut syllable and consequently long by position; as Sod fal-bun, > df-bun, ty buir-un, het G- i-rin-dun, ost ‘a-kal-lu, ja ma-fér-D run, Sigh yo-ki-lén-na, Seed ku-bdicla, 39h, billdw-ran, <4 bu-ndi- yun, 31, When the penult is short, the accent falls upon the ante- ponult, provided that the word has not more than three syllables, or, if it has four or more syllables, that the antepenult is long by nature or position; as (36 hi-ta-ba, 336 Ki-ta-bat, \ypit ké-ta- bi, LIS kA-ti-bun, Lib pila-bun, GEE 'éi-na-ma ; WphilgS tard28 Pant Finst.—Orthography and Orthoépy. ($32 In other cases the Asati, dS bé-nt-n-hum, accent is thrown as far back as possible ; as USS ké-ta-ba-td, ME més-a-la-tun, Gili2 més'a-la-twhd, Uiead bé-sa-ba-tu-hu-ma. Rex. On deviations from these principles of accentuation, in ‘Egypt and among the Badawin, see Lane in the Journal of the German Oriental Society. vol. iv., pp. 183-6, and Wallin in the same journs], vol. xi 812-0. ata Spitta, Gram, des arab. Vul- gariialectes von Aegyp''s ‘13E0}, p 59 0qq-] B VI. THE NUMBERS. 32. To express numbers the Arabs use sometimes the letters of tke alphabet, at other times peculiar signs. In the former case, the numerical value of the letters accords with the more ancient order of the Hebrew and Aramaic alphabets (see § 1). ‘They are written from right to left, and usually distinguished from the surrounding words by 9 stroke placed over them, as saaé, 1874. This arrange- ment of the alphabet is called the "Aduged or 'Abgfad, and is con- (osherwise pronounced fis Sad Sts Gis or, as usual in North Africa: fis bL3 Sib Bins GS (he yey al ‘The special numerical figures, ten in number, have boon adopted by the Arabs from the Indians, and are therefore called Gost Si, the Indian notation. They are the same that we Buropeans make use of, calling them Arabian, because we took them from the Arabs. ‘Their form, however, differs considerably from that which our ciphers have gradually assumed, as the following table shows, Indian: {RRB eee Ambic: | oc fee OS VY AA Kup: 12 8 4 5 6 789 0 ‘They are compounded in exactly the same Way as our numerals e.g. 14¥4, 1874. PART SECOND. ETYMOLOGY OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH. ‘THE VERB, Jaa, A A. Genenat View. 1. Tho Forms of the Triliteral Verb. 4 33. The great majority of the Arabic verbs are triliteral (oe, that is to say, contain three radical letters, though quadriliteral 35 (Gets) verbs are by no means rare. 34. From the first or ground-form of the triliteral and quadri- B literal verbs are derived in different ways several other forms, which express various modifications of the idea conveyed by tho fire. 35. The derived forms of the triliteral verb are usually reckoned fifteen in number, but the learner may pass over the last four, because (with the exception of the twelfth) they are of very rare occurrence. Subs x1. Je05 VI. Jai 1. esa xu. aid vu. Jai mL pads XIII. JS vn Jeb OL c Seah XIV. Jat mx. Sah iv. tah xv. Jaz x. Jali Vv. Rum. a. The 3d pers. sing. mase. Porf., being the of the verb, is commonly used as paradigm, but for shortness’ sake we always render it into English by the infinitive; JS to wi, instead of he has killed.30 Parr Seconn.—Etymology or the Parts of Speech. (§ 36 A Ras, 5, Tho Arab grammarians use the verb Jad (bpp) a paradigm, whence the first radical of the triliteral verb is called by them iii the fa, the second Cyeall the ‘ain, and the third, ahi the Lam. Rex. ¢, Aa the above order and numbering of the conjugations ‘are those adopted in all the European Lexicons, the learner should note them carefully. 