the basics of filmmaking

screenwriting, producing, directing, cinematography,

audio & editing

blain brown
the basics of filmmaking
screenwriting, producing, directing, cinematography,
audio & editing

blain brown
First published 2020
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE BASICS OF FILMMAKING

There are no rules in filmmaking, right?
Telling Stories Visually
Top Ten Ways to Screw Up Your Movie
Production Mistakes

WRITING YOUR STORY

Telling Stories With Pictures
Is It Plot Or Story?
How Short Films Are Different
It All Starts With Conflict
External Conflict
Internal Conflict
Protagonist v Antagonist
The Need
Changing Direction
Obstacles
Roadblocks
Premise
The Theme: What Is Your Story Really About?
Aristotle
Creating Characters
Write Their Backstory
Point-of-View
What is their Dramatic Need? Their Goal?
25 Words Or Less
The Cards and the Outline
The Step Outline
The Cards
Synopsis
Three Act Structure
Beginning, Middle and End
Story Points
Getting The Story Started
Plot Point One
Act Two
Midpoint
Plot Point Two
Wrapping It Up
Don’t Jump The Shark!
We’re Gonna’ Need A Bigger Boat!
Emotionally Satisfying Ending
Let’s Review
Dialog That Is Not On the Nose
Subtext
Fully Cooked
Not Exposing Your Exposition
Why is it a necessary evil?
Show, Don’t Tell
Formatting A Script
A Sample Script Page
Loglines, Treatment and Synopsis
Synopsis
Logline
Presentation
Binding
Pitching
The Elevator Pitch
PRODUCTION
What Is a Producer?
Executive Producer
Producer
Associate Producer
Line Producer
Unit Production Manager
The Production Team
The Production Office
On The Set
Pre-production
Other Departments
Location Scouting
Making a Budget
The Budget Form
The Top Sheet
Budget Details
Script Marking
Eighths of a Page
Breakdown Pages
Tech Scout
The Walk Through
Script Pages and Scene Numbers
Locked Script
Script Page Color Code
Putting a Crew Together
Permits
Stealing Scenes
Pickup Day
Reshoots
Location Scouting
Location Checklist
Tech Scouts
 Location Checklist
Contact Lists
Day Out of Days
Transpo
Transpo Coordinator
Production Report
Releases and Deal Memos
Contracts
Deal Memos
Crew Deal Memo
Talent Releases
Why Releases Are Important
Talent Release Form
Location Release
Sides
Catering/Craft Services
Walkie-Talkies
Setiquette
What Production Assistants Do
Receipts

THE AD TEAM
Running the Show
First Assistant Director
Second AD
Second Second AD
Production Assistants
The Jobs of the First Assistant Director
First AD — Pre-production
Things you should do:
Things not to do:
Creating the Schedule
Strip Boards
 Cover Sets
Strip Boards on Computer
Other Schedule Considerations
How the First AD Runs the Set
Rough In
Blocking Rehearsal
Lighting
Final Rehearsal
Last Looks
Second AD
Second Second AD
Production Assistants
What a PA doesn’t do
Ways for a PA (or anybody) to Get Fired
How to Survive As An Extra:

CONTINUITY AND COVERAGE

Continuity: Making Sure It Works
Continuity
Cutability
Screen Direction
The Line
The 20% Rule
The 30 Degree Rule
Two Lens Sizes
Point-of-View
True Subjective POV
Screen Direction In Dialog Scenes
Jump Cuts
Ellipsis
Door and Window Match
Location Stitching
Faking it with Redressing
 Types of Continuity
Wardrobe
Screen direction
Props
Time

THE WORK OF THE DIRECTOR

Director and Producer
The Director’s Jobs
The Stages of Filmmaking
Getting Started
Understanding The Script
Table Read
Rehearsal
Page Turn
Director’s Pre-Production
Casting
Location scout
Collaborations
A Director Prepares
The shot list
Setups
Sketches
Overheads
Storyboards
Working With Actors
Action, Attitude, Activity
Blocking the Actors
Blocking For The Camera
Block, Light, Rehearse, Shoot
Action, Cut, Circle That
The Shooting Methods
The Master Scene Method
 Overlapping or Triple-Take Method
In-One
The Developing Master
Walk and Talk
Freeform Method
Montage
Invisible Technique

CINEMATOGRAPHY
The Camera Department
Director of Photography
First AC
Second AC
Clapper-Loader
DMT
DIT
Operator
Second Unit
Shooting Digital
Aspect Ratio
Frame Rate
Camera Terms
Focal Length
The personality of a lens
Iris/Aperture
Rack Focus / Focus Pull
Shallow Focus
Exposure
Don’t Blow Out the Highlights, Don’t Get Into Noise
Histogram
Zebras
Color Balance
Composition
 Point-of-View
The Shots: Building Blocks of a Scene
Character Shots
Typical Character Shots
Inserts
Framing People
Camera Support
Camera Angles
Camera Movements
The Prime Directive
Managing Your Media
Marking
Marking During Blocking Rehearsal
Pulling Focus
Some focus practices:
Shooting Greenscreen
Background Plates
The Foreground Plate
Tracking Marks Are Important

LIGHTING AND GRIP

Why Lighting Matters
The Most Important Thing About Lighting
The Lighting Process
Types of Lights
Fresnels
Open face
LEDs
Fluorescent
Practicals
Hard vs. Soft
Hard Light
Soft Light
 Lighting Terms and Concepts
Basic Principles
Let The Set and the Scene Motivate Your Lighting
Back Cross Keys
Less Is More
Lighting Methods
Controlling Light
The Amazing C-Stand
How To Set a Light
Getting Power
Expendables
Lighting Order
Lighting Definitions

THE ART DEPARTMENT

The Art Department
Production Designer
Art Director
Set Construction, Scenic Artists
Set Decorator
Set Dresser
Props
Finding the Look of a Film
The Right Details
Wardrobe
Continuity
Makeup and Hair
Building Sets

SLATING AND SCRIPTY

Scripty
Lining A Script
A Sample Lined Script
 Sample Script Notes
Script Notes Key
End of Day Report
Anatomy of a Slate
Slate Numbers For Coverage
Clapboards
Scene Numbers
Slate Like A Pro
Tail Slates
Reshoots
VFX Plates and Room Tone

AUDIO BASICS
Double System vs. Single System Sound
Sound Recordist Team
Microphones
Phantom Power
Audio Basics
Rule #1
Rule #2
Scratch Track
Room Tone
ADR Is Expensive
Headphones
Boom Operating
Mixing Audio
Shooting To Playback
Sound reports
Syncing
Timecode Slate

THE WORK OF THE EDITOR

Why Do We Edit?
 What the Editor Does
The Director/Editor Collaboration
The Six Steps of Editing
Logging
First Assembly
Rough Cut
First Cut
Fine Cut
Final Cut
What Is an Edit?
Post-Production
Continuity Cutting
Seven Elements of Editing
Types of Edits
Establishing The Geography
Invisible Technique
J and L Cuts
Jump Cuts
Hidden Cuts
Walter Murch’s Rule of Six
Emotion
Story
Rhythm
Eye-Trace
Two-Dimensional Place On Screen
Three-Dimensional Space
Ellipsis and Cross-Cutting

SAFETY ON THE SET

Get Out Alive!

GETTING STARTED IN THE BUSINESS

Film School?
 Working as a PA
Shoot a Trailer
Make a Short Film, or Even A Whole Movie
Work as Background/Extra

TERMINOLOGY

RESOURCES
How To Read a Movie
The Story
The Frame
Movement
Lighting
Editing
Time
Audio
Resources
Books
Movies About Movie Making
Great Movies Made on Absurdly Small Budgets
Short Films Worth Seeing
Movies To Watch To Learn About Filmmaking
Websites for Filmmakers
Job Search
Online Classes in Filmmaking
Dedication
About The Author
The Website

INDEX

 
WHAT’S ON THE WEBSITE
The website that accompanies this book is at: www.routledge.com/cw/brown
VIDEOS

Lighting basics
Seven ways of lighting a scene
Types of lights and controlling light
Exposure and color balance
Microphones, audio recording, and timecode
Boom operating technique and how to use lavaliers
Methods of shooting a scene
Proper slating techniques

DOWNLOADABLE PRODUCTION FORMS

Budget Form
Budget Top Sheet
Breakdown Sheet
Call Sheet
Lighting and Grip Order
Expendables Order
Actor Release
Location Release
Crew Deal Memo
Location Scout Form
Wardrobe Continuity Sheet
Camera Report
Sound Report
End of Day Report
There are no rules in filmmaking,
right?

People often say “there are no rules in filmmaking.” I’ve probably even said
it myself. Well, as it turns out, there are dozens of rules in filmmaking. Not
creatively, not artistically, not in what you want to say in a film — for those,
the sky’s the limit! But for the fundamental mechanics of getting a film
made, there are rules that if you break them, your movie might be
uneditable, unwatchable, or unreleasable, and possibly all three. While it is
not at all easy to get your first movie made, a lot of people manage to do it.
The real barrier comes when you try to make your second movie. Many
people never get a chance to make a second movie because their first film
demonstrates that they lack knowledge of these basic principles of
filmmaking — and it’s there for everybody to see. Don’t be one of those
people!
Much of what we are going to explore here are not so much rules as SOP
— Standard Operating Procedures. These are important for a lot of reasons.
If you get a chance to observe the first day of a project being produced
professionally, you will see that sometimes, few of the people actually know
each other, and yet everybody knows what to do, what others are doing, and
what is expected. They can all work together for one simple reason —
professional film crews know “how things are done.” They have learned the
techniques and procedures of how a movie gets made. Sure, there are small
variations in how people do things, but overall, they all share the same
knowledge of techniques.
 Over 30 years in the film business and ten years teaching in film schools I
learned “the hard way” what works and doesn’t work in film production.
Fortunately, you learn from your mistakes, and I made plenty of them,
especially as I was new to the business working as a gaffer, then a DP and
then a screenwriter, director and producer. Before that, as a PA and then
electrician (lighting technician), I was able to observe the people in charge
doing it the right way, the wrong way, and the very, very wrong way. Small
mistakes that make editing a project difficult (and expensive reshoots
necessary), up to big mistakes that mean disaster — to the point of a film
being unreleasable, or even not getting finished.

TELLING STORIES VISUALLY

As a teacher I assigned, helped with, or screened hundreds of student
projects, so I was able to see the kinds of mistakes that were made over and
over again. I’m hoping this book will help you avoid those kinds of mistakes,
and even more, that the advice here will make you a better filmmaker. I’ve
seen that if you’re really solid on the basics of how to get a film project
made, you have much more time and attention to devote to the creative side
of things; more time to do what is the heart of filmmaking — telling stories
visually.
We’re not going to get “inspirational” in this book — you know, “just do
it!” “follow your heart!” “write what you know!” that sort of thing. Nothing
wrong with that, it’s all (or pretty much all) true but that is not our purpose
here. What I hope you get from this book is the real fundamentals, the basic
concepts of how to write, produce, direct, shoot, record, and edit your movie
— the things that every filmmaker should know.
I’ve had the good fortune to work on feature films, commercials,
documentaries, music videos, and corporate films in the US and many other
countries, and also to observe local film crews at work in places like India,
Mexico, Singapore, Canada, Japan, and China; they all follow the same basic
practices. Why? Because there are ways that work and are efficient and
there are ways that don’t work, waste time and money, and don’t tell the
story effectively. Interestingly, it’s not really a matter of “they learned from
how Hollywood did it.” For the most part, film industries all over the world
developed the basic methods of how to make a movie the same way
Hollywood did — by trial and error.
It’s in the editing room that most of these fundamentals were revealed;
only because it is there that you really see what works, and what doesn’t
work. For example, if you don’t observe proper screen direction in a dialog
scene, you simply can’t edit it together, not at all. At least not in a way that
isn’t going to confuse and irritate the audience and make them laugh at your
incompetence. Same thing applies to lighting, use of lenses, continuity,
dialog, framing and all the rest.
It is heartbreaking to see student filmmakers put so much work, so much
time, effort and commitment into a film only to see them produce something
that “might have been great” if only…. Don’t let this happen to you!
If you plan to show your film in order to get a job in the industry, be
recognized as a filmmaker, or to try to get investors interested in your next
script, then showing that you actually know the mechanics of how a film
gets made is just as important as showing your creative inspiration and
artistic drive. Think about it, what investor is going to give money to
someone who might make a film that is uneditable and unreleasable — that
would be throwing money down the drain. I really hope this book helps you
avoid these pitfalls and makes you a better filmmaker!
Top Ten Ways to Screw Up Your Movie

There are some mistakes that beginning filmmakers make over and over
again and then deeply regret when they are in the editing room or, worse, at
the first screening in front of an audience. The key thing to remember about
filmmaking is that reshoots (shooting a scene over again to correct mistakes)
are always very expensive, and may often be impossible — the location is no
longer available, the actors are engaged elsewhere, you can’t afford to rent
the equipment again, and so on.
Many of these mistakes are things that “seemed like a good idea at the
time,” and most fatally, are made by filmmakers who fool themselves into
thinking “I know all the ways that filmmakers are supposed to do this, but
I’m smarter than all of them.” We will discuss what these mean and why
they are important in later chapters. In order of occurrence and severity they
are:

Not shooting enough coverage.

Not shooting cutaways for every scene.
Not getting good, clean audio of the dialog.
Bad exposure.
Bad focus.
Not recording room tone at every location.
Shaky camera movement when you don’t intend it.
Camera off level.
No establishing shots.
Fooling yourself into thinking “we’ll fix it in post.”
Undercooked script. “But I see it in my head.” “Yeah, but we don’t.”
PRODUCTION MISTAKES
On the production side, the most common mistakes include:

Insufficient planning and pre-production.

Director not prepared with a shot list for every shoot day.
Thinking it will cost less, and take less time than it really will.
Wishful thinking.
The director and the DP not informing the crew of what their plans
are.
Schedule not well worked out.
Not scheduling enough time to shoot scenes properly.
Director saying “I’ll be my own AD” (assistant director).
Not putting out call sheets so actors and crew know when and where
to show up.
Call sheet not including contact numbers for AD, UPM, Production
Office, etc.
Director trying to micromanage everything going on.
AD not keeping control of the set and crew.

And finally: failing to properly feed the cast and crew — this one really
invites disaster. Doesn’t matter if they are being paid or working free, a crew
that doesn’t get coffee and breakfast snacks in the morning, craft service
snacks all day, and a decent lunch no later than 6 hours after start time is not
going to perform at their best and may very likely develop resentment and
anger. Provide plenty of water and soft drinks as well. The craft services
table should be well-stocked all day with a variety of snacks and drinks.
Writing Your Story
Telling Stories With Pictures

All films are about storytelling. Even films that are purely visual have some
kind of story to tell. It is a basic human instinct to respond to a narrative
story. “Narrative” refers to a sequence of events in verbal, written or picture
form that are put together in a way that tells a story. Features and short
films are narrative fiction. A documentary is narrative nonfiction. Reality
shows are narrative fiction constructed from bits of non-fiction.
In filmmaking we are in the business of telling stories with pictures. Now
of course this is a simplification: most films use dialog, music, titles, subtitles
and other media to tell the story, but the visual images are fundamental to
filmmaking: without them we’re really just making radio. It’s an old saying
that a film is well made if you can turn off the sound and still have a pretty
good idea of what is going on. In the end, it really doesn’t matter if the
visuals or the dialog are the stronger element — what really matters is that
you are telling a good story.
So what makes a good story? Many very wise people have analyzed and
thought about what makes good film stories and they have almost all come
to agree on certain basic elements that are essential to film narrative. We’ll
talk about those basic elements in this chapter.

IS IT PLOT OR STORY?

There is a good deal of confusion about the difference between plot and
story. Many people think they are the same thing, but they aren’t at all. Plot
is the sequence of events that occur in the narrative. “This happened, and
then that happened.” It is possible to have a plot with tons of action and it
turns out to be a boring screenplay — most often this is because the story
isn’t engaging and interesting. What is story as opposed to plot? The most
famous example is this: “The Queen died, then the King died.” That is plot.
One thing occurs and then something else occurs. Two events, one after the
other — nothing more.
 There are a million ideas in a world of stories. Humans are storytelling
animals. Everything’s a story, everyone’s got stories, we’re perceiving
stories, we’re interested in stories. So to me, the big nut to crack is how
to tell a story, what’s the right way to tell a particular story.
Richard Linklater (Dazed and Confused, Before Sunrise)

THE QUEEN DIED, THEN THE KING DIED

Here is a story: “The Queen died and then the King died … of grief.” What is
the difference? Very simple: causation. We see how they are connected; how
one thing caused the other. It’s heart wrenching; not only do we see how the
two events are connected, we also experience the sadness of a King so
heartbroken by the death of his Queen that he simply can’t go on living
without her.
You need both: you really can’t tell a story without plot — it is the
sequence of events that tells the story, but don’t get so caught up in the
details of the plot that you forget to tell your basic story. Think of it this
way: a story can be summed up in a few sentences, whereas to tell a plot
you have to start at the beginning and recite every major event that takes
place, beginning to end.

HOW SHORT FILMS ARE DIFFERENT

As a student or a beginning filmmaker, you are most likely going to start by

making short films. The concepts we are presenting here apply to all types of
narrative filmmaking, but there are some differences in a short film. The
obvious one is that you have much less time to establish characters, set up
the situation, introduce the conflict, and then resolve it.
 You have to be efficient in laying these building blocks, getting right to the
point, and making sure each and every scene is necessary and does its job of
introducing the character, showing the action, and moving the story along.
This is why making short films is important to learning filmmaking — it gets
down to the basics, the key elements of storytelling and forces you to
carefully consider the need for each scene, each character, each location.
These skills will serve you well when you move up to longer form
filmmaking.

Figure 1.1. Conflict is fundamental to stories. There are many types of conflict that
propel a story forward.

 Figure 1.2.
Really interesting characters often have an internal conflict: some mental
turmoil that they have to deal with in addition to the external conflicts of the story.

It All Starts With Conflict

There is one thing that is absolutely fundamental to storytelling: conflict.
If there is no conflict, there is no story, it’s really as simple as that. Conflict
in the story is sometimes referred to as trials and tribulations, or the “ring of
fire.” No good story can exist without some conflict the hero or heroine has
to face and overcome. These troubles are part of the rite of being the main
character. This character should undergo some kind of change or
transformation, and the conflicts he or she faces is what causes this change.
Conflict is the obstacle or obstacles that stand in our hero’s way, and
essential to any great film, drama or comedy. These conflicts or obstacles can
be external, internal, or both. No matter what the kind of conflict the
character faces, it is essential that they eventually confront them. If the
character spends the whole movie just avoiding conflict, how boring is that?

EXTERNAL CONFLICT
Some conflicts are big and obvious: Neo fights the Agents inside The Matrix.
Austin Powers battles Dr. Evil, Batman battles the Joker. These are large
external conflicts: the main character has someone or something that they
have to fight against.
External conflicts might be person vs. person, person vs. society
(Scarface), person vs. machines (Terminator) or people vs. zombies (lots of
movies). It might even be person vs. supernatural (The Lost Boys) or person
vs. monster (Alien).

Usually, we combine internal and external conflicts for a richer story.

That means we have to understand how our characters approach and
resolve conflict.
Jami Gold (Using Conflict to Understand Our Characters)

Some external conflicts are small and confined: Vinny in My Cousin

Vinny has to win the case by fighting the local district attorney in court
while also overcoming the objections of the stern judge and also trying to
maintain his relationship with his girlfriend — multiple conflicts; one of the
things that makes it such a good story.
When our main character is faced with conflict and opposition, either
from the antagonist or elsewhere, they have to confront this opposition.
Without confrontation, our protagonist would be just a victim who
surrenders — not a very interesting type.

INTERNAL CONFLICT

Sometimes, the basic conflict of the story is internal — it is something inside

the main character that he or she has to overcome by themselves or with
help. Think of the Bill Murray character in Groundhog Day. In the
beginning, he is totally selfish and self-centered, he doesn’t care about
anybody but himself. These are internal conflicts within his own personality.
It is only when he overcomes these internal problems and discovers the joy
of being nice to other people that he is able to stop living the same day over
and over again. You might think of the fact that he can’t escape from living
the same day over and over again as his conflict but it’s really just a plot
device that forces him to deal with his internal conflicts.
Another example is Sgt. Riggs in the first Lethal Weapon movie. He faces
external conflicts of course (drug dealers) but he also has an internal conflict
— he feels suicidal over the loss of his wife. Remember how we first meet
him? He jumps off a building with a potential suicide. After that, we see that
he has a one special bullet that he sometimes loads in his revolver and puts
in his mouth — that’s a serious internal conflict. A story can have more than
one conflict but almost always there is one main conflict that is central to
the story. A story can also have a combination of external and internal
conflicts.

Usually, we combine internal and external conflicts for a richer story.

That means we have to understand how our characters approach and
resolve conflict.
Jami Gold (Using Conflict to Understand Our Characters)

Protagonist v Antagonist
 Figure 1.3.
Conflict and tension between the protagonist and antagonist is crucial to a
story.

Figure 1.4.
The characters, especially the main character (protagonist) must have a need,
something they desperately want; in this case, a carrot.

Every story has to have a main character. A story generally has many
characters, but there is always one person who is at the center of the story.
Also called the protagonist or the hero, the main character doesn’t have to
be male or female, young or old. In fact, it doesn’t even have to be human;
think of Wall-E, or a small fish in Finding Nemo. The audience needs to feel
empathy for our main character; otherwise why would they care what
happens to them? Empathy doesn’t mean they necessarily have to love the
character, they just need to care about them in some way.
Lt. Ripley is the main character in the Alien movies; most often (but not
always) the main character is “the good guy,” (male or female) and they are
fighting against the bad guy, which is also known as the antagonist.
As we said, the antagonist is not always a person: sometimes it is a horde
of zombies, or “the machines” or society itself, but most of the time it is
embodied by a single character, such as Ernst Stavro Blofeld. The antagonist
is the person or thing the main character has to fight against in order to
resolve the conflict. In Thelma and Louise, it is society that is the antagonist.
In Gladiator, the protagonist is Maximus and the antagonist is Commodus,
the Emperor — it is a big story with dozens of characters but at its heart it is
one man against another. The antagonist is a very important part of the
story; as Alfred Hitchcock said “The more successful the villain, the more
successful the picture.”

THE NEED

The absolute most important thing about a character, especially the main
character, is that they have a need — something that they absolutely must
possess or achieve: it is what drives the story forward. The main character is
who carries the story. If the audience isn’t involved with what is happening
to the main character there is little chance that they will be engaged by your
story. So what makes the main character “work?” Some examples of a main
character’s dramatic need:

She needs to save the world by getting the nuclear codes back from
the spies.
 He needs to help the kids regain their self-respect by helping them to
win the big soccer game.
The little dog needs to find her way back home.
The robot needs to find another robot to love.
She needs to get that promotion so she can keep her home for her
foster children.

All of these are things that the main character needs; this is what drives
them to take action, to constantly move forward. If a character doesn’t have
a need, they have no reason to do anything except brush their teeth and go
to work. If a main character has a real need, such as saving the world (which
is usually James Bond’s character need), then they will take action, they will
do things. Watching characters do things is what interests us in a story.

I don’t want to show you the character, I want to show you their need.
Aaron Sorkin (A Few Good Men, Moneyball, The Social Network)

What a character’s need is will not always be obvious from the first page;
many times a character might not even realize themselves what their need is
until very late in the story. It would be pretty odd for a character to walk in
the room in the very first scene and say “Wow, I really need to find some
purpose for my life.” Yeah, there are probably people who say things like
that but who wants to hang out with them? To summarize:

The story is about somebody with whom we have some empathy.

This somebody wants something very badly: their need.
This goal is difficult, but possible, to do, get, or achieve.
The story accomplishes maximum emotional impact and audience
connection.
 And the story comes to an emotionally satisfying ending, not
necessarily a happy one.

Changing Direction

Figure 1.5.
As the main character pursues their need, they must meet roadblocks,
obstacles that prevent them from achieving their goal. Without obstacles, the story will
be very boring.

So how do we kick off a story? What gets it going, sets it in motion? Most
stories begin by throwing the main character off balance — something
happens that dramatically changes their situation. In many cases at the
beginning we find the main character more or less in equilibrium, in
balance. They might be happy or they might be miserable, but they are
relatively balanced — static.
This is what kick-starts the story — something happens to throw the
character out of balance: they are marooned on a desert island, he loses his
job, her child is diagnosed with a deadly disease, she discovers deadly
secrets in the company safe — all these things are a major change in their
situation. They force the character to take action.
These things that force a change in direction in the story are major plot
points. A single major change of direction in the beginning of the story is
not enough to keep things going for a 90 minute or a two hour story;
probably not even enough for a 5 or 10 minute short film. That’s why a
feature film script will have many changes of direction in the story — if they
didn’t it would be very hard to keep the audience engaged for two hours or
more.
Let’s take the example of the woman who finds deadly secrets in the
company safe. If the rest of the story was just this: she finds a clue, then she
finds another clue, then she finds another clue, then she finds another clue….
By the fourth or fifth time she finds a clue, the audience is going to be
thinking “who cares, we’ve already seen this.”
The story needs to change direction frequently. Let’s try this: She finds the
deadly secrets, then she finds another clue, then … a big change in direction
— the incriminating documents are found … in her own home. She is being
framed for the secret, but she can’t prove it! She has to escape from the
police. She finds proof that the company she works for is a CIA cover, and
then a dead body turns up in her car, there is a gun with her fingerprints on
it!
These are major changes in direction for the story — they energize the
story and keep it turning. They accomplish one of the most important goals
of a story: they keep the audience asking the essential question: “I wonder
what is going to happen next?” Think of it this way: if they already know
what is going to happen next … you’ve lost ’em.

OBSTACLES

So the story is about conflict, but it can’t just be the same confrontation over
and over again — it has to build. If you start out with the big, final ultimate
battle in the first scene, then where do you go from there? Remember that a
story has to have a beginning, a middle and an end. It would be a big
mistake to just go right to the big fight that wraps it all up. Usually, the
conflicts start small and get bigger and bigger. It’s called “raising the stakes.”

The one story question that matters most is this: “I wonder what’s
going to happen next?” If the audience isn’t constantly asking that
question — you’ve lost ‘em.
Cissi Colpits (Project For a New Physical World)

From the very beginning, however, there have to be obstacles for the
protagonist to overcome. Imagine this: you are describing your story to
someone and it goes like this: “Well, first he breaks out of prison which he
was in for a crime he did not commit, and then he has to elude the federal
marshall who is obsessed with capturing him, and then he has to trick his
ex-wife into revealing the secret of where the money is buried and she tries
to poison him but he escapes, and then for about 60 pages we see some great
scenes of him fly fishing in Canada and the scenery is beautiful and he
catches a lot of fish and there will be some really great music. It’s really
wonderful how much he loves to fish.”
Wow, you had a great story going and then it just stopped … ground to a
total halt. What happened? The character stopped having conflicts; there
were no more obstacles to overcome. Without conflicts there is no story!

ROADBLOCKS

Think of these conflicts as roadblocks in the character’s path. Every time the
character tries to do something, there is something blocking her way —
another obstacle to be overcome. If something comes easily for the hero,
then it’s boring. Overcoming these obstacles is what makes a story move
forward.

Premise
The premise is sort of the “seed” from which the story grows; the basic idea
that gets things started. Generally, it is quite simple. The premise is usually
expressed as a “what if…” It is often what gets you started thinking about a
story. Here are some examples:

What if you lived the same day over and over again? — Groundhog
Day
What if the “real world” wasn’t real at all? — The Matrix
In space, no one can hear you scream — Alien

THE THEME: WHAT IS YOUR STORY REALLY ABOUT?

Robert McKee, one of the greatest screenwriting teachers ever, says this:
“When you find out what your story is really about, print it out and tape it
to your wall.” Now that may sound odd — “when you find out what your
story is about.” Wouldn’t you know that before you start?
It is quite common to not really understand your story until you are well
into the process — indeed many failed screenplays result from the fact that
the writer never really figured it out at all. What your story is “about” is the
theme.

When you make a movie, always try to discover what the theme of the
movie is in one or two words. Every time I made a film, I always knew
what I thought the theme was, the core, in one word. In The Godfather,
 it was succession. In The Conversation, it was privacy. In Apocalypse, it
was morality.

The reason it’s important to have this is because most of the time what
a director really does is make decisions. All day long: Do you want it to
be long hair or short hair? Do you want a dress or pants? Do you want
a beard or no beard? There are many times when you don’t know the
answer. Knowing what the theme is always helps you.

I remember in The Conversation, they brought all these coats to me,

and they said: Do you want him to look like a detective, Humphrey
Bogart? Do you want him to look like a blah blah blah. I didn’t know,
and I said the theme is ‘privacy’ and chose the plastic coat you could
see through. So knowing the theme helps you make a decision when
you’re not sure which way to go.
Francis Ford Coppola (The Godfather, Apocalypse Now, The Conversation)

The theme is most often the “life lesson” or the “moral” of the story; think
of it as what the writer is trying to say about life (or adventure, or love, or
death, or anything at all). Again, the best themes are often very simple. For
example: “Love conquers all” is the theme of many classic novels, plays, and
movies. What are some other great themes?

True love sometimes ends tragically — Romeo and Juliet.

Crime doesn’t pay — Scarface.
Clever and stylish crime pays well — Oceans 8, 11, 12, and 13.
Money can’t buy happiness — Citizen Kane.
Money can buy happiness, and really good lawyers — The Wolf of
Wall Street.

ARISTOTLE
Aristotle was one of those crazy Greek guys who turned out to be right
about a lot of things. Many writing courses still use his book Poetics as a
standard textbook, over two thousand years after he wrote it! His basic ideas
are still very relevant for writers today. The ones that are most often referred
to are The Unities. They are:

Unity of action: as much as possible, stick to the main story; don’t get
lost in a tangle of subplots.
Unity of place: the story is stronger the more it sticks to one place. Of
course, this isn’t always possible, but think of some of the great films
that happen in one place only: Die Hard, Titanic, Rear Window,
Aliens, Dial M For Murder and so on. Confining all the action to a
single place makes it stronger and more intense. Obviously, this
doesn’t apply if you’re writing a James Bond movie where part of
the adventure is traveling to exotic places.
Unity of time: the whole action takes place in a single span of time —
it doesn’t lose energy by jumping around to different times: past,
present and future. Flashbacks are something you want to be very
careful with. Try to avoid them unless absolutely necessary.

So does every story have to take place in one day in the same room? Of
course not, but if you analyze a huge story that sprawls across hundreds of
years and takes place in 30 or 40 locations you’ll often find that the reason
audiences lose interest is that it gets so far away from these basic principles.
If you see a movie that has more than one title that says something like “Ten
Years Later,” you know there might be some trouble ahead. Having a plot
that at least approaches some sort of unity of time and place concentrates
and focuses the story and makes it more intense. As for unity of action —
sticking to the main story and not getting lost in a bunch of subplots — that
is very much still a good idea.

Creating Characters
Your story needs characters; besides the protagonist and antagonist, there
are likely to be supporting characters on both sides and in between. You
need every one of these characters to be interesting, engaging and three-
dimensional, in other words you don’t want them to just be cardboard cut-
outs, what is often called a “caricature.”
Your characters need to seem like real people, with complexity, many
dimensions and their own internal thoughts and processes. If your
antagonist is just a “standard issue bad guy” without anything else going on,
they are likely to be uninteresting and drag your story down. The same
applies to the other characters as well: the more they seem like real people,
the more they will help your story.

WRITE THEIR BACKSTORY

How do you come up with good, interesting characters? One way to start is
to write their backstory. The backstory is what happens to the character
before the movie starts. Think of Indiana Jones’ backstory: he is an
archeology professor, his dad was very strict, as a young man he was
frightened by snakes, he was given the hat by a guy who he was trying to
stop and so on. These are some of the things that helped make him who he
is.

People, and characters are made up of their past experiences. When

crafting a character, one of the most important aspects we consider is
their past.
Gang Lion (Project For a New Physical World)

POINT-OF-VIEW
Every character has to have a point-of-view, a way of looking at things. In
Austin Powers movies, Dr. Evil has a point-of-view: he has a passion for
doing evil, he looks at every situation only in terms of how he can do
something bad. Other characters may see almost everything in terms of their
search for love, money, or fame — these things heavily influence how they
view things and think about things. A character’s point-of-view may not
always be obvious, often it is hidden; frequently the characters themselves
do not understand their own point-of-view.

WHAT IS THEIR DRAMATIC NEED? THEIR GOAL?

Just as with the main character, other people in the story need to have a
character need. For the antagonist (the villain) it may very well be as strong
and dramatic as it is for the protagonist; think of Bane in The Dark Knight
Rises. Secondary characters should have a need as well, although the more
minor the character the less dramatic it might be. If the character is a
bartender in one scene, his need might be “I just want to get through this
shift without punching somebody.”

Characters are the bedrock of your story. Plot is just a series of actions
that happen in a sequence, and without someone to either perpetrate or
suffer the consequences of those actions, you have no one for your
reader to root for, or wish bad things on.
Icy Sedgwick (A Man of Good Character)

But think about this example, see how much it tells us about this
particular bartender? If you start writing a character and just think “He’s a
bartender,” it doesn’t tell you a great deal about him. If you think about the
character as “A bartender who struggles to contain a hidden rage that drives
him nearly to violence every night.” Wow, that’s a guy we want to know
more about; even if your story doesn’t have time to let us know what it is, it
certainly makes him seem like a real guy that interests you, even if he’s
someone you definitely want to avoid.
If nothing else, understanding the need of your characters will get you a
long way toward understanding how to write them; how they will act and
react in certain situations. Kurt Vonnegut said “Before you write, take a
moment to think about what each character wants, even if it’s only a glass of
water.”

25 WORDS OR LESS

Before you really start putting things down on paper, it’s a very good idea to
have a general idea of the basic story. You probably won’t have every little
plot point figured out; you certainly won’t know how every scene will work
out — that is all part of the writing process. You have probably heard the
phrase “tell me your story in 25 words or less.” (It’s a scene in Robert
Altman’s The Player, for example; a movie you should definitely watch if
you want to have an understanding of the motion picture industry at the
studio level.)
The old joke is that you have to keep it to 25 words or less because
producers have very short attention spans — their lips get tired while
reading. That may be true, but it’s not the real reason. In reality, if you can’t
explain your story in a few simple sentences, then you probably don’t
understand your story!
If you start telling your story and you get hung up in tiny details of a
particular scene or wander off on a tangent about some interesting location,
then maybe it means you don’t have a good grasp of the big sweep of your
story, the narrative thread that is going to propel the story forward and keep
the audience engaged and involved.
The Cards and the Outline

Figure 1.6.
Stories should always have rising action — as the story moves along, the
tension gets higher, the stakes are raised, the consequences become more serious.

Some writers start by just opening up a word processor and starting to type.
In the old days, they just put a blank page in the typewriter; in fact most
stories about authors who have writer’s block center around the image of
staring at the frightening sheet of blank paper.
To just start writing like that is, in fact, a terrible way to write. Taking
notes on pieces of paper or even dashing out ideas for a scene are fine, but
they are not an organized way to doing things. Screenplays demand
organization in their structure and they demand organization in how you
think them through.

THE STEP OUTLINE

Before you start writing dialog and action, it is extremely useful to make an
outline of your story points — this is usually called the step outline. It’s
important to keep it simple — stick to the main story points, don’t get
bogged down in details or you’ll lose sight of the big picture.
 Different writers do this in different orders, sometimes even differently
from project to project — some people write an outline first and take the
cards from that; some write the cards first and develop an outline from that.
Screenwriting software usually lets you do it either way.

THE CARDS

Fortunately, there are some very simple but extremely effective methods that
can not only help you get started but can carry you through the entire
process, even into revisions and “fixes.” It is called “the cards” and it couldn’t
be simpler. Get yourself a pack of 3x5 index cards and a felt-tip marker. For
every story point in your story, make a card. Keep it to a few simple words
and write big, clear letters. Why write so big? Because one of the most
useful things you do with the cards is to pin them up on a wall or lay them
out on a table and look at them as a whole. This is what gives you the big
picture — you can see the whole flow of your story and not get lost in the
details of each scene.

A movie, I think is really only four or five moments between two

people; the rest of it exists to give those moments their impact and
resonance. The script exists for that. Everything does.
Robert Towne (Chinatown, Mission Impossible, Tequila Sunrise)

Many writers take their stack of cards with them wherever they go, just
wrapped with a rubber band. This way you can take them out, go through
them one at a time and shuffle them around to see if maybe there is a better
order for the scenes to go in. You can also see if maybe some of the scenes
are not necessary or if some important story point is missing. Some writers
even go so far as to color code them: maybe making action scenes on green
cards or very important plot points on yellow cards, or whatever system you
prefer. What’s important about the story cards is to not get hung up in too
much detail — they should only be the main story points.
Most screenwriting applications also have an outlining and index card
capability. It can be very useful to have your cards on screen so you can
easily rearrange them. The problem is that unless you have a gigantic
monitor for your computer, it is hard to get the effect of seeing them all at
once, so that you really get an overall idea of your story. Fortunately, most
software also allows you to print them out. Printable 3x5 cards are available.
Printing or writing them out allows you to pin them up on the wall, keep
them in your pocket and quickly look at them in a different order.

Rewriting isn’t just about dialogue; it’s the order of the scenes, how
you finish a scene, how you get into a scene.
Tom Stoppard (Brazil, Shakespeare In Love, Empire of the Sun)

SYNOPSIS

A synopsis is a brief summary of your story points. It doesn’t get into dialog
or long descriptions of locations or scenes — it is just the bare bones of the
story told narratively. Some people write a synopsis and some don’t; some
producers want to see a synopsis and some don’t. If you’re writing a
screenplay you should try to write a synopsis of the story in 5 or 10 pages; if
you find it helpful, great. If not, then at least it gave you another chance to
think through your story as a whole. Also, it gave you some practice at
writing a story synopsis — you never know when a producer or financier
will ask for one.
Figure 1.7. Part of a step outline for Raiders of the Lost Ark. Only the plot points, no
dialog, no long descriptions.

 Figure 1.8.
The cards are mostly just the step outline a little simplified, with each plot
point written on a single index card. This is a computer-generated example of a few
cards but many people just write them by hand with a felt-tip marker — it’s important
that you be able to read them at a distance when you pin them up on a corkboard.

Three Act Structure

By far the most widely used story form in filmmaking is the three act
structure. Very roughly, Plot Point One (the first major story point) comes at
the end of the first act, Midpoint occurs somewhere in the middle of Act Two
and Plot Point Two is about the start of Act Three. These three acts are
almost never equal in length. Specifically, Act One and Act Three are almost
always much shorter than Act Two. In the next few sections we’ll define
these terms more precisely.
The way of looking at scripts presented here is based on the ideas of Syd
Fields and Robert McKees, and many other great teachers. There are a few
other ways of analyzing story structure but the basics are really the same in
all of them; sometimes they are just using different terminology.
BEGINNING, MIDDLE AND END

The old saying is that “every story needs a beginning, a middle and an end
— but not necessarily in that order.” The exact order of things is not crucial:
look at films like Memento, Citizen Kane or The Usual Suspects — but for
our purposes now, it’s better to focus on films that take place in the
traditional order: beginning, middle, end.
The beginning is pretty straightforward: there is a Setup where we get to
know the situation and the characters. This is followed by the Plot Point One,
which throws our main character out of balance and presents them a
challenge which they have to overcome.
As our main character struggles to overcome these obstacles and achieve
their need, they come to a Midpoint, where the stakes are raised and they
have new, unexpected obstacles to overcome. So after the Midpoint, where
do things go? We need our story to achieve resolution and come to an end.
This resolution comes about late in Act Two — where the main character
overcomes the obstacles and brings things to a conclusion.
So all of this adds up to a Three Act Structure. In Act One, we have the
Setup where we get to know the situation and the characters. Act One
concludes with Plot Point One — where the story changes direction and the
main character is presented with a challenge.
At Midpoint, the story changes direction again, but not in a way that
resolves the central challenge. The characters are now presented with new
challenges that raise the stakes and make it more difficult.
At Plot Point Two, the crisis climax starts to brings the story to a
resolution. In the Crisis Climax, the main character either wins or loses
against the forces that oppose them.
Act Three is what comes after Plot Point Two and the Crisis Climax. It
sums up what has happened and brings everything to a resolution.
 Figure 1.9.
The act structure of The Shawshank Redemption, as analyzed by Syd Fields.
The basic progression of SetUp, Confrontation and Resolution applies to films of all
lengths, from a short film to a multi-part series like Chernobyl.