36. Tho first or ground-form is generally transitive (Gass) or intransitive (ais eb or 259) in signification, according to the vowel which accompanies its second radical. B 37. The vowel of the second radical is a in most of the transitive, ‘and not a few of the intransitive verbs; e.g. $42 to beat, 2% to write, JE to kill, Lb} to give; LAS to yo away, 345 to go the right way, wala to sit, 38. The vowel i in the same position has generally an intransitive signification, u invariably no. ‘Tho distinction between them is, that é indicates a temporary state or condition, or a merely accidental quality in persons or things; whilst w indicates a permanent state, or a C naturally inherent quality. E.g. oe or Jas to be glad, Se to be sorry, 53% ot sla to bw proud and insolent, 43h to become whitish, ors to becoms gray, ik to be safe and sound, aya to be sick, obo to become old, (gyé to be blind; but Gynt to bo beautiful, Ef to be ugly, A310 b0 heavy, G5 to be high or noble*, Ji to be low or mean, 2 to be large, zhao to be small. D Rau. a. Many vorbs of the form jad are transitive according to our way of thinking, and therefore govern the accusative, eg. Ae to know (ecire), Gaus to think, my to pity or have mercy spon, fog” to Ber. © [0r, 40 become noble, for the form with w of the recond radical often means to become what one was not before, Kamil, p. 415.—De G.] § 41] 1. The Verb. A. General View. 1. Forms of Triliteral Verb. 31 Raw, }. The same threo forms occur in Hebrew and Aramaic, A though the distinction in in these languages no longer 90 clearly marked. [See Comp. Gr. p. 165 saq.] is formed from the first (Jad) by 39. The second form ( doubling the second radical. 40. The si intensive (aii ification agrees with the form in respect of being ) oF extensive (SSW). Originally it implies that an act is done with great violence (intensive), or during a long time (temporally extensive), or to or by a number of individuals (numerically extensive), or repeatedly (iterative or frequentative). Eg. beat, 5-5 to beat violently ; > to break, p> to break in pieces; AS to cut, ELS t0 cut in pisces; 55 to separate, 555 to disperse ; (SS to kill, J t0 massucre ; Sle or Hb to go round, Son or Sys t0 go round much or often ; 5&) to weep, «gi to weep much; SUIT Ss the cattle died off rapidly or in great numbers (Ste to die); Dy Jeet the cumet kneeled down, aii Sz) the (whole drove of) camels kneeled down. 41. From this original intensive meaning arises the more usual C causative or factitive signification. Verbs that are intransitive in the firat form become transitiee in the second; a8 gyi to be glad, oe to gladden ; to be weak, 525 to weaken, Those that are transitive in the first become doubly transitive or causative in the wecond ; an 15 to know, 216 to teach ; Bd to write, 5d to teach to write; Som to carry, Jem to make carry. Rew.a, The causative or factitive signification is common to D second and fourth forms, the apparent difference being that it is original in the latter, but derived in the former, Rew. . The second form is often rather declarative or estimative than factitive in the strict sense of the torm; as pd to lie, pid 0 think or call one a liar ; Gio to tell the truth, Sno to think that cone tella the truth, to believe him.A D 82 Parr Seconp.—Etymology or the Parts of Speech. [§ 42 Rex. c. The second form in frequently denominative, and ex- pressos with various modifications the making or doing of, or being occupied with, the thing expressed by the noun from which it is derived ; e.g. cede to pitch @ tent (Xjek), to droell in a place, Arm to collect an army (Ei), 2k) to pave with marble (airy), asi to become bent like a bow (ug8), pe to nurse the sik (Heys), Slee’ to skin an animal, to Bind a book (he. the akin, compare our ‘to stone fruit” and ‘to stone s person”), 3y to clean an animal of ticks (3458), cgi to take a mote (G48) out of the eye. Compare in Hebrew 873, 331, Tht, Spo,:ete. Similarly, aba he said to him 3 ELS. (may thy nose, or the like, be cut off), sles he said to him BH WEE (may God prolong thy life), ae A he said to him LIE LAG (pence be upon thee), jedo s shouted the Moslem swar-ery, CBI abi), FA Mb JES Go te who entera (the city of) Zafar, must epenk Himyaritic (the language of Himyar, sem). Sometimes, like the fourth form, it expresses movement towards a place; as 425 to set out in any direction (a3), pS to go to the east (3,5), ph to go to the went (ili) . oy-05 csalell Ub Se he toent up and down the valley. Rew. d. Jad corresponds in form, as well as in signification, to the Heb. bygp and Aram, Sep, WG.d.—[see Comp. Gr. p. 198 so] 42. The third form (Jet) is formed from the first (Sas) by lengthening the vowel-sound 2 after the first radical, as is indicated by the 2Ui/ productionis. 