Story Points
There will be many story points in your script, but a few of them have
special significance. We talked before about how to get a story started by
creating a serious change in the circumstances of the main character:
something that throws her or him off balance — a challenge, an obstacle that
they must overcome.

GETTING THE STORY STARTED

This first change of direction that starts the story is called Plot Point One or
the Inciting Incident — they are the same thing — that one big change that
presents the challenge that the main character will be dealing with in our
story.
It generally comes about 30 minutes (30 pages) into the script (obviously
this applies only to feature films, in short films it occurs earlier). This is not
an absolute rule, but you’d be surprised how often it turns out to be true.
The first part of the story before the Inciting Incident is where the story is set
up — characters are introduced, we learn about their situation, and the
groundwork is laid for what is going to happen later. This is a very
important part of the storytelling — if we don’t get to know these people,
how are we going to care about what happens to them later?

There’s some truth in an old saying: ‘Movies aren’t written — they are
rewritten, and rewritten, and rewritten.’
Cissi Colpitts (Project For A New Physical World)

Think about the first act of Speed. First we get to see the Keanu Reeves
character staying cool and calm in a dangerous situation; he improvises to
save the life of his partner. In the next sequence we learn more about him:
he takes the bus to work, not a BMW, he is friendly with everyone at his
regular coffee shop — he knows everybody by name. When a bus explodes,
he doesn’t stand around screaming, he gets into action! When the bomber
calls him and makes him personally responsible for saving the people on the
bus — that is Plot Point One. There is no going back for him — something has
changed in a way that can only lead to obstacles, struggle, danger and some
kind of dramatic resolution.

Structure is the key to narrative. These are the crucial questions any
storyteller must answer: Where does it begin? Where does the
beginning start to end, and the middle begin? Where does the middle
start to end, and the end begin?
Nora Ephron (Julie & Julia, You’ve Got Mail, Sleepless In Seattle)
PLOT POINT ONE

You need to be sure that your Plot Point One is strong and clear. It’s what
gets your story started, so it’s important to have a good one. Here are some
Plot Point One moments from great films:

Alien:A deadly life form is let onto the ship.

Die Hard: McClain is trapped in a building held by a brilliant
criminal.
Saving Private Ryan: The Captain is assigned the task of finding
Ryan.

Many writers consider Plot Point One to be the most important moment in
the story — if it doesn’t really change the direction of the story and put the
main character in a seemingly insurmountable situation, then it hasn’t done
its job. It’s very unlikely that the rest of the story is really going to grab the
audience and keep them interested in the coming story developments. The
purest definition of the Plot Point One/Inciting Incident is this: it is the
moment when something happens in the story that seriously affects the
main character’s situation, forcing her or him to take action in response.
 Figure 1.10. Act One is all about introducing the characters, learning the main
character’s need (in this example, a carrot) and setting up the story. At the end of Act
One is Plot Point One, which kicks the story off by throwing the main character out of
balance, by putting them in a situation that they absolutely must deal with.

Act Two

Act Two is the bulk of the story. It’s where things progress and develop;
where the main character meets many difficulties and overcomes them.
These obstacles cause the story to change direction.

MIDPOINT

Somewhere around the middle of the story comes the Midpoint — it is a

major change in direction for the story but not one that solves the essential
conflict. The Midpoint usually adds an extra twist to the story to keep the
audience engaged and interested.
 Most often the Midpoint is also a way of “raising the stakes.” At first it
seemed like all the hero had to do was find the gold, but it turns out that she
must save the life of the innocent child in order to find the gold — a more
difficult challenge; that’s why it is “raising the stakes.” The Midpoint is also
often The Point of No Return, the point in the story where the main
character has to totally commit and there is no way to just “bow out.”

There is only one plot — things are not what they seem.
Jim Thompson (The Killing, Paths of Glory, The Getaway)

THE MIDPOINT OFTEN “STARTS THE CLOCK”

Here’s a classic example of a Midpoint when both the “stakes are raised” and
a “time clock” appears: In the film Titanic, Kate Winslet plays a pampered
Victorian debutante when she begins her journey, engaged to the wrong
man, tied to her mother, suicidal, and then she meets the love of her life…
Leonardo DiCaprio.
For the first half of Act Two, she and Leo fall in love, then at Midpoint,
two key things happen: they confirm their love and, most importantly, the
ship hits an iceberg — a very real obstacle. These two “stakes-are-raised”
incidents force Kate to decide. Is she really in love with Leo; can it last?
Also, can she not die?
Is she really committed to leaving the world of wealth and privilege? Kate
must decide — and fast, because the ship is sinking. Meanwhile, the captain,
having learned his ship is sinking, asks “How much time do we have?” This
“time clock” serves the function of accelerating the pace of the story to the
end. The clock makes it an “all or nothing” proposition. If a story might lead
to “well, we’ll try again next week” — that’s not very gripping is it?
 Most action films have some sort of ticking clock — perhaps the most
perfect is in Goldfinger, where there is an actual clock on the nuclear bomb
that is counting down as Bond fights for his life and then the clock is only
stopped at the last moment: 007 seconds to be exact. But it’s not just action
films that have the time limit, the ticking clock, the “all or nothing” moment.
In Sleepless In Seattle, they need to meet at midnight on top of the Empire
State Building. This is an “all or nothing” moment.

Figure 1.11. Act Two is all about confrontation and raising the stakes, making it even
harder for our character to achieve their goal. Midpoint happens somewhere in here — it
is a big turning point for the story.

Plot Point Two

Most of the time, Plot Point Two is when all seems lost for our character;
where things have got as bad as they can possibly get, but then something
happens that changes the story in a very big way — a dramatic reversal that
ends Act Two and begins Act Three: the Resolution.
Plot Point Two is usually together with the Crisis Climax. It is the do or
die moment in the story. It’s often a big battle (as in the final Harry Potter or
any James Bond film). Sometimes it’s the big game, which by Hollywood
rules is never won or lost until the final pitch of the final out of the final
inning of the final game. Sometimes it is emotional, such as when they
finally meet at the end of Sleepless In Seattle. This is where the main
character either wins or loses — where all the elements of the story come
together for the big resolution.

Generally speaking, things have gone about as far as they can possibly
go when things have gotten about as bad as they can reasonably get.
Tom Stoppard (Shakespeare In Love, Brazil, Empire of the Sun)

WRAPPING IT UP

After the Crisis Climax there are still loose ends to be tied up: the hero rides
off into the sunset, the rogue cop gets his badge back, the guy gets the girl,
all that sort of stuff. All the loose ends of the story are resolved and tied up.
Of course, this is also where you set up the situation for the sequel!

SOME EXAMPLES

The definition of Plot Point Two is a little fuzzier than for Plot Point One, so
some examples will help. Here’s one from the movie Bridesmaids:

Plot Point Two is the moment when Megan comes to Annie’s

apartment to ask her help in finding the missing Lillian — the two
frenemies combine forces.
The Crisis Climax comes when Annie finds Lillian at her own
apartment and Lillian asks her to help with the wedding.
 The Resolution is when the policeman Rhodes returns and they are
reunited: she has found someone who loves her for who she is. Also
part of the resolution is that she is now back together with her best
friend, despite all they’ve been through. And what might have been
a disaster turns into a great wedding.

Figure 1.12. Act Three is all about resolution — the conflicts come to an end and the
story wraps up. In this case, it’s an up ending — she gets the carrot.

Don’t Jump The Shark!

 Figure 1.13.
Like a shark, your story needs a bite to hook the audience and get them
interested in your story, a body to let the story play out and develop, and a tail, where
things are brought to a conclusion, and the story is wrapped.

WE’RE GONNA’ NEED A BIGGER BOAT!

Some writers think of story structure like a shark. The parts are not equal in
size or purpose, but each one has an important job to do.

The Bite. You have to hook your audience right from the start. You
need to get their attention, and get them interested in the characters
and their situation, even before the big turn of Plot Point One.
The Body. This is the main chunk of the film — Act Two. The story
progresses and develops. New twists and turns constantly up the
stakes and make the situation more difficult for our main character.
The Tail. This is the Resolution — where the screenplay wraps up all
the story threads and resolves the body of the film. Plot elements and
characters come to a climax. Finally we see where things have been
heading, and as a result of their actions, the main characters have
changed and grown.

 
 Figure 1.14.
In an up ending (more or less a happy ending), the main character has
achieved her goal and balance is restored — she has her carrot!

Here’s another important way that a story is like a shark: it always has to
keep moving forward or it dies! Also, don’t forget: live every week like it’s
Shark Week!

EMOTIONALLY SATISFYING ENDING

Should your ending be happy or sad? If you ask Hollywood executives, they
will always say it should be a happy ending — but do you really want those
folks to decide how you conclude your story? Well, that’s really up to you.
Some stories end happily, some don’t. Take a look at The Bicycle Thief or
Chinatown, two truly great, memorable films that have decidedly down
endings. In the end it’s not about what’s happy or sad. The point is to have
an emotionally satisfying ending — one that brings the story to a conclusion
in a way that makes sense within the realm of human emotion. Amélie,
Groundhog Day, and The Shawshank Redemption have happy endings. Do
we love them? Yeah, we do!
Do Scarface, Titanic, Se7en, or Gladiator have happy endings? Absolutely
not, but somehow they are emotionally satisfying. They are tragedies, and it
should happen that way. The great writer Tom Stoppard puts it this way:
“The bad end unhappily, the good unluckily. That is what tragedy means.”

LET’S REVIEW

To sum up:

The story is about somebody with whom we have some empathy.

This somebody wants something very badly: their need. This goal is
difficult to achieve. They persevere.
The story accomplishes maximum emotional impact and audience
connection as the main character overcomes obstacles through
confrontation.
The story comes to an emotionally satisfying ending. Things are
resolved, one way or another.

 
 Figure 1.15. The basic elements of storytelling.

Dialog That Is Not On the Nose

Writing dialog takes a lot of practice, especially if you don’t want readers or
actors to comment that your dialog is “on the nose.” When they say that it
means that what the characters are saying is obvious and not realistic.

SUBTEXT

In reality, particularly in tense, difficult or awkward situations, people rarely

just come out and plainly say what they really mean. People tend to speak in
subtext — rather than just saying things outright, they imply things, they
hint around, they use irony or a joke to make their point. Being obvious and
overstated is a big mistake in any art form and certainly in filmmaking.
 The lies are in the dialogue, the truth is in the visuals.
Kelly Reichardt (Wendy and Lucy, Certain Women)

You want to avoid anything that makes it seem like a character is “making
a speech,” or that what they are saying is pre-programmed and they have
memorized it. Of course, some of this is up to the actors, but even very good
actors can have trouble with dialog that is written in an artificial, unrealistic
manner that isn’t at all like real people speak. Sometimes we want to show
that a certain character is stiff, inhuman and remote, so their dialog should
be written that way. After all, how not so scary would it be if the HAL 9000
computer in 2001: A Space Odyssey talked like this:
HAL

Yo, dude! Don’t touch that freaking button!

Instead when he says:

HAL

I’m sorry, Dave. I can’t do that.

It is vastly more frightening. To have one of your characters say, “I’m very,
very angry” is totally on the nose. Better writing would be to “write around
the emotion without actually stating it.” Here’s another example of on the
nose dialog:
LENNY

Why don’t you trust me? You never do. I love you so much but you always doubt me.
It hurts me so much when you do these things, makes me feel worthless. Why don’t
you trust me? I don’t understand.

Instead of having your character plainly say that they are angry, you might
have them punch a wall, or throw a coffee cup at the wall. This is all the
more convincing because it also shows that this particular character can’t
express their emotions verbally, another source of frustration. Even more
intriguing are characters are who intentionally hide their feelings, hide their
true self or maybe don’t even know what their true inner self is like. Many
great scenes of characters who are about to explode with anger and rage are
acted by having them suddenly become very calm and talking slowly and
deliberately.

My scripts are possibly too talkative. Sometimes I watch a scene I’ve

written, and occasionally I think, ‘Oh, for God’s sake, shut up.’
Tom Stoppard (Shakespeare In Love, Empire of the Sun, Brazil)

FULLY COOKED

An undercooked script is one where there are lots of loose ends, key
elements go unexplained and important points are only hinted at. They
occur most often when the director is also writing the script and when the
writing and pre-production phases are rushed because they want to get to
the fun part — shooting the movie. And when there is no feedback, not
enough tough editing of the script, or outside critiques.
One of the danger signs is when the director responds to questions about
the story by saying “It’s OK, I see it in my head.” Maybe so, but the rest of
the production team can’t see it, which means their ability to help the
director achieve that vision is limited. Example: a few years ago, I worked
with a production company that didn’t always trust their writers and
directors to make a story point visually. They insisted that every thought be
verbalized. They didn’t like the script to say something like “We know from
her glance exactly what she is thinking.” After I had written and directed a
couple of films for them, they saw that I really could say it with a visual
instead of on the nose dialog, and no longer bugged me about such things.
Not Exposing Your Exposition
Exposition is a necessary evil. What is exposition? It is things your audience
needs to know but it’s not part of the story or the action. Think of it as
background information the audience needs in order to understand the
characters and the action.
A great deal of it usually happens in the first ten pages, that’s when the
viewer is likely to need the most background information to understand
what’s going on. You have to let the audience know something about the
backstory of the situation and the characters and you want to do it as soon
as possible so that you can get the story started.

WHY IS IT A NECESSARY EVIL?

What makes it difficult in movies is that we don’t have the tools that other
kinds of writers have. A novelist can just stop the action for a while as she
fills you in about the city or the childhood of a character or about whaling
(like all those chapters in Moby Dick about whales that you were supposed
to read in high school but really you only skimmed through. Yeah, me too.)
You could possibly use a voice-over narrator to fill in the background; like
in Full Metal Jacket or Apocalypse Now. Surprisingly, neither Kubrick or
Coppola originally wanted voice-over narration; they only realized in
editing that it would be useful. Certainly the narration is an essential part of
those great films, but in general, you don’t want to use a narrator unless you
really have to. Most filmmakers consider it something to avoid if at all
possible because it often becomes a crutch, an excuse for not telling the story
properly through dialog and action.

Audiences are less intrigued, honestly, by battle. They’re more intrigued

by human relations. If you’re making a film about the trappings of the
 period, and you’re forgetting that human relationships are the most
engaging part of the storytelling process, then you’re in trouble.
Ridley Scott (Blade Runner, Alien, Gladiator, Thelma and Louise, The Martian)

In both of these examples, it is the main character speaking his thoughts.

It is also possible to have an anonymous outside voice narrating the action,
but this comes off as very old-fashioned. All this means that it can
sometimes be tough to work in the exposition without making it seem
obvious or bringing the story to a grinding halt. Bad exposition is something
we make fun of; remember Basil Exposition in the Austin Powers films?
As a writer you will always be trying to hide the exposition — to get it
into the script without making it obvious and delaying the story. Just try to
slip it in wherever you can. For example, you could start the movie by
having a voice-over narrator say something boring like “Lars Thorwald,
winner of the Nobel Prize in physics, awakens in his apartment.” That would
be on the nose: obvious and clumsy. Instead you might first see him in the
kitchen holding a cup of coffee and using his other hand to open drawer
after drawer. A woman in a bathrobe enters with some keys and says:
ANA

You’d think a Nobel Prize winner could find his own car keys.

LARS

The prize was for physics, dear, not housekeeping — that’s what I have you for.

With this buried exposition, we have learned not only that he is an award-
winning physicist but also a little about his personality, and his relationship
with his wife — which is about to turn into a pretty big argument.

SHOW, DON’T TELL

Even better than using exposition is to show, don’t tell. Instead of explaining
things to the audience, show them. Let actions speak louder than words. Not
only does it keep the story going, it engages the audience by not lecturing to
them. One basic idea of storytelling is that action is character. We really
know people by what they do, not what they say. Let the actions of your
characters tell us who they are; let the actions in the story give us the
background ideas — only use exposition if there is absolutely no other way
to get the essential information across.

Formatting A Script
How you format a script is important, for two reasons. First of all, it shows
that you know about the reality of the film business, but more importantly,
it is a standard that is used for film production, where page count is used as
a measure of how the script is shot, budgeted and scheduled. Figure 1.16 on
the next page shows the important points of a properly formatted script.

A Sample Script Page

 Figure 1.16. Formatting a script page.

Loglines, Treatment and Synopsis

If you’re trying to sell your script or get financing for your movie, you’ll
need to write a synopsis, a treatment and a logline. So what are they?
A treatment is a long-form summary of your story. It may be anything
from a couple of pages to a hundred or more (although treatments this long
are rare). It doesn’t need a lot of detail, and including key bits of dialog is
optional. Don’t get hung up in the little ins and outs — focus on the main
story. A treatment is very much part of the writing process and it should
help you get a better picture of the major through-lines of the story and a
little bit about any subplots and how it all fits together. A good way to start
writing a treatment is to create a one line summary of each scene of your
script. Be sure the treatment explains who the main character is, what their
need is, what challenges they face, who the main antagonist is, and how it is
all resolved.

SYNOPSIS

A synopsis is just a summary of the plot. Most of the time it is what you will
show to people to get them interested and help them understand where
you’re going with this script. Even more so than with a treatment — don’t
get lost in the details. Stick to the major plot points and key elements of your
story — a couple of pages at the most.

LOGLINE

Very often, producers don’t want to read scripts or even a synopsis at all
until they have seen your logline. If you’ve been writing for a while,
producers who are looking for projects will sometimes say “Send me your
loglines.” A logline is a very brief description of your story. Absolutely no
details or even story points. It is really just a one or two-sentence description
of the general idea of your story. Some sample loglines:

You start selling the movie before you make it.

David Cronenberg (Videodrome, The Fly, Dead Ringer)
 

A young man and woman from very different social classes fall in
love on an ill-fated ship destined to sink. Titanic.
With the help of a German bounty hunter, a freed slave sets out to
rescue his wife from a brutal Mississippi plantation owner. Django
Unchained.
A treasure-hunting archeologist is sent by the US government to
recover the Ark of the Covenant before the Nazis can harness its
power. Raiders of the Lost Ark.
A Las Vegas-set comedy centered around three groomsmen who lose
their about-to-be-wed buddy during their drunken misadventures,
then must retrace their steps in order to find him. The Hangover.

That’s it — very simple and to the point. A logline only has a few essential
elements:

Some idea of who the main character is.

The main action: “searches for treasure,” “finds love in an unexpected
place,” “battles the Empire’s Death Star.”
What challenge they are going to be facing.
Some idea of the time and setting, especially if it’s not a
contemporary story set in the city. If it’s on a farm, say that. If it’s
about 18th century pirates, it’s important to say that.

It’s very few words, so you have to choose them carefully. Loglines may
seem simplistic, but they serve a purpose. You don’t want to waste your time
pitching a love story to a producer who never does anything but action
films, and that producer certainly doesn’t want to waste time reading a
script that is absolutely not the sort of thing they are looking for.

VARIATIONS
You can say a lot with your logline. Here are two of them for the same
movie:

Mysteriously transported to a dangerous alien landscape, a young

girl kills the first woman she meets, then teams up with three
bizarrely non-human strangers to kill again.
A tornado transports a Kansas farm girl and her dog to a magical
land where she must undertake a dangerous journey to battle a
witch, then find the power to take her back to her home.

They both describe The Wizard of Oz, but clearly one is a fantasy story for
kids, and the other sounds like a very disturbing horror/thriller alien movie.

Presentation
As with everything you do, you want your script to present you as a
professional. This starts with how you package it. Obviously, be sure that
you stick to the rules of formatting. Deviations from these formatting
principles will scream out “amateur” to any reader in the film industry or a
potential investor.

BINDING

The cover page can be plain white 20 lb. paper for shooting scripts, but many
people use card stock for the cover on sales or spec scripts. Always print on
three-hole paper. Use brass brads to hold them together. The most frequently
used are Acco #5 Brass Fasteners. Even though there are three holes, only
use two fasteners. To really flatten the fasteners and make them secure so
they don’t stick out in the back, cover them with something fairly heavy
(like a magazine) and whack them with a hammer; it makes everything tight
and secure. Some copy shops have covers that fold back and cover the brass
fasteners; these are acceptable and are often used in the professional world,
but are by no means necessary.

COVER

For a card stock cover, different colors are acceptable, but there should be no
artwork or logos, just the title centered on the page, and in the lower left
corner, the author and contact information. The next page after the cover is
the title page, sometimes called the fly page. There are three sections on the
title page: title, author, and contact information. Many people also include
copyright and sometimes a WGA (Writer’s Guild of America) registration
number. Do not:

Use clear plastic covers, spiral binding, or any other type of binding
besides the brass fasteners.
Write the name of the script on the spine.
Add any cute little notes or drawings on the cover or pages.

BE PREPARED

Always have a copy of your script with you, in your bag, or in your car. You
never know when you’ll run into somebody who agrees to take a look at
your script, or pass it along to someone who can make a decision. Don’t be a
clown, don’t show your script to everyone you meet at the supermarket.
Don’t leap out from behind a car and try to force a copy of your script on an
unsuspecting movie star or producer — this is more likely to get you put in a
headlock by their security guard than it is to get you a movie deal.

Pitching
Most of the time, you’re going to need to convince someone to give you
money to make your film. Just handing someone a script is not usually the
best way to convince them — people just don’t want to read a random script
that someone just put in their hands. The way it’s done is by pitching the
project. It’s the same as a traditional sales pitch and that’s what it really is —
you’re selling the idea of your film to somebody who has the cash or the
ability to greenlight your project. There is no magic formula, but it’s best to
keep it short and sweet. You might want to start with your logline, just to
get them interested, then be sure you’re ready to answer their questions
about the script, the budget, and where you want to go with it.

THE ELEVATOR PITCH

Speaking of keeping it short and sweet, there is a special version of pitching

your project called the elevator pitch. It’s for when you happen (purely by
chance, of course!) to get on the same elevator as a producer. In this case you
might only have 30 or 40 seconds to deliver your message, so you’ve got to
boil it down to the bare minimum.
Here’s one example: “I have an idea for an action film that takes place
entirely in one location — an abandoned hospital. I know one we can get for
free. Our characters have to fight super-strength zombies created by an
insane scientist. We can do it for $600,000.” If this gets their attention, you
have to be ready to follow up with a logline, synopsis, script, budget, and
any other material they might ask for, such as casting ideas. For more on
pitching movie ideas, watch Robert Altman’s great film The Player. It works,
I actually sold a movie this way.
Production
What Is a Producer?

You have probably seen movies where the list of “producers” goes on and
on; even movies that have six or seven “Executive Producers.” What do all
these people do? The simple truth these days is that a lot of these people do
little or nothing other than help “make the deal.”
On the other hand, large studio movies today are huge and complex and it
does require a lot more supervision so many of the people listed as
producers work long and very hard to get the movie made.
How many people does it actually take to produce a movie? Take a look at
a studio movie made in the 1940s or 50s. Often there is only one Producer
listed along with maybe an Associate Producer. This is how it was done back
then: one person was in charge. Of course it was much simpler back then:
everything was done right on the studio lot. The producer didn’t have to
seek out and hire a cinematographer, an art director, a set building crew and
so on — all of those people already worked on the lot. Needless to say, it
doesn’t work that way anymore. So what does a producer do? There are
several types and the exact duties are different on almost every production,
but here are the broad definitions:

EXECUTIVE PRODUCER

Most often the Executive Producer is the person who “made the deal.” In
some cases, they bought the film rights to a book or a play or found a
worthwhile script. In many cases, the Executive Producer is the one who
arranged the financing. To be honest, nobody actually knows exactly what
most Executive Producers do, other than have the power to get themselves
the title in the credit roll.

PRODUCER
The Producer is technically the person in charge of the entire operation; they
hire the crew, arrange for locations, confer with the director or the studio on
the marketing strategy for the film, and many other jobs. In general they are
the CEO of the operation. Sometimes you will see that the director of the
movie is also the producer. This is possible if you have good people doing the
actual work and all you do is approve a few decisions. On the other hand,
some producers rarely even have time to sleep — their jobs are endless.

ASSOCIATE PRODUCER

The definition of what an Associate Producer is and does is ambiguous. They

are basically whatever the producer needs them to be. Sometimes Associate
Producer is a vanity credit given to a UPM or Line Producer.

LINE PRODUCER

The Line Producer is the real day-to-day manager of the operation. The Line
Producer makes the budget for the Producer and Executive Producer to
approve. The LP negotiates the contracts, runs the production office and tries
to keep everything under control — it’s a tough job with long hours and tons
of headaches.

UNIT PRODUCTION MANAGER

The UPM is hands-on management. They generally stay in the production

office and spend a lot of time on the phone keeping things running
smoothly: deliveries, pickups, crew contracts, payments — all the thousands
of details and paperwork that are necessary to keep a movie set operating.
They may negotiate deals for locations, transportation, crew and other
things. Frequently, the Line Producer and UPM are the same person and
may go by either title. On many low-budget and ultra-low-budget
productions, of course, we are often back to the old way of producing:
producer, line producer, UPM — one person does it all — no sleep.

The Production Team

The Executive Producer and Producer may seldom or never visit the set; it’s
up to the production team to actually make the movie. There’s two parts to
this — the Production Office and the Set.

THE PRODUCTION OFFICE

The Line Producer and UPM will usually work in the office, assisted by a
Production Office Coordinator and several Office PAs (Production
Assistants). There might also be a bookkeeper and other personnel, all
depending on how big the project is.

ON THE SET

The AD (Assistant Director) is in charge of production on the set, assisted by

Second ADs and PAs. We’ll talk about them more in the chapter The AD
Team.

Pre-production
Pre-production is extremely important. If you are not thorough and careful
in pre-pro or prep (as it is usually called), don’t expect things to go smoothly
on the set! In the preproduction phase, the movie is designed and planned.
The production company is created and a production office established. A
production budget will also be drawn up to establish the cost of the film.
Pre-production usually only commences once a project has been
developed and is green lit (given the go ahead to start production). At this
stage a project will generally be fully financed and have most of the key
elements such as principal cast, director and cinema-tographer in place, as
well as a screenplay which is satisfactory to the financiers. Or not.
During pre-production, the script is broken down into individual scenes
and all the locations, props, cast members, costumes, special effects and
visual effects are identified (we’ll talk about breakdowns later). An extremely
detailed schedule is produced and arrangements are made for the necessary
elements to be available to the filmmakers at the appropriate times. Crew is
hired and deal memos are signed. Sets (if there are any) are constructed, the
crew is hired, financial arrangements are put in place and a start date for the
beginning of principal photography is set. Location scouting is an important
part of pre-pro and should start as soon as possible. At some point in pre-
production there will be a read-through of the script which is usually
attended by all cast members with speaking parts, all heads of departments,
financiers, producers, publicists, and of course the director.
Even though the writer may still be working on it, the screenplay is
generally page-locked and scene-numbered at the beginning of pre-
production to avoid confusion. This means that even though additions and
deletions may still be made, any particular scene will always fall on the
same page and have the same scene number. How to lock pages and scene
numbers will be detailed later in this chapter.

OTHER DEPARTMENTS

The Director, the Cinematographer, the AD, the Art Director, the Gaffer and
the Key Grip will all have pre-production to do as well. It might be as little
as a day or two on short films up to weeks or months on a large feature.
LOCATION SCOUTING

We’ll talk about this in more detail later, but finding locations is an
important part of preproduction. It involves the director, producer,
cinematographer, gaffer, key grip, audio and art department heads.

Making a Budget
There are three key documents that guide a production: the script, the
budget and the schedule. Scripts we talk about elsewhere but the budget is
central to the producing of a film and the schedule is critical to the actual
work on the set.

Figure 2.1.
Good, fast, cheap. Pick any two.

The budget is crucial to almost everyone who works on the film: it

determines how everything it will be done. Will you rent a studio and build
elaborate sets or will you need to try to borrow somebodys house for the
weekend? Will you shoot on Imax film or will you use a borrowed DSLR
camera, or even shoot on an iPhone? Can you get Al Pacino or will you have
to act the part yourself?
Most often, the budget starts out with a final figure in mind, usually the
amount of money you know you will have available or the amount of
money you are going to go looking for. You might decide that it will be a
$50,000 movie or a $50 million movie or that you are going to shoot it for
$500 in your own apartment.
Whatever the final amount is: you have to make the movie “work” for
what you have. The next step is figuring out how to allocate that amount of
cash toward all the right things: making sure none of it gets wasted but also
trying to be sure that the important things have enough money to get the
job done as well as possible. That’s the budget process: figuring out how
much to spend on each separate thing that needs to get done.

THE BUDGET FORM

Blank budget forms for small, medium and large projects can be found on
the website that goes with this book. They are in both printable form and in
Excel/Numbers format. You can also make your own budget form on your
computer. On the website are budget forms for medium budget productions,
low budget, and extremely low budget. There is also very good software
available for doing movie budgets, but for low and low-low budget
productions it often isn’t necessary, or is far too detailed to be helpful.

BUDGET CATEGORIES

All budgets work the same way, no matter if they are for a $200 million
studio movie, a $10,000 ultra low-budget independent film or a $500 student
film — they divide the items that need to be paid for into logical categories
and then break those down into individual items.
 The Basic Law of Producing: Everything takes longer than you thought
it would; everything costs more than you ever imagined.

For example, the lighting. We know we are going to need lighting, but
there is more to it than that. If you are going to use your own lights and
camera, then these are not a problem, but they make a good example for
understanding budgets. Lighting has three categories: people, equipment and
expendables. People consists of the gaffer (head of the lighting crew) and
electricians (who work for the gaffer). The second category is the lighting
equipment itself — most likely a rental.

RENTALS, KIT FEES AND EXPENDABLES

The third category is expendables. What is that? Expendables are things that
you need to purchase and which get “used up.” Some examples: gels (which
change the color of the light) and diffusion (which makes a hard light “soft”).
Other examples of lighting expendables is things like clothes pins (C-47’s)
(which hold the gels or diffusion on the lights), gaffer tape, or maybe spare
bulbs.
On most productions, the lighting and grip equipment is rented, but
sometimes a crew member supplies some or all equipment. Even if the gaffer
is bringing his or her own lights, there still might be a rental fee involved —
this is sometimes called a kit fee: a reasonable fee paid to crew members
who bring equipment for your project or use up items they paid for. For
example, makeup artists generally get a kit fee for the makeup supplies that
get used on the film — only fair as cosmetic items are very expensive. This is
sometimes called a box rental.
If you hire people, you have to feed them, so other categories are grouped
under set operating expenses. Another obvious category is payments to
actors. The sample top sheet on the next page will give you an idea of the
standard budget categories.
OTHER CATEGORIES

Of course, we are just using the lighting section of the budget as an example:
the same apples to all the other categories as well — you have to consider
both the people who will do the job and the supplies and equipment they
need to do the job. There is also housing accommodations (if you’re going on
location), transportation and of course the very important consideration of
food — both meals and craft services — the snacks that are available to the
crew throughout the day. Don’t even dare to bring in a film crew and not
feed them!

The Top Sheet

The top sheet is a summary of the budget — this one is for a very low-budget
production. When you give a budget to someone, it will generally have a top
sheet summary, so they can get the “big picture” of the overall budget,
before they get into the details. Full sample budgets and blank budget forms
for small, medium and large projects are on the website.
 Figure 2.2.
A budget top sheet for a very low-budget film.

Budget Details
Here’s a sample page from a typical medium budget film that will be shot in
LA and on location in Maryland. This is just one page of many. You’ll notice
an item “Key Grip Box.” Box rental is the same as a Kit Fee — paying a crew
member for equipment or supplies they provide. This is only one page of
many.

Figure 2.3.
One page of a typical budget form.

Script Marking

The first step in making a budget is to mark up the script. This identifies
important things that will affect the budget and the schedule: how many
actors for how many days each, how many stunts, props and so on. It is
usually done by the AD or the Line Producer/UPM.

EIGHTHS OF A PAGE

Each scene, (slug line) is divided into 1/8ths of a page by its number of
inches. Standard script pages are eight inches, so each inch is an 1/8. The
number of 1/8ths is then marked in the top left corner of the scene and
circled. If a scene lasts longer than eight 1/8ths (a full page), it is converted
to 1. So, a scene lasting 1 page and 3 1/8ths is marked 1-3/8ths.

MARKING

An AD or UPM marks the elements found in each scene. This process repeats
for each new scene. By the end, you will be able to see which scenes need
which elements, and can begin to schedule accordingly. Of course, software
is now available that allows you do this on a computer instead of manually
marking the scripts with colored pens. There are widely accepted standards
for color coding:
 Figure 2.4.
Script marking conventions.

Breakdown Pages

Once you have marked up the script, you’ll record the elements of each
scene on a breakdown form (of course, there are software apps that will do
this, but they are not cheap). A breakdown is a summary that lists the
needed elements for a scene: props, wardrobe, stunts, and so on.
Often each department will do their own breakdown: the DP and gaffer
will do a breakdown of what lights are needed and when, the art department
will list what set dressing is needed for each scene, hair and makeup will
have a list of wigs needed, and so on. A breakdown form you can use on the
computer or as a printout is on the website.

Figure 2.5.
A breakdown sheet.

Tech Scout
Once the locations have been chosen, there will be a tech scout. Often this is
in the last week before production, when all key crew members are on the
payroll. On this scout (called a recce in the UK and elsewhere — a
reconnaissance), the director will be joined by the AD, production designer,
cinematographer, gaffer, key grip and the sound recordist; possibly also
transpo (transportation coordinator), mechanical effects and others who
need to know about the location.
Don’t just look at a location to decide if it has the right look or not —
that’s important, but it is also critical to look at it from a practical, logistical
point-of-view: is there a place to park the vehicles, is it noisy? All these
factors will be important if you don’t want your shoot day to be painful and
chaotic.

THE WALK THROUGH

Of all the things that happen on the tech scout (or on later visits), one of the
most important is the walk through. This is where the director walks
through each scene that will be shot at that location and describes her ideas
about how the scenes will be staged and shot.
As the director walks through the scenes and explains what she wants to
do, the DP, AD and others carefully observe and make notes about how they
will help the director accomplish his or her goals for the scenes. The DP will
be starting to think about the lighting and camera moves; the AD will be
thinking about how long it will take to set up and shoot the scene (and thus
how it fits into the schedule).
As they watch, the gaffer and grip will be thinking about their
contributions as well. The DP might be whispering in the gaffer’s ear (or vice
versa) about lighting possibilities or potential problems. One thing the DP,
gaffer and grip will want to know is which way are we looking (where is the
camera pointing) for each scene. More importantly, they need to know
which way are we not looking. This is important for deciding where they
can place lights, stage equipment, run cable, etc. The director may not know
right then, but eventually that decision has to be made and the sooner the
better.
 The grip is going to be alert for any mention of dolly moves, crane shots
or anything else he might have to order special equipment for, add
additional crew (day players) for or prepare in any way. Possibly the DP and
gaffer will be discussing putting a large light outside a window. If the room
is not on the first floor, this might involve scaffolding or a crane or
something else that the grip needs to attend to. Hopefully, the location scout
video and photos will have told them if there is a fire escape or roof outside
the window where they can place a light.

POWER

The gaffer will also be checking out the power situation. Depending on what
the DP is thinking about for lighting, is the available power sufficient, either
through the wall outlets or through a tie-in (direct connection to the power
supply of the building) or is a generator going to be needed? If a generator is
called for, then the gaffer needs to talk to the AD about where to park it and
possibly discuss this with the sound recordist if it is going to create a noise
problem. The sound department is always going to ask for it to be as far
away as possible and this is something the gaffer needs to think about when
deciding how much power cable to order.

ACCESS

Don’t forget to check out access. Will it be possible to get the grip truck close
enough? Are there staging areas for electric (lighting), grip, camera and the
art department? Are some doors locked at certain hours? If so, who has the
key? Do you have their contact phone number? Is there a loading dock?
What’s the elevator situation?
Will bathrooms be available? If not, you may need to provide a portable
rest room of some sort, either a camper, a portable toilet, or on larger
productions, a special vehicle called a honey wagon will be rented. This may
be in conjunction with dressing rooms in the same trailer.

Script Pages and Scene Numbers

As mentioned in the last section, the script is the key document that
coordinates the whole production. It’s what the AD or line producer bases
the breakdown on, but each department does their own breakdown as well
(although not usually as formal as the breakdown sheets that production
does). For example, the props department will make a list of all the props
required for each scene and decide if they are to be bought, rented or made.
The cinematographer will analyze the script and decide if special camera or
lighting equipment is required for a particular scene and then share that
information with the gaffer, who will make a list of the electrical equipment
needed to support that special lighting, also any gels, diffusion or additional
gear that is required. Of course, if it’s not in the budget, there will be some
negotiation with the line producer or production manager.

LOCKED SCRIPT

All this means that everyone makes notes in their own copies of the scripts,
and importantly they refer to specific scene numbers. For example, the key
grip and gaffer may talk about the scaffolding required for a big light in
scene 27 but not needed for the rest of the film. The prop people may note
that a laptop computer is needed for scene 27 and so on. Now suppose
there’s a rewrite of the script (there always is) and a new scene is added
before 27. We change the script so that scene 27 is now scene 28, right?
Obviously not — that would create chaos. When the script is changed,
especially in big ways, it’s very tempting to just print out a whole new set of
scripts and distribute them. That isn’t the way it’s done — it’s wasteful and
people would lose all of their notes in the script. Instead, the new scenes are
given special numbers; for example, a new scene before scene 27 is called
A26. If another scene is added after that, it is AA26, etc. If a scene is
eliminated, the number stays there, but in the new pages it is listed as “Scene
omitted.” The same applies to page numbers: if the new scene that’s added
results in an extra page after page 66, it is then called A66, so that the rest of
the page numbers will stay consistent. Many times the script revisions will
include adding new pages. The numbering will not change, but again letters
are added in. So there may be 3 different page 22s but they will be numbered
22, 22A and 22B.
This means that it’s important that everyone receives a copy of the
original white paper script that has the same page and scene numbers. In
order to do that, the script is “locked” at a certain point — meaning the
original scene numbers don’t change for the rest of the production.
Traditionally, this was a decision made by the AD, but now many screenplay
apps also have an option to lock the script pages. Ultimately, though, it is up
to the AD to lock the script; it’s not a decision to be made by the
screenwriter.
Each changed page (or pages) is then printed out and distributed to
everyone who has a script — not just the actors, but the DP, gaffer,
wardrobe, makeup — everybody. Clearly, this could get to be very confusing
very quickly. How is anyone going to know what is the latest, most up-to-
date version?
It’s done with a simple color code that’s been around for a long time. The
original script is printed on white paper and then each round of new changes
is printed on a different color of paper. This way, when people add new
pages to their script, it’s easy to keep track of what’s new and to see if your
script is the most recent version.