43. It modifies the signification of the ground-form in the follow- ing ways, (a) When jad denotes an act that immediately affects an object (direct object or accusative), JéU expresses the efort or attempt to perform that act upon the object, in which case the idea of reciprocity (dBi) is added when the effort is necessarily or accidentally a mutual one. B.g. 465 he Filled him, a6 he (tried to Kill him or) fought with him ; 25ap he beat him, sole he fought with him ; ape § 48) 1. The Verb. A. General View. 1. Forms of Trititeral Verb. 38 he threw him down, 62; he serestled with him ; SLi he overcame him, A Sb he tried to overcome him ; aii he outran him, ai he ran a race with him; 44;5 he surpassed him in rank, ail he strove to dom; AB he strove to dom, he vied with him in rank and glory; 45a5 he excelled him in composing poetry, S215 he competed swith kim in doing s0; Sad. he got the better of him in a lawsuit, ayolén he went to law with him. () When the first or fourth form denotes an act, the relation B of which to an object is expressed by means of a preposition (indirect object), the third form omverts that indirect object into the immediate or direct object of the act (xecusative). The idea of reciprucity is here, asin the former case, more or less distinctly implied. Bg. cg) i The sorte (a letter) to the king, SAS Ste he wrate to the king, U5 he said to him (something), sig\5 he Ubi nT Fy J25t he sent (a message) to the sultan, C saga ed Sle LG he sat beside the Pome mander of the Faithful, Sasa Feth SIR do. sty Bs he Soll upon shim, attacked him, 43515 do. ; she jUL4 he advised him, sulted with him. : (c) When jad denotes » quality or state, JEU indicates that one person makes use of that quality towards another and affects kim thereby, or brings him into that state, B.g. Gebde to be rough or harsh, aNd he treated him harshly; S—s to be good or kind, jhe he treated him Kindly; G9) to be soft or gentle, 42295 he treated him gently; 5 to be hard, AAS he hardened himself against him or it ; Ai85 or 5 to lead a comfortable life, A225 he procured him the means of doing 30, Rew. a. The third form is sometimes donominative, but. tho sgt he con- ideas of offort and reciprocity are always more or less clearly implied. Bug. ELS to double, from is the like or equal ; jit w, 534 Part Seconn.—Ftymology or the Parts of Speech. [§ 44 A to double, fold (3,6) on fold; abt UIs may God keep thee safe and wall, from £58 robuat health: JHC t0 go om a journey (he). Rew. 5, JeU5 corresponds in form and signification to the Heb. Sup (Arab. a= Heb. 4); s00 Comp. Gr. p. 202 sy [Raw « Ina fow vorbs the third form is used in the sense of thefourth. ‘Thus Jats, SLs (G1. Geog.s.v. Jas). Zamabiari, Paik, 4. 197 cites sash, sbtp, ole for vassl etc. Alo @ll= aul, B Aghant xiii, 52.—De G.) 44.) Tho fourth form (Sail) is formed by prefixing to the root the ayllable f, in consequence of which the first radical loses its vowel. 48. Its signification in fuctitive or causative (Hass). If the intransitive in the first form, it becomes transitive in the ; if transitive in the firat, it becomes doubly transitive in the fourth. Bg. esse 0 run, (ggert to make run; Le to sit dnon, Crbeth to bid one ot dem GAIT SEI he ate Dread, Sat ET he gave him bread to eat ; 45230 gly he enw the thing, nigl 85) he showed him the thing. Reu. a. When both the second and fourth forms of a verb ‘are causative (§ 41, rem. a), they have in some cases different significations, in others the same. E.g. 16 to know, he to teach, Et to inform ona of a thing ; lai to escape, (goes and «gepil to eet fat liberty, to lat 9. Comp. jai and jee, D —_Rra. 5, The fourth form is sometimes declarative or estimative, like the second as aiji de thought him, or found him to be, niggardly ; agai he thought him, or found him to br, cowardly ; 35624 he found him, or it, to be praiseworthy or commendable ; SDT GA he found the district abounding in fresh herbage. * Rew. ¢. ‘The fourth form comprises a great: number of denomi- natives, many of which are apparently intransitive, because the Arabs often regard as an act what we view asa state. Such verba combine with