SCRIPT PAGE COLOR CODE

The color code for pages is:

 Original locked draft — White Paper
Blue Revision
Pink Revision
Yellow Revision
Green Revision
Goldenrod Revision
Buff Revision
Salmon Revision
Cherry Revision

Putting a Crew Together

On a student film your crew will consist mostly of friends and classmates,
but on anything larger, you’re going to need outside help. There are
competent film technicians in just about every city and every country, and
finding them isn’t usually difficult. Many have websites or other contact
information, many will respond to ads but the most effective resource is
referrals from people you trust. Since a typical film crew even on a small
independent film is 40 people or more, assembling a crew can seem
daunting.
It’s not as daunting as it sounds; actually, the line producer only has to
hire the keys (top person in each department), and then the keys hire the rest
of the people for their department. The departments are:

Production
AD (Assistant Directors)
Camera
Digital Imaging Technician
Production Design

- Set Dressing
- Props
 - Armorer (if weapons are involved)

Audio
Video Assist (sometimes)
Lighting
Grip
Makeup
Hair
Stunts (sometimes)

As an example, it would be a big mistake to hire a key grip, and then on

your own hire a second grip, and third grip. The key grip has to be their
supervisor and is responsible for their work. If you hired people he or she
can’t get along with or someone who doesn’t do their job, it’s unfair to the
key who has to deal with it. Similarly, it is always the director’s privilege to
select their cinematographer — the two of them have to work closely
together for days, weeks or even months.

Collaborate, don’t dictate. Every department head has something to

offer. Listen and gratefully accept their offerings. They’re moviemakers,
too.
George A. Romero (Night of the Living Dead)

The cinematographer then selects their own camera operator (if there is
one) and First AC. Technically, the First AC is the head of the camera
department as crew members. Of course, the DP calls the shots of what goes
on in the camera area, but it’s the first AC who hires the assistants,
supervises them, signs time sheets, and so on.
Permits
What permits are needed depends on what city, town or county you are
shooting in. Some places are easy and some are very strict. Shooting without
a permit is a big risk; not that you’ll be put in jail, but you’ve spent all the
time, energy and money to get ready to shoot and if the police shut you
down, all that is wasted. In most localities, getting a permit is quick and
easy. Be sure to have your permit with you any time you’re on location.
In general, how difficult and expensive it is to get permits depends on
how much filming is done in that area — the more that city is used for
filming, the more strict they become about permits. For example, in Los
Angeles, if you are shooting in a fire zone, you may also need to employ a
county approved fire marshal. If there are any traveling shots (shooting with
moving vehicles) then a motorcycle deputy sheriff or police officer will also
be required. This may seem like an unnecessary burden, but you will find
that these motorcycle officers in particular really know their business and
can be very helpful to your production.
In most localities, a film commission or film board handles permits. In
some cases, another city or county office handles them, sometimes the police
or sheriff’s department. Be sure you have all the necessary information
before going to the office. It isn’t usually enough to say “We’ll be shooting in
some alleys downtown on Tuesday.” They will need to know what exact
locations you need, day and times, approximately how many people will be
there, how many vehicles, that sort of thing. Just give them a call and most
of the time they’ll be really helpful.

STEALING SCENES

Sometimes you gotta’ do what you gotta’ do. For very short scenes and
especially if you’re shooting off the beaten path, it is sometimes possible to
steal a scene or steal a shot; in other words, quickly shoot without a permit.
The reality is that you probably aren’t going to get carted off to jail but you
have to realize that it’s still a risk: if you put all that effort, time and money
into equipment, transportation and crew, you have to seriously ask yourself
the question of what will be the consequences if you aren’t able to get the
shot or if you are only able to finish half the scene before you are stopped.

PICKUP DAY

Stealing scenes like this is most common on pickup days where the shooting
is run-and-gun. No matter how carefully a production is planned; no matter
how thorough the director, DP and crew are, there is always the chance that
as the editor is working on the film, they will discover a few shots that are
just absolutely essential to making a scene work. The director and editor
may also decide that some essential scene just isn’t working for the story
and needs to be reshot, or perhaps was never shot at all.
Pickup days generally happen after the film has been in editing for a few
days or even weeks, usually when a rough cut has been completed and
everyone can view the complete story and get a better idea of what is
working and what needs improvement. Once a list of required shots is put
together, a small skeleton crew is put together, often just the DP, a camera
assistant, a grip, the script supervisor and maybe a prop person. Often they
will all just jump in a van with a camera, tripod and maybe a few flags and
C-stands. Along with the director, the actors and the First AD, this small
unit will then drive around to various locations and quickly grab the needed
shots or short scenes.
In some cases, bigger scenes are needed which involve sets, locations,
lighting and maybe a dolly or crane. In that case, a more substantial crew
will be needed, along with the necessary vehicles, permits, catering and so
on.

RESHOOTS
Having to reshoot a scene is a big deal, and not in a good way. It looks bad
for the director to have to reshoot a scene, very bad. Most of the time it’s
much more expensive to reshoot a scene — the location you rented by the
week for a reasonable rate, you now have to rent at a much higher daily
rate. Same with the crew, props, vehicles, actors and so on. Worse, the actors
or locations may no longer be available. It’s why everyone has to pay close
attention when shooting a scene — you don’t call wrap until everybody,
especially the director, is absolutely sure they really have the scene and all
the shots that make it up. On bigger films, it is normal to not tear down the
sets until the producers, editor, and director have looked at the dailies — the
footage of what was shot that day.

Location Scouting
Locations are an important part of any film; unless you’re building
everything in a studio of course (which isn’t likely on a low or even a
medium budget film). Finding the right locations is an important job and it’s
usually done by a location scout. There are many fine location scouting
services and also state film commissions can be very helpful in finding the
right places for your production. If you can’t afford a location scout, then it’s
often the director and producer who have to find the right places to shoot.
It’s important to think about locations not just as having “the right look”
for your film — you have to think about them as practical and logistical
problems as well. When you’re scouting locations, think about what it’s
going to mean to bring a whole film crew there — is there enough parking
for the actors, crew and the production vehicles? Is there electrical power?
Are the neighbors going to object to the noise? Is this a place that’s hard to
get permits for? Is there a lot of ambient noise, such as a freeway nearby?

IT’S ABOUT TIME

If at all possible, scout the location at the approximate time you’ll be
shooting there: day or night, weekday or weekend, etc. Observe the light,
listen for traffic noise, think about when gardeners might be mowing the
lawn, etc.

LOCATION CHECKLIST

Here’s a checklist of things to think about as you scout locations:

Travel time — how long will it take to get there? Will cast and crew
have to stay overnight? If so, are there accommodations nearby?
Is there parking for cars and trucks? Will the parking be free or cost
money? Note that cast and crew should never be required to pay for
their own parking.
Is there enough electrical power or will you need a generator?
Remember that it’s not just the lights that need power — makeup,
hair, recharging batteries, all these things need electricity as well. If
there is power, does the electrical breaker box get locked up? Who
has the key? Will he or she be available when you’re shooting there?
Do you have to pay them to be there?
Are permits needed? Is this city easy with permits or very strict? Are
there time limits? — some cities absolutely require tail-lights at 10,
for example. Tail-lights doesn’t mean you stop shooting, or you start
packing up — it means the trucks are actually pulling away at 10.
Are there stairs or elevators? If there’s a service elevator, can anyone
use it or do you need building personnel to operate it?
Is there a loading dock? Is the door locked? Who has the key? Do you
need to pay them to stay after hours?

REPORTING BACK
When location scouting, be sure to take lots of photos and videos of the
location (do both). Get wide shots and be sure to get 360° views. Photograph
the parking, entrances, and so on, not just the “pretty view” you’re thinking
of using — document the entire location, including even where you think
catering might be set up, the loading dock, etc. Show how high the ceiling is,
where the windows are, and so on. Draw a diagram and be sure to include
elevators, stairs, access points for cable, windows and doors. If there are
problems, be sure to show them. If you’re doing a medieval knights picture,
for example, get a photo of the microwave tower on the nearby hill and
indicate what direction it is from the location so the director, DP and
production designer can think about how to solve it.

TECH SCOUTS

There is another type of location scout called a tech scout; it’s where the
UPM, AD, director, DP, gaffer, key grip and sound recordist visit the sets to
finalize plans. These are very important, don’t skimp on tech scouts. For the
DP, gaffer and key grip, tech scouts will be about seeing what problems they
face, what equipment needs to be ordered and if any extra crew might be
required.

Location Checklist
 Figure 2.6.
A location scouting form

Contact Lists
Everyone needs to know how to contact crew members, actors, producers,
caterers and so on. Some actors don’t want their phone numbers made
public; those contacts are only given to the production team. Figure 2.7 is an
example of a contact list.
 Figure 2.7.
A sample contact list. This is only part of it; the contact list should include
every member of the production staff, cast, crew, services (such as the rental houses) and
locations.

Figure 2.8. (opposite page) A location scouting checklist.

DAY OUT OF DAYS

The Day Out of Days report is a chart that marks the actor’s work days. It’s
an important organizational tool to make sure the actors are being used
efficiently. It also helps ensure that the schedule of each actor is reasonable.
It would be wrong to have an actor work one day at the beginning of the
shoot, then expect them to hang around until they work one more day at the
end of the shoot. This could prevent them from getting other jobs, traveling,
etc. It’s just a good idea to be as considerate as possible of other’s people’s
time.
The standard abbreviations that are used include: SW stands for Start
Work, which indicates the actor’s first day working on set. W stands for
Work. WF stands for Work Finish — the actor’s last day on the job. SWF
stands for Start-Work-Finish, for when an actor is only needed on one day.
The rest are optional: H stands for Hold. Used when an actor isn’t needed,
but is still on call and paid. I stands for Idle. This functions just like a Hold,
but is not paid. T stands for Travel. It means your actor is traveling. R is for
Rehearsal. Use this when your actor is called to rehearse, but not shoot. WD
stands for Work-Drop. Some people use this on the actor’s last day before a
seven or more day hiatus. PW stands for Pickup-Work. Use this when an
actor comes back from hiatus. PWF stands for Pickup-Work-Finish. Use this
when it’s your actor’s first and last day on the job. SR stands Start-
Rehearsal. Use this when your actor is rehearsing and it is his or her first
day.

Figure 2.9.
A Day-Out-Of-Days report.

Transpo
Vehicles are part of just about every production: cast and crew have to be
transported if they don’t drive to the set themselves, trucks are used and
there might be car chases and so on. Generally, vehicles fall into three
categories:

Cast and crew transportation.

Equipment transportation — trucks or vans. Generators, if you’re
using them.
Picture cars — vehicles that appear in the movie, either driven by
actors or stunt drivers.
TRANSPO COORDINATOR

All vehicles fall under the supervision of the Transportation Coordinator,

often called Transpo. On a union project, this will be the Teamster Captain.
These folks know what they’re doing — listen to their advice. On very small
projects, camera gear, sound cart, props and wardrobe departments may
need to squeeze into one cube truck or even a van.
Finding places for all the cars and trucks is an important consideration —
you will be amazed at how many vehicles are involved in even small, low-
budget productions. For cast and crew, vans or buses can be used to get them
to the shooting location or shuttle buses can bring them from a parking lot
nearby, but the production trucks absolutely have to be very close to the
place where you’re actually shooting. At an absolute minimum there will be
at least a grip truck, which despite its name will often have both the grip and
lighting equipment, as well as the cameras on small films. These trucks are
usually classified as being either five-ton (smaller) or ten-ton (larger) trucks.
Most will have lift-gates but some smaller ones may have a ramp.
On large productions, the trucks will be forty-footers — the same kind of
tractor-trailer truck you see on the highways. On bigger productions, grip
and lighting will each have their own trucks, but so will the art department
and possibly special EFX and wardrobe. Production may sometimes rent an
RV (recreational vehicle) to use as a mobile production office; makeup and
hair also sometimes use RVs.

SWING TRUCKS

How many trucks or vans there are depends on how big the production is,
whether you’re on location or a stage, etc., but one principle applies at all
levels: you can’t use the main production vehicles for pickups, deliveries, lab
runs and so on. The most obvious example is lighting. The grip truck or
whatever vehicle has the lighting equipment absolutely must stay on the set.
However, it frequently happens that additional gear needs to be picked up or
returned (especially big lights that you might only need for a day or two).
For this you’ll need one or more swing trucks.

HONEY WAGONS

Particularly in larger cities, specialized vehicles with dressing rooms and

cubicles for makeup and hair are available. Importantly, honey wagons can
also be rented in many cities — these are trailers with several bathrooms for
cast and crew. If it’s not in your budget or there isn’t one available,
sometimes you can use an RV, or make arrangements with a local store,
diner, or service station to use theirs. People have to use the bathroom —
provide for it!

THE MOST IMPORTANT TRUCK OF ALL

There is one vehicle that everyone will use: the catering truck. While lunch
might be served on the set and craft service snacks might just be on a table,
many productions will hire a catering truck that serves as a mobile kitchen
and serving center for meals and snacks. On the West Coast in particular,
but in other places as well, it is hard to think about starting a shoot day
without a breakfast burrito and a cup of hot coffee!
On smaller productions where there is no catering of meals, it will be up
to the Production Assistants to make sure coffee is available in the morning.
Coffee pots take quite some time to heat up, so the PA in charge of coffee
needs to show up early to plug it in and it’s important that electrical power
be available for them to get started. A crew without their morning coffee
and some breakfast is not a happy crew! Also be sure the bottled water and
soft drinks are on ice well in advance.

PARKING
Finding places to park the vehicles is a huge task. You can usually get
permits to park the camera, grip, wardrobe, makeup, and honey wagons on
the street near the set, but parking for crew and cast vehicles is also
important.

Production Report
The Daily Production Report (also called the Daily Progress Report or End of
Day Report) is to keep the production office and producers up to date on
what is happening on the set: what was accomplished, what scenes were
finished, how much footage was shot, etc. The very top lists the production
company name, production title, director, producers, unit production
managers, assistant directors, the total number of scheduled production
days, and the current production day. Some production reports also
summarize information from the paperwork of other departments. These
include:

Detailed script notes from the Continuity Supervisor.

The Sound Report details. What was recorded, what reel (or hard
drive) it’s on, what takes are where, etc.
If the actors are union, some paperwork that documents start times,
meal times, meal penalties, etc. are important for the payroll people
in the office. The actors sign these documents at the end of their
work day. Similar forms cover the extras (background artists) and
details of their work day that relate to how much they are due from
payroll.
In/out and lunch times for the crew. This is especially important for
union shoots.

The report is usually completed by the Script Supervisor (Scripty), a Second

AD, or someone designated as the Paperwork PA.
 Figure 2.10.
A sample Daily Progress Report prepared by the script supervisor. (Courtesy
Jonathan Barbato).

Releases and Deal Memos

Talent releases, contracts and deal memos are important! Don’t neglect them
or they are likely to cause you real problems later on.

CONTRACTS

Contracts are needed for the producers, the writer, the director and other
key people. There might also be contracts for locations, studio rental and so
on. Contracts must be signed by both parties — the individual and by
someone from the production who has the authority to sign.

DEAL MEMOS

For the DP, designer and the rest of the crew, deal memos are generally used.
A deal memo is briefer and less formal than a contract and it is also different
in that only the crew member signs it. It’s mostly for keeping track of the
basic terms of the deal — what their daily or weekly pay rate is, whether
they are to be paid a kit fee (payment for use of their tools, equipment or
supplies), etc. It may also be used for tax purposes in addition to other
government forms that need to be filled out.
 Figure 2.11. A sample Crew Deal Memo.

Talent Releases

Perhaps no other piece of paperwork can screw up your movie more than
the releases, or rather, the lack of them. Maybe you hire an actor and in the
beginning everybody loves everybody else, everybody is happy with the
money arrangements and so on. But things change. By the end of the
shooting, there might be bad feelings or financial arguments or any one of a
dozen other problems. If that actor has not signed a release, they can then
refuse to sign one later and as a result you can’t show your movie anywhere.
It doesn’t matter if you spent a million dollars making your movie, the lack
of that one release can mean it all was wasted. So don’t forget to have
everyone sign releases. If they are members of the actor’s union (SAG) then
there are more detailed and complex forms that also need to be filled out.
Besides actor releases, you will need releases for specific locations. Many
famous buildings are also protected by copyright or trademarking, so you
might need permission and a release in order to show them in your film. As
with all these forms, it is on the website, where you can print it out, save as
a PDF or use it in whatever form you like.

WHY RELEASES ARE IMPORTANT

An actor who didn’t sign a release might later ask you not to use the
footage — they don’t even have to give a reason.
Someone might not like the way they’re portrayed and ask you to
remove any footage with them in it.
The location where you shot that one scene might decide they don’t
want to be in your film anymore.

Get them to sign a release form. Every time. You must have all the necessary
forms. You also must bring them to every shoot — every day. Always get the
forms signed up front — before shooting starts. This is important!
 Figure 2.12. A sample Talent Release Form.

Location Release
 Figure 2.13.
A sample Location Release.

Sides
are copies of the scenes to be shot each day which have been reduced
Sides
down to a size that will fit in a back pocket (Figure 2.12). Scenes that are on
the pages but are not intended to be shot that day are x’ed out. The small
pages are then stapled together in the upper left corner and a copy is made
for everyone that works on the set. A marker is used to cross out completed
scenes — it’s a good way to keep track of what has been shot and what is
still to be done for the day. Be sure to not cross a scene out until all of the
coverage, pickups and inserts have been done for that particular scene.

Figure 2.14. Sides, as they are distributed to cast and key crew.

Catering/Craft Services
Smaller productions can get away with ordering in food. The occasional
sandwich is possible, but technically (and certainly on union shoots) hot
meals must be provided. Most producers (even on small low-budget films)
have found that it is cheaper and far easier to have a caterer handle all the
details. They usually work out of food trucks and provide full hot meals.

BREAKFAST

It’s not an absolute rule that a production needs to provide a hot breakfast,
but most projects do so anyway — it’s just good business. Sometimes
(especially) in a studio, it may be a craft service person who has a wide
variety of cereals, vegetables, pastries and also has a hot plate to make eggs,
omelets or the universally loved breakfast burrito. Hot coffee and tea is a
given, of course. Even the smallest student film should have breakfast snacks
and hot coffee, and hot water for tea available.

LUNCH

Lunch has to be called no more than six hours after crew call. If the
production is providing lunch on or near the set, it’s a 30 minute break. If
you are allowing people to leave to get their own lunch, it’s an hour (but it
always turns out to be more than an hour). The really wrong thing (and
something that will make you look like a real dimbulb rookie) is to call
“lunch, half-hour”) and then 30 minutes later call “We’re back in!” Why is
that bad? Because the last people who went through the slow-moving lunch
line may well have had only five or six minutes to eat. The standard practice
everywhere is that the 30 minutes starts when the last crew member has
gone through the line. This is universal. A second AD or PA will be
stationed at the end of the lunch table to start the clock when the last crew
member goes through.
This does not apply to actors, PAs, directors or anybody else, which is
why the other universal rule is that “Crew eats first!” Not even the producer
or director go through the lunch line first, unless they want to be thought of
as amateurs, greedy pigs or both; however, it’s not unusual for the director
and maybe the first AD to have a plate brought to them — they are often
working during the lunch break.
Don’t forget to provide for tables and chairs, preferably shaded or
protected from rain; and plenty of trash bags, napkins and paper towels.
Often, the caterer will provide these, but if not, then they need to be rented
or borrowed. You can not get with away with having people sit on the
ground to eat and calling it a picnic! Always have plenty of beverages and
make sure they are cold well before you call lunch! Have plenty of water
available at all times during the shoot day.

SECOND MEAL

The universal rule is that you must feed people every six hours. This means
that if six hours have passed since lunch was called it’s time for another
meal. This is sometimes called dinner but more often is referred to as second
meal. Keep in mind that this means that the crew and actors have now been
working for 12 hours, which is something you want to avoid. Pizza or
sandwiches are fairly common for second meal, and crews don’t generally
mind it if the day is just going to last another hour or two after second meal
is over. In most cases, the caterer has already left, but they’re not taking it
easy; they are generally up at four or five in the morning shopping for the
next day’s meals.

CRAFT SERVICES
One of the oldest traditions in the movie business is the craft service table: it
is a table near the set where there is coffee, hot water for tea and a variety of
snacks: chips, vegetables with dip, cold soft drinks, and plenty of water.
Peanut butter and jelly sandwiches are also popular. It used to always be
doughnuts in the morning, but, for obvious reasons, people are tending to go
easy on that. Don’t forget to keep lots of ice on hand. Also, water — lots of
water; if it’s a hot day, even more water! Craft service is not an amenity, it is
a requirement. A large coffee pot takes a long time to heat up; either the
craft service person or a designated PA has to show up extra early to plug it
in. At this time, also put the beverages on ice.

Walkie-Talkies
It is absolutely essential that the batteries be charged at all times. The Second
AD or PA in charge of them must be sure that they are charged the night
before use and get plugged in as soon as they arrive on set.
Figure 2.15.
The phonetic alphabet as used to make communications clear and
unmistakable.

CHECKING OUT WALKIES

The PA in charge of walkies needs to keep track of who gets one. Keep a list
of the number of the unit and who it is assigned to. It’s also a good idea to
put white tape on them with their assignment, such as “Grip #1, Grip #2,”
etc.

ASSIGNING CHANNELS

Each group using the walkies gets assigned a channel. Typically production
(the ADs and PAs) get channel one, camera department gets channel two,
electrics (lighting technicians) get three, grips get four, and so on.

Radio Check

Once you receive your radio, turn it on and say “Radio check.” Hopefully,
someone will respond with “Good on radio check.”

CB Radio Codes

10-4 Ok, Message Received, or say “Copy that.”

10-20 What’s your Location? or “What’s your 20?”
10-100 Bathroom Break “He’s 10-100 right now.”

Setiquette
Never run on the set. Safety first.
Never leave drinks or food on the set.
 Never leave anything on a ladder. Especially tools: guaranteed
injury.
Only necessary conversations, and those as quietly as possible.
Don’t make the AD constantly shush you.
If you don’t know something, don’t act like you do.
Stick to your job, and keep your cell phone switched off.
Don’t move anything on set unless told to.
When turning on a light, loudly say “Striking,” and wait for a couple
of seconds after the call to switch it on. Otherwise you blind people
who looked at you (just because they heard something) when you
don’t give them time to look away.
No eye contact with the talent — especially while the camera is
rolling. Don’t stand in an actor’s eyeline — it’s very distracting for
them.
Don’t crowd the camera.
Don’t talk to the director or the DP unless they initiate a
conversation.
Don’t offer an opinion to anybody unless they ask.
Never forget the chain of command. It’s not a democracy.
Don’t be late.
Never leave until you are released.
Don’t put drinks on the camera cart. Or anywhere on the set.

GOOD ADVICE

Keep your mouth shut.

You should never be who they’re waiting on.
Never try and guess your wrap time, you’re just jinxing yourself.
Just. Be. Cool.
What Production Assistants Do
Anything the AD, Second AD or Second Second AD needs them to do. Yes,
they might be gofers — go for this, go for that. They might be doing lock-
down — standing by outside the set to call “lock it up” (call for quiet) before
each take (and releasing the lock when cut is called). They might be working
in the production office, on the set, or running around town picking up
whatever is needed.
Everybody wants to work on the set, but gaining experience in the office
or running errands can be valuable too. Getting to know who and where the
various suppliers are and how to deal with them will be very useful later on
in your career.
Some PAs work as assistants to the director, key actors or the producer.
These are especially coveted jobs as the possibility of making contacts and
even friendships is very real. Some PAs might work with specific
departments; they might be a camera PA, a lighting PA or a props PA. These
positions are especially valuable if you want to get into those crafts later on.
Since most PAs work for the AD department, we’ll go into much greater
detail in the next chapter.

RECEIPTS

Keeping track of your receipts is critical to a production. Get a receipt for

everything you pay for: props, paint, a cab ride, lunch while on a location
scout — everything. How do you turn them in to the production office
coordinator? Just hand her a wad of loose paper? Never! Each receipt is
taped to a 8-1/2x11 sheet of paper, individually, or as many as you fit on a
page — the Production Coordinator will tell you which way they want it.
Some coordinators might also want a summary — a list of what each receipt
is for, the date, and the amount. There are receipt envelopes available that
have a summary form on the front.
The AD Team
Running the Show

FIRST ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

The First AD is a crucial part of any production. They make the lined script,
make the schedule (which is then approved by the director and the line
producer). On the set the AD is in charge of running the entire operation.
The director is in control artistically, of course, but as far as just keeping
things running, the AD is in charge. The AD functions as the director’s right
hand person, doing whatever is necessary to see that the director gets what
they need to achieve the production goals. Probably the most important
function of the AD is to keep things running smoothly and on schedule. The
AD never leaves the set; if they do have to be away for a few minutes, they
get a Second AD to take over for them.

SECOND AD

The Second AD is the assistant director’s chief lieutenant. They perform

many of the AD functions that require being away from the set. This
includes preparing the call sheet for the next day; calling actors or crew to
give them call times or directions; filling out time sheets or actor’s contracts
and so on.

SECOND SECOND AD

Second Second ADs do whatever the AD or Second AD need to be done, but

most often they are involved in helping run the set, especially a larger set
with lots of extras or action.

ADDITIONAL SECOND SECONDS

There is no such thing as a “third AD” — any time more people are needed
to help control the set or location, they are called Additional Second Second
ADs.

PRODUCTION ASSISTANTS

PAs generally work for the production department. They might also be
called gofers or runners (especially outside the US). They do anything and
everything that is needed. Some PAs are more specialized: there are Set PAs,
Office PAs, Camera PAs, and so on.
Office PAs usually spend most time in the project’s production office
handling such tasks as answering phones, deliveries, script copies, lunch
pickups, and related tasks in coordination with the production manager and
production coordinator. Usually everybody wants to be “on the set,” because
it seems cool, but being an office PA is a great learning experience as well
and a prime way to show you are a team player.
Set PAs work on the actual set of the production. They report to the
assistant director (AD) department and Key Set PA if there is one. Duties
include echoing (calling out) what the AD calls over the radio such as “lock
it up,” “rolling,” “that’s a cut,” etc. They “lock it up” by politely holding
pedestrian traffic, calling “hold the work,” etc. Be careful when dealing with
the public — don’t be abusive or unnecessarily inconvenience people.
Technically, only a police officer can stop traffic. PAs also help “wrangle” the
talent and the background players, distribute paperwork, run messages, get
coffee, pick up lunch orders and just about anything else that needs to be
done. They don’t do things that are someone elses’s job, such as move lights
or push the dolly — that is a huge no-no, even on non-union jobs. There’s a
good reason for this. Along with the AD and Second AD, PAs are the first to
arrive and last to leave. It means some long, long days, but working your
way up as a PA is probably the most time-honored way of getting into the
movie business.
 Department PAs work for the chief of each section: camera, grip, lighting,
art department, sound, etc. If you are aiming to get into one of these crafts,
looking for jobs as a department PA is a good idea. No matter what your
goal, even producer or director, having a sound knowledge of how the crew
works is useful.

The Jobs of the First Assistant Director

The First AD (often just called the AD) has many responsibilities in pre-
production; we’ll discuss these in detail later and show you the forms
necessary to get the job done properly.

FIRST AD — PRE-PRODUCTION

Line the script. Mark the script.

Create the schedule.
Run the page turn, script readings and rehearsals to organize them
for the director.
Assist the director in any way necessary.
Go on tech scouts.
Coordinate all the departments to keep things running smoothly.

THE ASSISTANT DIRECTOR

Working on the set, the AD has to be a real multi-tasker; he or she is

overseeing many aspects of the production. Duties include:

Create a realistic shooting schedule. Look at the scenes and identify

all the elements needed. Shooting schedules don’t contain a great
 amount of detail but they are the overall skeleton of the production.
They are very important.
Make sure the director provides a shot list for you and the DP.
Having a shot list on hand is important when creating a plan for the
day.
Touch base with departments (camera, lighting, grip, props,
wardrobe, etc.). As the central hub of information, an AD’s job is to
collect the latest intel from various departments as quickly as
possible, and take preemptive action if something isn’t going to plan.
Communicate effectively — and often. The best ADs are not only
great communicators, but also strategic thinkers. They know what to
say, when to say it, and how to say it.
Provide a heads-up for the next scene or setup. Let the team know
where the day is going.
Be a problem solver. It’s an important part of your job. Never
complain about problems. Your job is solve them. Whether it’s a
conflict amongst the crew or a safety hazard, it’s your responsibility
to resolve it swiftly.

THINGS YOU SHOULD DO:

Be a good listener. If you notice frustration brewing in a crew member, pull

them aside and let them vent. It will only take a few minutes, but it’s critical
in getting the person (or department!) back on track.

Take ownership of a mistake, even if you didn’t make it. Let your
entire team know that you’re working on a solution. This will help
build confidence and respect from your team.
Involve only those required. This becomes especially important if
things get heated. No need to drag the energy of the crew down.
THINGS NOT TO DO:

Don’t point fingers. The buck stops with the AD. Not only does
playing the blame game undermine trust with your people, but it
will make others fearful to approach you in the future. Don’t say
“you did that wrong,” say “we have a problem here.” This applies to
everyone, from the director to department heads and PAs.
Don’t take sides. If there’s a conflict between crew, you need to speak
with them separately to understand every perspective and find a
mutual solution. Often-times, all they need to do is vent to someone
to alleviate the tension.
Don’t lecture. Nobody likes feeling like they’re being talked down to,
so briefly make your point and move on. Don’t let tension escalate.
Word-of-mouth travels fast on a set, so anything negative that
happens has a chance to infect the energy of the cast and crew.
Learn people’s names. Nobody likes being called ‘hey’ or by their
crew position. You’re not expected to know everyone’s name on day
one. This is one of the reasons that call sheets exist. Start by learning
key cast and crew members’ names.

Creating the Schedule

The script and the schedule are the two key guiding documents of the
production. Since the First AD is responsible for keeping the shoot on
schedule, it is also up to them to create it in the first place. In order to do it
properly, the AD needs to have a good understanding of the script and a
thorough knowledge of how movies get made. A crucial rookie mistake is to
say “the scene is only 2/8th of a page, shouldn’t take more than an hour,”
when in fact the scene calls for a car blowing up and a motorcycle to jump a
river. That 2/8th of a page could easily take all day or even multiple days on
a big production.
STRIP BOARDS

Strip boards (sometimes called production boards) are the traditional way to
organize a schedule. Long cardboard strips summarizing the important data
about each scene, they could easily be rearranged as the schedule was
organized and changed. Today, they have been mostly been replaced by
computer based scheduling software, but almost all of these applications
precisely mimic the layout and arrangement of the old cardboard strips. For
a full color version of a strip board, see the website.

ORGANIZING THE SCENES

Making the strips, whether cardboard or in software, starts with the

breakdown sheets: they have all the necessary information for each scene. So
what is the key information about a scene that needs to appear on the strips?
One of the most important things we need to know about a scene when
making a schedule is whether it is day or night, interior or exterior. Since
this is so fundamental to the scheduling decisions, the strips are color coded
so that it’s not even necessary to read anything to see what scenes belong
together. The color code is:

Table 3.1. Standard colors for parts of the strip board.

TYPE OF SCENE STRIP COLOR
Day Interior White
Day Exterior Yellow
Night Interior Blue
Night Exterior Green
Day Separator Black
Week Separator Orange
Free Day Grey
Holiday Red
THE HEADER

Each scene strip should include:

Scene number
Breakdown page number
Page count
Scene name
Location and number
Day/night
Interior/exterior
Character names with a number. Every character in the script is
assigned a number, usually based on how many lines of dialog they
have.
Extras along with number (such as E11)
Notes: Vehicles (V), Animals (A), Music (M), Special Equipment (SE)

Notice that it says “Character names with number.” What is that? In order to
keep track of the speaking actors, each one is assigned a number. Not
surprisingly, the lead actor is #1, the second lead is #2 and so on. It’s the
same with locations. On the following page is a sample strip board page for
the film It’s a Wonderful Life. We can only show the boards in black and
white here. For the color versions, see the website.

COVER SETS

Sometimes, weather can ruin the best made plans. If at all possible, try to
have another interior set nearby you can move to if shooting outdoors
becomes impossible. If that’s not possible, get creative. Of course, the First
AD should always know the weather prediction.
Figure 3.1. One page of a strip board. For a color version of this board, see the website.

 Figure 3.2. A strip board created on a computer. Having the strips arranged horizontally
does make them easier to read.

Strip Boards on Computer

Some people still use traditional strip boards, but by far the vast majority of
scheduling is now done on the computer. Not only is it fast and convenient,
it is also much easier to share and send copies to the appropriate people.
With cardboard strips, the only way to share the board was to get color
photocopies made — expensive and inconvenient. For a color version of this
strip board, see the website.

OTHER SCHEDULE CONSIDERATIONS

From the strip board, you can work out a schedule that maximizes your
resources and gets the production done in the most efficient way. There are
some important considerations as you put the schedule together:
 Seasonal — shorter days in winter, snow or rain, etc.
Locations: company moves to another location during a shoot day
are enormously time-consuming. Try to avoid them if at all possible.
Cast members — try to have them on the clock for as little time as
possible.
Day/Night requires 10-12 hour turnaround (time between when the
crew finishes and has to show up the next day). Try to group night
shoots together. Twelve hour turnaround is the accepted standard on
most shoots.
Ext/Int: try to shoot exteriors first so you can move to an indoor
cover set if it rains.
Sequence: try to keep scenes in script order as much as possible.
Wardrobe/makeup changes: special EFX makeup can sometimes take
hours.
Weather: cold and rain slow down production.
Special effects/stunts: may require extensive setup and testing.
Second unit/camera: may save time having second camera or 2nd
unit.
Special equipment: cranes, helicopters, underwater equipment, etc.
Miscellaneous: may have special reasons for shooting in a strange
way.

How the First AD Runs the Set

The First AD has many jobs on the set, in addition to the things they do in
pre-production. Traditionally, the AD is the first to arrive on the set and one
of the last to leave. The AD is the NCO in charge of the set: they keep the
whole thing rolling and organized. Here’s a summary of what the AD does
when shooting a scene. At the beginning of the day, everyone will be at the
craft services table or the catering truck having coffee and breakfast burritos.
It’s up to the AD to announce “We’re in.” Get everyone to work at the start
of the day by announcing over the radio and out loud the scene number and
what set it will be shot on. Example: “We’re at work, scene seven.”

ROUGH IN

Before the director and actors get started with a scene, the crew will “rough
in” the lighting — just a first pass to take a guess at the lighting for the scene
and certainly to get power and the main lights in place and ready. The set
dressing and props people will have made sure everything is in place and
ready to go. When all that is in place the AD will ask for a blocking
rehearsal. When the rough in is done, get the director and actors on set by
calling: “First team please” over the radio. The 2nd AD will see that they are
delivered to set.

BLOCKING REHEARSAL

The director and actors will roughly work out what they want to do for
blocking. When they are ready, you call: “Stand by for blocking” over the
radio. The crew should stop all work and be absolutely quiet. The director
will call “action on rehearsal” and the actors will work their way through
the scene. The 2nd camera assistant will (as unobtrusively as possible) sneak
in to place some marks. The director will call “cut on rehearsal.”
The director and director of photography (DP) will discuss the shots. The
actors may ask to change some of the moves or entrances or exits. If needed,
the director will block the scene again until everyone is familiar with what
they are going to do. When they are, you make sure the crew knows the
shooting plan for the scene and move on to lighting by calling (to the 2nd
AD) … “Put ’em in the chairs.” or “Put ’em in the process,” (meaning they are
to be taken to hair, makeup and wardrobe). You then say to the DP “The set
is yours.” or “The set belongs to lighting and camera.” At this point, the DP,
gaffer and key grip own the set; actors shouldn’t wander in to “get a feel,”
and set dressers should stay out of the way if they have something to do. It’s
not just protocol, it’s about safety, too.

Calling The Set When Ready to Shoot

First AD asks camera and sound if they are ready. If they are:

First AD: “Lock it up, please.”

Second AD and PAs echo: “Lock it up, please. Picture’s up.”

First AD: “Roll sound.”

Sound Mixer: “Sound speed.”

First AD: “Roll camera.”

First AC: “Camera speed.” (If there is more than one camera, it’s “A
speed,” “B speed,” “C speed,” and so on).

Director: “Action.” The scene plays out, when the time is right, the
director (and only the director) calls “Cut.”

First AD: “Release the lock.”

Second AD and PAs: “We’re cut.”

After asking the director, First AD calls either “Going again,” or

“Moving on.” The director might choose to say it themselves: “Back to
one,” (meaning reset for another take) or “We’re on the wrong set,”
which means it’s time to move on.
LIGHTING

You call “Second team please” over the radio, which means bring in the
lighting stand-ins. Immediately find out from the DP how long they
estimate it will take to have the set ready for shooting. This information
must immediately be relayed to all departments so they will know how to
pace their work. If the DP tells you 45 minutes you would call “We’re 45
away” over the radio. You watch the work during lighting and if it looks like
the camera department is getting ahead of or behind the estimate, you ask.
You also keep in touch with the 2nd AD, to see that the set estimate is
syncing up with the estimate they have from hair, makeup and wardrobe for
the actors — no point in annoying the DP to hurry up if the actors still have
an hour to go in makeup. When the 45 minutes are up, you ask the DP if
camera needs more time. If they do, you announce the new estimate.

FINAL REHEARSAL

When the camera/lighting department is ready, you call for Final Rehearsal:
“First team please.” This will bring the director and actors back to set. You
must check with any other departments you see still working on the set
before you call for the first team. When the actors come in, ask them to take
their first marks. Call “Stand by to rehearse please” over the radio. The crew
will get absolutely quiet and the director will call “action on rehearsal.” The
actors will play the scene and the director, when ready, will call “cut on
rehearsal.”

LAST LOOKS

If the director is ready to shoot the scene, ask camera. If they are ready, ask
sound. If they are good to go, you call “last looks.” Makeup and hair will do
final touch-ups on the actors while camera and sound do any final “tweaks”
they need to do. The director may have a final word or two for the actors.
When makeup, wardrobe and hair leave the set – make sure the director is
still ready and call … “Lock it up for picture, please,” then “roll sound,” “roll
camera,” and then it’s up to the director to call “action,” and when she feels
the time is right: “cut.” Then the process starts over again, either for another
take or “moving on,” to another scene.

Figure 3.3. The front page of a typical call sheet. Every member of the cast and crew
should receive one the day before the scenes are to be shot. Atmosphere is background
people or extras. Technically, there is a difference between an extra, a background artist
and an atmosphere person, but the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. Under
remarks, it says “ND extras.” ND is the term for nondescript, meaning there is to be
nothing outstanding about them, just an average crowd. Some scenes might call for ND
cars, for example, meaning just a random assortment of cars.

Figure 3.4. Back page of a typical call sheet. Notice, for example, that the second unit DP
and AC aren’t needed until 5PM. In this case, it was decided that they would shoot some
small inserts after the key crew is wrapped (done for the day). Doesn’t mean that the
scene will be over at 5PM, just that the second unit needs to be ready to go, when the
 last scene is wrapped. The Wardrobe Designer is listed as O/C or “on call.” This just
means that he or she knows when and where they need to be better than the AD might
know; same with the editors. For the drivers — the Transportation Captain (Transpo) has
a much better picture of when and where they need to be. Transpo is going to be
thinking about traffic conditions, parking problems and other issues.

Second AD
Second ADs are the first people on set and often the last to leave. Among the
many duties they perform are:

Make sure that the actors arrive on time and get them started in
makeup, wardrobe and hair. If they aren’t there on time, get on the
phone and find out what’s wrong.
Deliver the actors to the set when the First AD calls, “first team.”
Keep checking to see that the off-set departments are aware of what
the First AD is calling over the radio: scene numbers, time estimates,
etc.
Keep communication open between the production office and the set.
Prepare the call sheet for the following day’s shooting before the
meal break, get it checked and signed off by the First AD and see that
it gets back to the office for production manager approval and
photocopying and back to the set in time to be handed out at wrap.
Echo the First ADs calls that prepare the company for shooting:
“Lock it up for picture,” “quiet please,” “we’re rolling!”
Actor’s contracts, especially the SAG long form.
Wrangle the actors and extras (unless you have a Second Second AD
doing this). Wrangle means telling them they are needed on the set
(or in makeup, hair or wardrobe) and making sure they get there.
This might also be done by a Second Second AD.
Checking that actors show up at call time and get signed in.
 Make sure they have signed their paperwork before they leave the
set.
Supervise the PAs (might also be done by the Second Second AD if
there is one).
Make phone calls for the AD when he or she is busy on the set
(which is pretty much always).
If the First AD needs to step off of set for any reason, maybe just for
a bathroom break, the Second AD may need to step in for a while.
This means you need to keep current on what is happening on set.