the idea of the noun, from which they are derived, that of a transitive verb, of which it ia the direct object. E.g. Jas eis * Comp. 551. § 45) L The Verb. A. General View. 1. Forms of Triliteral Verb. 35 to produce herbage (Jj, 531 to put out leaves (393) paSl to bear A fruit (343), jlaal to give or yield rain (5la%); Comeil to beget a noble son, Szdoil, S57, ahs bors a male or a female child, S215 she bore tins (compare ‘to Hower,” “to seed,” “ to ealve,” “to lamb”); Git eat dont, EDN 0 eat with party and crea Mi to give a Proof ) of his prowese in battle; Gael, sisi, (0 act well or ith fault or error, wptal to do or say what is right; Lagi to bs alow or B tardy Erte mate haste; a to run with outetretched neck ; ST to become fullgrown (from & 4 tooth) ; SUSI to dwell or remain in a place—Another class of these denominatives indicates move- ment towards @ place (compare “to make for a place”), the entering ‘upon a period of time (being, doing, or suffering something therein), getting into a state or condition, acquiring a quality, obtaining or having something, or becoming something, of a certain kind*. E.g. Jail 10 advance, 5231 to retire (“reculer”), 251 to go on boldly C (compare, in Hebrow, |" to go to the right, and Symi, to (sail), Sap5I to go to 8-Megd (Sm), 234 t0 go to Tihama ua, pti to go to Utrak (Styli), 5301 to enter the Jaram or sacred tarvitory 5 col adi, it to mie spon the tine of morning ua, mid-day Cra ) camely, Gch to abound in beats of prey oF to, have onde flocks evoured by them, Lit wo abound in lisards (G25) oF to be foagy people) or to be dry (of a season), I to become penniless (wo be * [Hence in a few cases IV. serves (instead of VII. or VIII.) tw the p gts of I. Thus &B he threw him on hia face, St he fell on his face, Seapets he held him back, papert he drow back, he retired.)36 Part SEcOND.—Etymology or the Parts of Speech. [§ 46 A. reduced to the last farthing, 55), 2321, j96, to be reduced to uller want; abl to become cloudy, iki to become worn out (of a garment) ; Jai to become dubious or confused; &N9\ to become plain or clear; (S21 10 become possible—Another shade of meaning (CALI, deprivation) may be exemplified by such words as idl, (0 break onde compact seth a person % 65H ko remowe ons conse AEST Sabi he pointed (the text of) the book, literally, B took away its deat, obscurity or want of clearness. Rex. d. Jail corresponds in form and signification to the Heb. bropn, Phan. beep (xn, Aram. bupx, Gof, Seo Comp. Gr. p. 204 seq. ‘The Hebrew, it vill be observed, has 7] as the prefix, instead of the feebler Arabic and Aramaic X- Some traces of the A are still discoverable in Arabic; as cis for Eni to give reat to, t0 let rest ; syittor SN to wish ; Gish for Si} to pour out for Jt to mark a cloth; Aa give, for oA (rad. i, TINK, 0 come); WON fo believe, Forms like Gla are treated in Arabio as quadriliterals (sce §§ 67, 68, and 118) impert. Sent or Sem rents nom. patient, Shes or Shea, 46. ‘Tho fifth form (Jad5) is formed from the second (Jad) by prefixing the syllable S. D 47. This form annexes to the significations of the second the reflerive force of the syllable Ss; it is the sth’ of the second form, that is to say, it expresses the state into which the object of the action denoted by the second form is brought by that action, as efecto result, In English it must cften be rendered by the passive. E.g. 5-55 to be broken in pieces, Spi5 to be dispersed, CEE to be out in pieces, 27-35 to be moved or agitated ; to be afraid (Syd to terrify), dies SIGS he girt on li odd he git sword upon him—another person); 35, 4835, to be proud; Hel, 355, to side + B21 in properly to listen, to givs attention to a complaint § 47] 1. The Verb. A. General View. 1. Forms of Triliteral Verb. 37 with Kais or Nizar, 6385, ib GS) or of the Sta eee. 35 to call oneself an Arab, 5d to brome a Jew (Gos, Sa to become a fresorshipper (Sse), 5555 to Derome a Christian (Si5p25), CS to gine oneself out as. prophet (tug), Sol5 tc become as Dold or flerce as a lion (Sch, KS to become as savage as a leopard (593); he5 to try to acquire, to fect, cemeney, BoB, ya, to affect courage or manliness, B to endure with