Second Second AD
There is no such thing as a third AD; any extra ADs after the Second are
called Second Second ADs and sometimes there might be Additional Second
Second ADs. They assist the 1st and 2nd AD. Generally, they take care of the
following:

Check with makeup, wardrobe, and hair to be sure things are

running smoothly and update the first AD with reports on whether
they are on schedule or not.
Take charge of all the radios, including making sure they are charged
every night. Not having charged batteries for the walkies at the
beginning of the day is definitely a fireable offense. Don’t let it
happen to you!
Do the daily production report, if the Script Supervisor doesn’t do it.
Wrangle the extras and talent to and from the set — often
coordinating with transportation for the movement of shuttle
vehicles. The main responsibility of the Second Second AD of
assisting the 1st Assistant Director and the 2nd Assistant Director.
Typically the Second Second AD will be responsible for the
background talent off the set; they may have to sit with them on
standby for most of the day, then get them to set.
You need to constantly communicate with the 1st and 2nd AD.
Communication is key. You do not want to show up on set with 20
background performers an hour before the 1st is ready for them, or
especially ten minutes after they were needed. This involves
anticipating timing — you will need to estimate how long it takes to
get a group from point A to point B.
While on set you may need to stop traffic, vehicles as well as
pedestrians, from going through a shot — this called “locking it up.”
All of your set PA’s on walkie will also call out “Lock it up.” You will
be responsible for positioning “lockup PAs” to places where they can
control traffic, outside work, whatever might be a problem when
rolling. Don’t forget to call it when lockup is released; if you don’t do
this, eventually people will ignore the lockup.
Assist the 2nd: If there is a day without any background performers
then you will help out the 2nd with anything that may be needed;
you may have to transport talent to set or communicate timing with
the 1st AD.
You will need to supervise the PAs as well, if you need help with
anything they are there for you and the AD team.
Always have your walkie on (but turn the volume down when the
camera is rolling), you will need to communicate on all channels,
when lunch is called, when wrap is called, etc. When making
announcements, be sure to go to all channels in use and relay the
information.
Charging the walkies is an extremely important duty. If the walkie
talkies are not charged every night, it is a serious problem for the
production the next day — and everybody will know whose fault it
is; that is, if you’re still employed on the project, which you might
not be if you forget this. In many cases, this job will be assigned to a
trusted PA.
 The Second Second AD has to be prepared to do anything that the
1st or 2nd needs of you. You are a key member of the production
team and will help to make sure that things run more smoothly.
Keep your eyes and ears open and be ready to jump in at any time.
Don’t wait to be asked to do something, take initiative.

Production Assistants
Working as a PA (Production Assistant) is the most reliable and most often
used method of getting started in the movie business. People use it as a way
to learn how things work, make contacts, learn what is involved in different
jobs on the set, and get started on the career ladder. For many, it allows
them to see what it is they really want to do — maybe they didn’t have an
interest in working in production design, for example, but when they see the
production design team at work, they realize it’s something that they’d like
to do.

Some things a PA always has with them: a writing pen, pocket

notebook, a Sharpie marker, and a flashlight (even if it’s just a small
keychain one).

WHAT DOES A SET PA DO?

Basically, anything they are told to do by the AD, Second AD or sometimes

the Key PA, but generally they:

Gofer (yes, including gofer coffee).

Wrangle actors (while working for the Second AD).
 Do lockup, and crowd control.
Run errands, pickups, and deliveries including taking hard drives to
the editors.
Absolutely anything that needs to get done. Anything.

WHAT A PA DOESN’T DO

You don’t do anything that is a crew job. There is a real reason for this; I
know you’re eager to get involved and eager to please the 1st AD, but you
do not touch props, lighting equipment, grip equipment, set dressing, or
anything that is someone else’s job. It is not a union thing, it is a logical and
realistic way to run a production. It’s the way that works; it’s been proven
for a hundred years. Say you’re on a set and some C-stands are in the shot.
The director angrily shouts “get those stands out of my shot.” The Key Grip
has stepped away for a moment to handle an emergency off-set. An
overeager PA moves the stands behind the set wall. The Key Grip comes
back, and the DP asks “Give me a flag here as quick as possible.” But….. the
grips can’t find the C-stands, and it becomes a big deal. Guess who’s going
to get fired? Hint — it’s not the Key Grip, or the director who yelled at you.

OTHER TYPES OF PAS

Some PAs work in the Production Office; some work as Set PAs. Other PAs
work as personal assistant to the main actors, the director or the producers.
Some PAs are assigned to the camera department, grip, lighting or props. In
that case, they do whatever the AC, gaffer, Key Grip or seconds need them
to do. This might include things like cleaning up the truck, standing guard
over equipment, counting inventory or many other miscellaneous tasks.
All of these positions are valuable to your learning experience and to your
advancement in the business. Every PA initially wants to be “on the set” and
stand next to the director, or the camera (something you should never do)
but there is valuable learning to be had in every PA position. Often, Set PAs
are chosen for knowing that you don’t crowd the camera and the director,
and know how to stay in the background but always be available for any
task — the most important skills of a PA, or really, any part of the
filmmaking team. Be patient, work your way up to the position you want by
being excellent at the job you have in front of you.

Ways for a PA (or Anybody) to Get Fired

Leave before you are released.
Show up late more than once.
Keep talking on the set after quiet is called for.
Have to be constantly “shushed” by the First or Second AD.
Don’t listen to your orders.
Don’t complete your assigned tasks.
Make somebody have to search for you.
Don’t pay attention to what’s going on.
Be sloppy or careless about your tasks.
Offer “advice” to the director or DP.
Make off-color, gender or racial comments/jokes or other
inappropriate talk.
Don’t turn in your receipts.
Cause a disturbance on the set.
Constantly crowd the camera or the video monitor.
Repeatedly get in the way of the director, actors or crew.
Be loud, obnoxious or inconsiderate.
Constantly chatter on the walkies.
Create a safety hazard or injure someone by carelessness.
Spread rumors or talk badly about people on the production.
Park in the AD’s parking spot.
Act like an idiot.
HOW TO SURVIVE AS AN EXTRA:

Listen carefully to the directions you are given by members of the AD team
in relation to where you should go and what you should do. Clarify
anything you do not understand.

Early in my career, I worked with a PA in New York who would drive

the van down avenues with his head out the window screaming “Get
out of my way, I’m in PRODUCTION!” It’s people like this who make
the public resent film crews in their area and make it more difficullt to
get permits and co-operation. Don’t be that guy. You’re working on a
movie; it’s not the apocalypse. Do your job, but don’t be a jerk about it.
Brian McLaren

Be quiet on set. The film crew need to work without interruption.

Never be late and never be rude.
Do not leave the set or location until you have been told officially by
an assistant director that you have been “wrapped.” Before you leave
make sure you have signed out with a member of the AD team and
you have returned any costume or props.
Never look into the camera when filming.
It is strictly forbidden to talk to the actors, ask for autographs, or
take photographs. This can result in you being fired immediately.
They are doing a job that requires intense concentration — respect
that.
Stay out of the eyeline of the principal actors unless it is part of your
direction. This may seem minor, but it’s actually a big deal as it
totally breaks their concentration. Just ask Christian Bale.
You are never allowed to bring a friend or family member with you;
this also applies to costume fittings. Obviously, this does not apply to
performers under 18.
Talking to the local media is not cool.
No personal belongings are to be brought onto set. Extras will
usually have a holding area and a PA should be assigned to watch
over things so actors can feel secure in leaving personal items there
safely.
Mobile phones must be switched off! Not silenced — off!
If you must take regular medication or have medication on hand in
case of emergency, make a member of the assistant director team
aware when signing in. If your medication cannot be on your person
due to your costume, they will take measures to have it kept in a safe
place or with the on-set medic.
No smoking is allowed on set, or in the extras holding areas. This
includes vaping. There should be a designated smoking area.
Once filming begins, it may not be possible to release you from set
until the next break. Please ensure you go to the bathroom, etc. in
plenty of time before you are called to the set. The Second Second
AD or PA designated as extras wrangler needs to know where you
are at all times.
Continuity and Coverage
Continuity: Making Sure It Works

Your most important obligation is to make sure the scene “works” in editing.
If you don’t get the proper coverage, it might not. It’s an easy mistake to
make — to think that all you really need for a scene is a shot here and a shot
over there. Sometimes you might be right, but think about the consequences
if you’re wrong. You won’t know about it until days or weeks later in the
editing room. At that point you might see that those few shots were not
enough or just wish that you had more coverage of the scene in order to
make the editing flow more smoothly or to speed up or slow down the pace
of the scene. Know what? It’s too late! Reshooting is a big deal. It’s
expensive, time consuming and in many cases may not be possible at all —
actors or locations may be completely unavailable. The moral of this story is
don’t shoot like an amateur, get all the proper coverage of every scene!

CONTINUITY

You may think of continuity as just making sure there are no big “mistakes”
in a scene — such he’s not wearing a hat in the wide shot but we cut to a
close-up and suddenly there’s a hat on him, but actually there’s a lot more to
continuity than this (Figure 4.1). In general, it refers to continuity editing,
which is the way almost all movies are edited. Continuity editing is the
process of combining related shots into a scene so as to create consistency of
story across both time and physical location.
 Figure 4.1.
This is what most people think of when they talk about film continuity — the
strap across his chest suddenly reverses direction in the close-up. While wardrobe
continuity is the most visible and most often noticed kind of mistake, it is only one
aspect of continuity. If you look closely, you will see that the shot has been reversed.

CUTTABILITY

Ultimately, the director and DP are responsible for one thing above all —
delivering cut-table footage to the editor. Some shots just won’t edit together
without being awkward and confusing. If two shots are too similar, it will be
an obvious mistake — it will look like a jump cut. Figure 4.18 is an example
of two shots that would not be cuttable — they are too similar in camera
position and object size (how big the actors are in the frame).

SCREEN DIRECTION

A major issue in all types of shooting is screen direction. There are a couple
of types of screen direction we need to be aware of:

Direction of travel. Example: if the cowboys are coming to save the

town and we see them traveling toward screen right, it important
that in all the subsequent shots of them, they still be traveling
 toward the right, otherwise if we all of a sudden see them traveling
toward the left, the audience might think they gave up and turned
around.
When two people are in a scene, one is on the left and one is on the
right. It is important to maintain this screen direction throughout all
the shots of the scene — otherwise the audience will get confused.

THE LINE

Look at these two close-ups from the same master (Figure 4.7). He’s OK, but
her shot is all wrong. She is on the wrong side and facing the wrong way. If
you cut these two shots together it wouldn’t look at all like she is talking to
him.
What went wrong? The actors haven’t moved. What happened is the
camera moved to the other side of “The Line.” The Line is an imaginary axis
drawn between the two characters. Once we shoot the master on one side or
the other, then all the rest of the shots for that scene must remain on the
same side of the line, otherwise you will end up with shots that have the
wrong screen direction, as we see in her close-up.
Figure 4.2. As long as the camera stays on one side of the 180° line, the screen direction
will remain consistent — she is on the left, he is on the right (middle, left and right). If
the camera goes to the other side of the line, then screen direction is reversed — now she
is on the right and he is on the left (bottom, left and right). It’s confusing for the
audience and may take their minds away from your story for a moment.

TO GET TO THE OTHER SIDE

So what if you want to get a shot that is on the other side of the line? There
are a couple of ways to do this. You can also change screen direction with a
visible movement of the camera across the line to the other side. It can be a
dolly move, a handheld or Steadicam move. However, if you use this method
to get to the other side, remember — you are committed to using that shot in
the edit, no matter how bad it is.
Another way to get to the other side is to cutaway to something else in
the scene and then when you come back to the actors it’s OK to be on the
opposite side. A third way is to cut to a neutral angle. A neutral angle and
neutral axis is one that does not show screen direction. For example if you
have a car that is traveling left in all your shots, if you then cut to a shot of
the car traveling straight toward the camera or straight away from the
camera, that is a neutral axis.

ON-SCREEN MOVEMENT ACROSS THE LINE

If you are on the correct side of the line and you want to get to the other
side, it’s OK to do it, as long as the audience can see it on screen. For
example, a dolly shot that goes to the other side would be fine. The idea is
that the audience sees the camera move and the screen direction change, so
they are not confused by it. There is a danger here though. Say you shot the
master and then shot some coverage that is on the same side of the line as
the master — this is all as it should be — correct screen direction. Then you
do a dolly shot (or handheld) that shows the movement to the other side of
the line. In editing, you find you don’t really want that dolly shot or it is too
bumpy. Too bad — you’re stuck with it. Otherwise, if you don’t use it, you’ll
have some footage that has correct screen direction and some that doesn’t.
You won’t be able to edit these together smoothly.
 Figure 4.3. Screen direction is especially important to keep consistent when something is
moving, whether it be a car, an actor or anything else.

A TRUE REVERSE

So we can never do a single shot that is on the wrong side of the line? There
is a way. It’s called a reverse or a true reverse. Some rules apply (and these
are very general guidelines):
It needs to be a fairly big change. Crossing the line just a little bit will be
confusing. If you do it in a big way, the audience will more easily
understand that the camera has merely gone to the other side of the room.
The background needs to be visibly different — again, this is to reduce the
chance of the audience being momentarily confused.
It’s important to remember that shooting on the set is never an end in
itself — what you are really doing is providing the raw material for the
editor. In addition to all the other requirements, it is essential that your
material be “cuttable.” This simply means that they are shot in a way that
the editor can put them together in accordance with the basic rules of
editing.
 This is primarily the director’s job, but it is absolutely essential that the
cinematographer know what these rules are; not only as a backup for the
director and continuity supervisor, but also for situations such as shooting
second unit, where no director might be present.
Screen direction and correct eyelines are important to cuttability, but
there is another requirement: that the two shots are different enough that
editing them together won’t make it seem like there is just a break in the
film. This is called “jump cut,” which means that there is no rhyme or reason
for the edit — it just seems like a mistake.

To receive footage that has been shot with editing in mind, it is a

blessing.
Thelma Schoonmaker (Raging Bull, The Aviator, The Departed)

THE 20% RULE

One general guideline is that the camera angle should change by at least
20%, horizontally or vertically. This is pretty much the same as saying that
the angle should change by at least 30°. This is the bare minimum, when in
doubt make the change more noticeable.

THE 30 DEGREE RULE

This is the absolute minimum the shot must change for the two angles to be
cuttable. This illustrates moving the camera horizontally, but the same
principle applies for a vertical move of the camera. Of course if a smaller
move is combined with a lens change, it might cut together seamlessly.
Better safe than sorry when it comes to cuttability (Figure 4.14).
TWO LENS SIZES

Changing the lens can make enough difference to make two shots cuttable.
Thinking in terms of prime lenses, you will generally find that one lens size
is not enough to make most shots cuttable by itself. For example — changing
from a 25mm to a 35mm lens is not likely to be enough of a difference.
Changing two lens sizes is safer: for example — from a 25mm to a 50mm
will always ensure cuttability.

Not getting enough coverage is the number one mistake beginning

filmmakers make. Once they discover in the editing room that the scene
doesn’t work, it is often too late! Reshoots are expensive and sometimes
not even possible.

Point-of-View
POV stands for point-of-view. As it is most often used on the set, it means
when the camera sees the scene as a character would see it (Figure 4.16). For
example, if a character leans over a balcony and looks down and then we
place the camera where he was standing and get a shot of the street under
the balcony, we are shooting “his POV.”

TRUE SUBJECTIVE POV

In most cases, we place the camera very near where the character’s eyes
would be and that is called a POV. In cases where we actually want the
camera to “act like” the character so that the camera really becomes his or
her eyes, then we are shoot a “true subjective POV.”
 Subjective POVs are an essential part of filmmaking. They really get the
viewer involved in the scene and they also tend to make the audience
identify with the character. It is important to follow a few simple rules in
order to make them successful.
The real magic of the subjective POV look is that you don’t really have to
have an airplane there to make us believe that the character is looking at an
airplane — we can put things into the scene through “movie magic.” You can
use stock footage or get the airplane shot some other time.

Screen Direction In Dialog Scenes

Figure 4.4.
We see the master: a normal two shot (right) and the camera placement that
gets that shot (left).

Figure 4.5.
Closeup on him and the camera placement.

 Figure 4.6.
To get the close-up on her, the camera just shifts to the left. What is
important to notice is that two close-ups will edit together nicely: he is on the left facing
right, just as he is in the master shot. She is on the right facing left, just as she is in the
master shot.

Figure 4.7. Because the camera crosses the 180° line between shooting these two
closeups, the two people do not appear to be talking to each other (right) — this is why
screen direction is so important. Mistakes in screen direction are confusing to the viewer.

JUMP CUTS

If two shots just don’t fit together in editing, that can result in a jump cut.
Take the example of a man standing by the door and then we immediately
cut to a shot of him standing by the window: that would be a jump cut. It
has the effect of making the audience think that piece of the scene is
missing. In this example, it will seem that the part where he walked over to
the window has been left out. Normally, when we are editing for continuity,
we try to avoid jump cuts: they are jarring and distracting, they break the
illusion of reality. However, sometimes they are used for artistic purposes.
French director Jean-Luc Goddard pioneered the deliberate use of jump cuts
in his film Breathless (he was not the first to use them, but his work started
a trend). They are now sometimes used in action or horror films and
extensively in music videos — which in most cases are not intended to be
realistic continuity editing.

ELLIPSIS

An ellipsis is a gap, something left out. For example, if you end a sentence
without finishing … Those three dots are also called an ellipsis.
Some people take continuity too far — they feel you have to show every
single thing a character does, that nothing can be left out of a sequence of
actions. One example: she goes to a party. We might see her putting on her
makeup, going out the door and then getting in a cab, arriving at the door
and then coming in to the party. It all makes sense, there are no gaps in the
timeline. It all makes sense but is it all necessary? Not really.
Do we need to see her riding in a cab? It doesn’t advance the story, we
don’t learn anything new. It is not necessary. It is perfectly OK to see her
putting on makeup and then in the very next shot, she’s at the party. Sure
there is a gap in time, but the audience understands it. They won’t be
confused.

DOOR AND WINDOW MATCH

Matching is a big part of continuity. Here is an example: let’s say a character

is in a room and they walk over and lean out the window to shout
something to a person on the sidewalk. Inside the room (an interior shot) we
see him raise a double-hung window (slides up and down). Then we cut to a
shot from outside the building and we see the actor open a casement
window (opens with a crank) and lean out. Clearly this would be an error in
continuity, and the audience would notice.
 Often, the interior shot of the actor opening the window will be shot in a
completely different location than the exterior shot of him leaning out the
window. It is not necessary that the windows match in every tiny detail —
they just have to be similar enough that the audience won’t notice; generally
they just have to be the same type of window. The same thing applies to
doors. If we see an actor inside a building and exiting out of a glass door, we
can’t then cut to the exterior shot of him coming out of a wooden door.

Figure 4.8.
The clock shows ten minutes till nine.

Figure 4.9.
We cut to a tight over-the-shoulder of her.

Figure 4.10.
Cutting back to him, the clock has jumped several hours ahead. This would
not be unusual for a scene that takes a long time to shoot or there is a break for lunch in
the middle. It’s up to the prop master to reset the clock so it is consistent. The script
supervisor also needs to keep an eye on things like this.

Figure 4.11. These two shots would not be cuttable. The camera has moved but not
enough and they are too similar. Trying to edit them together would produce a jumpy
edit that would seem like a mistake — as though a few frames were missing; not smooth
and seamless.

 Figure 4.12.
These two shots would be cuttable. There is enough of a difference that
cutting the two shots together would produce a smooth, seamless edit.

Figure 4.13.
An illustration of the 30° rule (or 20% rule).