patience a, Co, 985, 5, to abstain from, oF edi to avoid blame. Rest a. ‘The idea of intensiveness may be traced even in cases i, at first sight, to have wholly disappeared, leaving form apparently identical in meaning with the eighth. wor crime, ae it Thos LT Gris and GAT F75 are both translated the people dispersed, bat. 573) oxpresses the mere separation, JpA5 the separa- tion into a great many groups or in various directions. c Rem. 6. ‘The idea of especially in such verbs as govern an accusative; e.g. oJ lo pursue step by step (literally, to make oneself, or turn oneself into, a pursuer of something), GLb5 to seck earnestly, pai to try 0 rriveness is often,not very prominent, understand, Gad to examine or study thing carefully, so that it be quite clear, o ascertein a thing for certain, may be yi 0 investigate thoroughly, ets to smell leisurely and cargfully, 5-5 to look at loug or repeatedly, to exumine or study, eS to hear D OF listen to, IK 10 apeat, J ta have charge of to discharge the duties of, es to mwaltow by mouthfulé, on S515 to milk or suck at intervals, S555 to ynavo, ke take under one’s arm, Ju 93 to put under one's head as a pillow, 5235 to take as an abode, .s5 to adopt as @ sont. © [In oome cases the difference between II.and V. entirely disap, ‘Thus for 95, am-5 (§ 41, rem. c) we may substitute yw without change of sense.)38 Pant Seconn.—Etymology or the Parts of Spesch. [§ 48 A Raa. c. The above examples show that the subject of the fifth form ia sometimes the direct object of the act (accusative), sometimes the indirect object (dati 48. Out of the original reflexive signitication arises a second, which is even more common, namely the effective. It differs from the passive in this—that the pawive indicates that « porson ia the object of, or experiences the effect of, the action of another ; whereas the afectice implies that an act is done to person, or a state pro- duced in him, whether it be caused by another or by himself. Eg. Bielé to know, fe to teach, 2165 to become learned, to learn, quite diferent from ale (passive of 12) to be taught, We can say as ae, he was taught (received instruction), but did not learn (become learned)*. Again, SN) to be separate, distinct, clear, Gsei to make clear, explain, Se3 to appear clear or certain ; Saa-5 to become, or prove to be, the reality oF, fact. Rem. a. Such of these verbs as govern an accusative admit not only of an impersonal, but also of a personal passive; 0g. hat AT he learned the art of medicine, lit Las the art of medicine was learned, Raw. 6. jaiS sometimes assumes the form Jai @® 11), whence we see ite identity with the Heb Sean or Sepnn and the Aram. Sepnw, dz) (e00 § 41, rom. a). D 49. The sizth form }) is formed from the third (jc), likewine by prefixing the eyllable &. 50. Ibis the Gyths (see § 47) of the third form, as Se 2324, I kept him aloof and he kept (or said) aloof—Tho idea of effort and attempt, which is transitive in the third form, becomes reflecive in the sixth ; ©.g. (seh3 to throw oneself down at full length, JS to be off one's guard, to neglect » thing, uighly O55 to draw @ gud omen from * Using » Scoticism, we might say, he was Learned (= taught), but did not learn, §50) I. The Verb. A. General View. 1. Forms of Triliteral Verb. 89 the thing, 255 to pretend to be dead, 52105 t0 pretend to be blind, A BlES to pretend to squint, SUS to pretend to ory, wasted to foign sickness, Jats to feign ignorance, g&3 to pretend to be deceived. Further, the possible reciprocity (44;(2.31) of the third form becomes a necessary reciprocity, inasmuch ax the sixth form includes the object of the third among the subjects that exercise an influence AGU he fought with him, NS the tro spoke to him, \peiiS they (the three) B 1 OST QU, be tried to pull away the garment from him, 2531 Gi25 the too pulled the garment to and fro between them; Lyactt i365 he conversed or argued with them, Egat ye they conversed together ot argued with one another ; SbkgT 1G he tried to make him forget the hatred between them, s forgot their mutual hatred; whence in the passive, 51 Syed, Leaeli p94, and EAGT oy. c Rem. a When used in speaking of God, the assertory (not optative) perfects Ij65 and (,ita5 are examples of the reflexive signification of this form: abl Jj(3 God has made Himself (is become of and through Himself) Blessed, o perfect, above alt; ee 5 God has made Himself uplifted, or exalted, above all ; Hy IG BT JE God (Blessed and enalted is He above all) Jas said (ef. vol. ii. §1f. rem. Somewhat similarly, oT a-Stei D the thing made iteef (Became oF 100s) too great, or dificult, for hin ; Boo Gta FFF 5h ie ta ow matter than which nothing maker iteelf greater (or more important), with which nothing can vis in importance. Rem. 6, As the reciprocal signification requires at least two subjects, the singular of the sixth form is in this case always 5 Ut 4g ELF the people heard of it from one upon one another with one anoth40 Part Szconn.—Etymology or the Parts of Speech. [§ 51 A Fs | (ie tribe of) Kortié came to him, all of them, following one Rew, The iden of reciprocity may be confined to the parts of one and the same cohserentes,” to be of compact and firm build; Hyait 55165 the woman became middl-aged and corpulent (each part of her body, su it wore, supporting, and so strengthening, the others); gé1a3 HST che building cracked and threatened to fall (as if its parts Bava B called on one another to do 80; compare gas ale (6155 the ony gas, NS E55 the cloud tightened and thundered from every quarter) [Hence this form is appropriate to actions that take place bit by Dit, or by successive (and painful) efforts, as to fell picce by piece, JalL5 to carry onceelf with dificulty (gE A. in walking®).] c Rew. d. JUS sometimes assumes the form féti5t (§ 111), and is consequontly identical with the Heb. Oxsipnin (aco §43, rem. 6). B1. The seventh form (Sadi) i is formed from the first (Jad) by prefixing a ¢», before which is added a prosthetic | to facilitate the pronunciation (see § 26). Rew. For the cases in which this | becomes 7, and why, see {§ 18 and 19, , with rom. ¢; and as to the orthography 1 instead of $819, rem. a. 7 D 82. The seventh form has also originally, as @ stie of the fit, a middle or reflexive signification, It must be aaa however, (@) that the reflexive pronoun contained in it is never the indirect object (dative), to which may be added another direct object (accu- sative), but always the direct object itself; and (8) that it never ascumes the reciprocal signification. By these two points the seventh form is distinguished fom the eighth, and approaches more nearly enemy adoanced againat him from every si © [Bee OL Geog. 0.0. Jem, Hamdsa p. 20 frst va and comm.— De] §54] I. The Verb. A. General View, 1. Forms of Triliterat Verb, 41 to a passive, At tho same time, the aféctive signification ia often A developed in it out of the reflexive, Eg. G1 to open (of a flower), lit, to split itself; jt to break (intrans.), to be broken ; Aleit! to be out off, to be ended, to end ; AEE to be uncovered, to be made manifest, to appear ; last to become broken, to break into pieces; SMEI to be uttered or spoken, 53. Sometimes the seventh form implies that s person allows B an act to be done in reference to him, or an effect to be produced upon him; eg. deceived ; put to let oneself be drawn or dragged. Rem. a. Hence it is clear that such words as Gor, to be stupid or foolish ; ASAI to be non-existent or missing, wot to be found, from ss not to have; gg), from (sgh to sink C down, to fall; 31331 to be repeuted, from 316 to return; SLbit to be in strate of distress, from GUS to be narrow ; are incorrectly formed, though in actual use, especially in more recent times, Rem. 6. Sometimes, particularly in modern Arabic, the seventh form serves as the ens of the fourth; eg. to be bolted, 1 to be extinguished, from Ub to extinguish » AGI to be put to rights, from ao to put to rights, (Similarly p CH Sibi, Qs, the last in a tradition, and so anciont, Faike i 63.—De @] Rau. ¢. fail) corresponds to the Heb, bpp: see Comp. Gr. p. 215 0g. 54, ‘Tho cighth form (ai is formed from the first (Jad) by inserting the syllable 2 between the first and second radicala. The first radical in consequence loses its vowel, and it becomes necessary to prefix the prosthetic | (§ 51, rem.). Wy 6