LOCATION STITCHING

All these kinds of problems come up because we frequently use two or three
different locations and make them appear to be all one location. When an
actor leans out the window, it may look great from inside the building but
the outside view of that same window might be a terrible shot. It is often
better to use a different window, even a different building.
 The same kind of thing often applies to walking shots. We see two actors
in the hospital lounge; they stand up and walk out the door. We cut to them
walking out the door and follow them down the hallway. They turn a corner
and we cut to them entering the hospital lobby; they exit the front door and
we cut to them coming out into the parking lot. This is a fairly common
sequence of shots. Here’s the secret: the lounge, the hallway, the lobby and
the parking lot might well be all in different buildings, even in different
countries — this is called location stitching.

FAKING IT WITH REDRESSING

The opposite is sometimes true, especially on low-budget productions:

sometimes we make one location look like several different places. Maybe
the script calls for us to meet three couples as they prepare for their vacation
together. We need a scene of one couple at their apartment in New York; we
need to see another couple at home in Michigan and the third couple as they
pack in Kansas. On a super low budget it wouldn’t make sense to find three
different houses for these short scenes.

Figure 4.14.
(left) The master for this scene. (middle) This shot might be cuttable, but it
would be an awkward cut. (right) This medium would definitely cut well with the
master shot and be a smooth edit.

Instead we just make one bedroom the New York apartment, another
bedroom the Michigan home and then we can redress that same bedroom as
the house in Kansas. Redressing means changing the furniture and
decorations to make it look like a different room.
CHEATING ANGLES

Sometimes when we want to get the answering shot/reverse angle on a

scene, the background just isn’t right. In cases like these, it is possible to
cheat the angle. This can be done by moving the camera to a different angle
but positioning the actor so that they appear in the frame exactly as they
would if you were shooting the actual answering shot in the previous
position. Since the audience hasn’t seen the actor’s actual background
before, they won’t know the difference; or, in some cases, the background of
the entire scene is neutral enough (for example, a brick wall) that it doesn’t
matter. Be sure to adjust the lighting so that it appears as it should in the
actual answering shot.

Types of Continuity
As we mentioned, there are several types of continuity. The script supervisor
keeps an eye on all of these, but it is really the responsibility of each
department to make sure continuity is kept consistent: clothes and jewelry
are up to wardrobe, screen direction is up to the cinematographer and
director, the prop master controls all props, and so on.

WARDROBE

Mistakes in wardrobe, jewlery, watches, hats, hair styles, and makeup are
the ones most likely to be noticed by the viewer. Other types of continuity
may not be so recognizable but they have a jarring, discomforting effect on
the audience, even if they don’t know why.

SCREEN DIRECTION
Wrong screen direction is something that the viewer may not directly notice
but it is confusing and for a moment takes their mind off the story and
forces them to reorient themselves mentally.

PROPS

Props are an obvious one: he is holding a wine glass in the wide shot, but his
hands are empty in the medium shot. One example: in Ocean’s Eleven, Linus
and Rusty are talking in the casino. Rusty is eating a shrimp cocktail that
changes from a cocktail glass to a plate and back again.

TIME

This goes beyond just time leaps on a clock visible in the shot (Figures 4.9
through 4.11); it also includes time of day — in the wide shot it is near
sunset, but in the next shot, the characters are in midday daylight.
The Work of the Director
Director and Producer

The director and producer are a team. Even though there will inevitably be
disagreements about the script, the budget, who to cast and about the
editing, they must always be willing to work to overcome their differences
for the sake of the project.
In theory, the producer is in charge of a production. In actual practice, it is
often the director who has the last word on artistic matters and the producer
who has the final say on all things concerning the budget. In some cases, the
director and the producer will be the same person. This is possible, but it can
be dangerous. Trying to do both will be overtaxing and exhausting, and can
easily lead to both jobs being done poorly. The same applies to a director
who also wrote the script. In that case, it is very helpful to have someone
you trust to be able to give you feedback and even pushback on the script,
casting and other important matters.

Filmmaking is all about appreciating the talents of the people you

surround yourself with and knowing you could never have made any
of these films by yourself.
Steven Spielberg

THE DIRECTOR’S JOBS

First let’s talk about the responsibilities of the director. Here are some of the
many things they do:

Overall artistic direction of the project; primarily “bringing the script

to life.”
Makes final casting decisions.
 On the set, the director is artistically in charge; however, the
assistant director (AD) has primary responsibility for the schedule
and actors’ schedules, subject to what the director needs.
“Calls the shots” — decides the shots and coverage for every scene in
the film.
Collaborates with the cinematographer, production designer, and
other creative leaders on the project and gives them guidance.
Keeps the production on schedule and within budget, in
collaboration with the AD and Line Producer.
Works with the actors individually, and as a group to keep everyone
“making the same movie.”
After shooting, works with the editor, composer and VFX team (if
there is one) to shape the final project.

THE STAGES OF FILMMAKING

The director is involved in all phases of the filmmaking process:

Development

- Working with the producers.

- Collaboration with the writers. In some cases, the script is
finished before a director is brought on board.

Pre-production

- Working with the production team.

- Collaboration with the Production Designer, Wardrobe and
Makeup.
- Analyzing the script and forming ideas about how each scene
will be approached and how the overall flow of the story
needs to work out.
 Shooting

- Collaboration with the Director of Photography and the entire

creative team.

Post-production

- Working with the editor and composer.

- Working with the special effects team, if there is one.
- Working with marketing.

Getting Started
Directing a movie, or even a short film or commercial can seem daunting,
even overwhelming. How do you start? Where do you begin? In short —
with the script.
The screenplay, the script, is the basis of everything that happens in a
movie — that’s why it is so important to get the script right before you even
begin production. When we say the script is the basis for everything, we
mean that literally. It is so much more than just “what the actors will say.”
The script is also what the cinematographer will read to understand how to
photograph the film; it’s what the production designer studies to think about
the design; the prop person will use it as a guide, the AD will use it to make
the schedule, the effects people will learn where they fit it, and so on.
For the director, the script is their bible, it is a guide that everyone shares.
When beginning a production, the director will read the script again and
again, making notes, daydreaming, perhaps screening similar movies along
with the cinematographer and production designer and discussing them —
an old tradition in the film business.
The director might also put together an idea book: little sketches, pictures
torn from magazines, notes, printouts, etc. This is a good process for the
director’s thinking, but it can also be a great communications tool when
working with the cinematographer, production designer, wardrobe and
makeup.

UNDERSTANDING THE SCRIPT

It’s not enough just to read the script, or even just make plans for how you
want to shoot the scenes — you have to understand the story and the script
in depth. This means you have to understand how the whole story
progresses and comes together; what the important story points are and how
they fit into the overall flow. Most of all, you need to have a deep knowledge
of the intentions of each scene — what are the characters trying to
accomplish? What is going on inside their heads? How do these change
during the course of a scene?

You gain actors’ trust sometimes through the rehearsal process, through
interactions with them, by getting to know them, listening to their
opinions. It’s a little like being a therapist or a friend. Then once an
actor trusts you, you can give criticism in a positive way, to shape the
performance. If you don’t have that trust relationship, it can be
detrimental. On the other hand, I’ve worked with actors like Meryl
Streep who are far more experienced than I am. In that case, it’s about
working together to figure out who the ‘character’ is, but then trusting
the actor’s instincts to be able to deliver that character on screen.
Susan Seidelman (Desperately Seeking Susan)

You’ll need to read the script again and again, analyzing and making
notes. This applies even if you wrote the script. A lot of times, you are going
by instinct when you write a script and you may not have taken a step back
to look at the script as the director, not as the writer. The important thing is
that not only do you need to have a thorough comprehension of the scripts,
you’ll need to be able to communicate that understanding to the actors, the
DP and others on your team.

TABLE READ

Next comes a table read. The actors gather together and the director, along
with the AD, listen as the actors read through the script. It’s a great way for
people to get to know each other, hear others say the dialog and start to
form their ideas about how they will portray the characters. It’s a good time
for the director to give some overall guidance but since it’s public, probably
not a good time to give individual actors specific direction — that’s probably
better done privately.

REHEARSAL

Often on movies, we don’t get a real rehearsal period — sad but true. Most
directors and actors would love to rehearse extensively but often the
pressure of budget and time don’t allow it. More often the rehearsal comes
on the set, right before the camera rolls. This is not as bad as it sounds, it is
very immediate, and helpful and most of the time, it’s how movies get made.
But if you can have rehearsals, definitely do it. They are not just for the
actors either, the director is likely to learn more about the characters, the
story and how to work with each actor. New ideas almost always emerge in
rehearsal; also, bad ideas tend to melt away.

PAGE TURN

Similar to the table read, the page turn is for the crew, not for the actors. Led
by the Assistant Director (the director sits in), all the department heads —
cinematographer, gaffer, grip, production designer, props, makeup, wardrobe,
stunts, mechanical effects (the ones done on the set) and others — go
through the script page by page and make sure the specific requirements of
each scene are under control: lighting, props, wardrobe, sets, special effects,
transportation, etc. This is also a great opportunity for the director to
communicate to them the vision and style they have in mind for the film.
For department heads, it is also about making sure the right equipment and
crew are on hand when they are needed.

Director’s Pre-Production
Pre-production is a busy time for the director: possibly fine-tuning the script,
creative meetings with the DP, production designer and others. The AD will
have questions as they prepare the strip board and schedule; the producer
will undoubtedly want to talk about the budget — they always do. But there
are more essential duties in pre-production: casting actors and selecting
locations. These are activities that simply cannot go forward without the
director.

CASTING

Casting is one of the most essential parts of directing a movie. On small

productions, the director may do all the casting, assisted by the AD and
maybe a PA or two. On larger productions, this would be a very time-
consuming and exhausting task, especially at a crucial time when the
director might be working out production details or working with the
screenwriter. In these cases, a casting director is employed. The casting
director will generally already know a great many actors and have hundreds
of headshots and resumes. They will also likely have contacts with agents,
agencies and services that help actors publicize themselves.
 The most important job of the director is casting. If you can cast your
film in an interesting way, then you’re 50 percent there.
Susan Seidelman (Desperately Seeking Susan, Smithereens)

One key resource that a casting director will usually draw on is

Breakdown Services. This is a company that will send your casting
breakdowns (descriptions of the roles and the kinds of actors you are looking
for) to hundreds of agents and agencies. Online casting services are usually
free for the production and are very useful. Don’t forget to be specific about
where and when the filming will take place; no use getting headshots from
Florida if you’re shooting in Alaska and don’t have a budget to fly people
around.
The casting director (usually along with an assistant) will then go through
the submissions and narrow it down to a smaller selection of highly likely
choices. These choices are then called in for a first audition, which is shot on
video.
The casting director shows the selected videos to the director, who
narrows the choices further, down to a few top picks for each role. The actors
selected are then contacted for a call-back (a second audition), this time with
the director present. If the director can’t decide by this time, a second call-
back is needed. Sure the director has to do what is necessary to find the right
actors, but keep in mind that these are people with real lives — don’t waste
their time with audition after audition unless it is really necessary. A good
casting director can be an invaluable aid to your production — even if
you’ve already booked Leonardo as your lead!

LOCATION SCOUT

There are two types of location scouts. The first is just the process of looking
at locations to see which ones best suit the movie and the budget. If you can
afford it, the first part of this process will be done by a location scout, who
may be an outside consultant (there are many professional location scouts
throughout the country and in other countries) or may be someone from the
crew.
The location scout may do research on the web, in magazines or with state
and city film commissions; most of which are extremely helpful and have
lots of resources and places to show you. As a last resort, just getting in the
car and driving around may be the way to go. At the location, the scout will
take lots of photos or video, being sure to photograph in all directions and
get pictures both inside and outside. Don’t make yourself look foolish by
showing a picture of a room and saying “and there’s this great fireplace on
the other side of the room.” Have a photo or video of it!
Once the director reviews these images, they will decide which ones to
visit in person. The director, AD, DP and production designer may all
participate in these visits, but absolutely the director has to be there. By the
way, location manager is a different job, which we’ll talk about later.
Sometimes the two jobs are done by the same person.

COLLABORATIONS

In pre-production, the director will be working closely with several key

people. Often the production designer is the first person hired as their work
often needs lots of lead time, even if you are shooting entirely on location.
This is also the time where a lot of the visual world building is done, not just
selecting locations, but also making decisions about wardrobe, props,
makeup, color themes and so on. Even the smallest details may be worthy of
the director’s yea or nay — the wardrobe person might bring in four or five
watches and ask “which one do you see the countess wearing?” Props might
ask, “do you think she would have this kind of clock in her room?” The
director doesn’t need to weigh in on every single detail, just the ones that
are really important to the visual storytelling.
A Director Prepares
Directors must arrive on the set prepared — it is one of their most important
duties. How does a director prepare for a day’s shooting? First of all, they
need to have studied the script inside and out — to truly understand the
intent and purpose of every scene and how every character contributes to
the intention of that part of the story. Most directors make extensive notes in
their scripts about blocking (the movements of the actors), camera angles,
notes to actors and what they are trying to do in every scene.

It would be great If…

…there were six hard and fast rules of directing that would win you an
Academy Award but, alas, there are no such rules. What I can tell you
is:

Listen.
Never forget it is a collaboration.
Pay attention.
Follow a logical process.
Have a plan for where you’re going with each scene and the
whole story.
Don’t be upset if the unexpected changes your plan. Decide if
you want to go with the flow or get things back on course.
Be flexible, but decisive.
Don’t give actors line readings.
Set a positive tone for the production — the actors and crew will
follow your lead.
Never forget it is a collaboration.

I know I said collaboration twice, but that’s how important it is.

THE SHOT LIST

There is one piece of preparation that a director absolutely must do: a shot
list. A director who comes to the set without a shot list is simply not doing
their job and is arriving unprepared. A shot list is simple, it’s just a list of
what shots the director wants for each scene they plan to shoot that day
(Figure 5.1). A copy will usually be given to the AD and possibly also the
DP. Directors vary in how closely they stick to a shot list, but it is still
absolutely required that a director have one ready at the start of the day.
They don’t necessarily have to be in the order of when you want to shoot
them, although that is helpful. As shots are completed, the director (or the
AD) crosses them off — this is incredibly important to check before you call
wrap. Thinking on the drive home that “oops we didn’t get that shot,” is a
terrible feeling and bad filmmaking. If you are coming back to the same set
the next day, it’s not fatal, but often that location is wrapped and no longer
available, the same actors are not scheduled for the next day and so on. For
the director to be certain that she or he got all of the shots needed for that
day is absolutely critical. Figure 5.1 is an example of part of a shot list. The
actual list for a shoot day would be much longer.
 Figure 5.1.
A sample shot list.

SETUPS

How do you measure a shoot day? How do you know if you’re doing OK or
falling behind? Of course, the main thing is to get all the shots scheduled for
that day, but there is another measure called setups. A setup is every time
the camera is moved to a different spot or the lens is changed. Shooting the
master is a setup, but shooting the over-the-shoulder and a close-up are each
individual setups. You might occasionally hear people say, “it was a huge
day, we did 60 setups.” On big-budget films, they do fewer setups, but do
dozens of takes of each one; on smaller films you have to constantly fight to
stay on schedule.

SKETCHES

Sometimes directors will add little sketches to the script, simple line
drawings, of shots and the framing of particular shots. If you want, you can
make full storyboards, but most often, simple little sketches are all you need.
Alfred Hitchcock was an accomplished artist (he started in the business as an
art director) but his shot sketches were no more than primitive stick figures
— that’s all he needed for himself and his cinematographer — just that the
shot will show this and this and the camera will be about this high and on
this side. Since he trusted his director of photography and he knew how
much each lens would see, he rarely ever looked through the camera
viewfinder and yet he is known for his precise and expressive mastery of the
frame.

OVERHEADS
Some directors prepare overheads, which are diagrams of the set that show
where the camera will be placed for different shots (Figure 5.2). These can be
very helpful as you think about how to stage a scene, but you will find that
often when you are actually on the set shooting the scene you will deviate
significantly from these plans. That is perfectly OK, the storyboards or
overheads are planning devices, not rigid blueprints that absolutely must be
obeyed. When you are really there on the set looking through the camera
and seeing the real actors adding their own energy and movement ideas, it is
quite natural to adjust your plans — in most cases it will be something even
better than what you had envisioned in your imagination.

Figure 5.2. An overhead plan for a scene. This one was prepared with software (Shot
Designer) made for this purpose, but most often they are hand sketched by the director.

STORYBOARDS

Storyboards can be a great way to think through your ideas for a scene and
very helpful in explaining your ideas to the production designer, DP and
AD. Some beginning film-makers think that storyboards are an absolute
necessity — they aren’t. For most simple scenes, storyboards are not really
needed, but if it is a complex action or stunt scene, or one that requires
special effects or coordination of vehicles or movement, then storyboards are
important to make sure that every department knows what is going to
happen.
Although they are not a necessity, they might very well help you in
thinking through a scene and how you want to shoot it. This can be done in
the relative quiet of pre-production, without the pressure and time limits
you’ll be facing on the set. Sketches, overheads, storyboards — do whatever
you can to be sure you are prepared for each day of shooting. A director
who shows up not prepared is a director who is not doing their job!

Working With Actors

Working with actors can be like walking a tightrope: the director needs to
guide the overall production, but it is very easy to create friction if an actor
thinks you are trying to push them around artistically. One thing you will
almost always want to avoid is “giving them a line reading.”
“Giving a line reading” is when the director acts out the dialog and tells
the actor “say it like this.” Professional actors usually find it insulting. But
don’t think that you can’t have some input with how an actor does the
dialog — you just have to find a diplomatic and collaborative way of
communicating your ideas. This can really tax your people skills and your
diplomacy — but that is what makes a director a director. A good director
creates an environment that gives the actor the encouragement to do well.

The director’s job is to know what emotional statement he wants a

character to convey in his scene or his line, and to exercise taste and
judgment in helping the actor give his best possible performance. By
knowing the actor’s personality and gauging their strengths and
 weaknesses, a director can help him to overcome specific problems and
realize their potential.
But I think this aspect of directing is generally overemphasized. The
director’s taste and imagination play a much more crucial role in the
making of a film. Is it meaningful? Is it believable? Is it interesting?
Those are the questions that have to be answered several hundred times
a day.
Stanley Kubrick(Full Metal Jacket, The Shining, Paths of Glory, A Clockwork Orange)

INTENTIONS OF THE STORY

Actually, specific line readings are the least important thing a director can
do with actors: there are far more important jobs that need to be done. First
and foremost is clarifying the intentions of the script and each scene. What
is the essence of this story? What is it trying to say? What is each character’s
part in telling that story? That is the guidance the director owes to the
actors.

INTENTIONS OF THE SCENE

When it comes to each scene, this is particularly important. It is up to the

director to absolutely clarify what the scene is about and what the story
needs to accomplish within that scene and how each actor’s character is a
part of what that scene needs to accomplish. An actor might have
extraordinary insight into their own character and how a particular scene
should play out, but it is important that the director also give the actors a
sense of how their character and scenes fit into the overall story and what is
needed to make sure that all the performances gel together into a unified
whole.
ACTION, ATTITUDE, ACTIVITY

There is an old saying in actors’ circles: it all comes down to the three A’s;
Action, Attitude and Activity.

Action is what the character is actually doing: trying to get another

character to reveal the password or trying to intimidate someone.
Action is the story purpose of the scene. It is not physical action, it is
what each character is really trying to do: uncover a mystery, spread
a rumor about an enemy, save the life of the hostage. Most often, this
is what the director needs to deeply understand and to help the
actors understand. It is a big part of understanding the intentions of
the scene.
Attitude is how the character feels about things: about themselves,
about the other characters, about what is happening in the scene.
Activity is what they are doing physically: talking on the phone,
shining their shoes, mixing a drink, or rowing a canoe.

Performers are so vulnerable. If they’re frightened of humiliation, their

work will be crap. I try to make an environment where it’s warm,
where it’s OK to fail — a kind of home, I suppose.
Jane Campion(The Piano, The Portrait of a Lady)

GIVE THEM A VERB

Many actors think of each scene in terms of an action verb — what they are
trying to do, their action in the scene. Here we are using the term action as
what the character is trying to accomplish. What do we mean by an action
verb?
 To demand.
To convince.
To incite.
To challenge.
To pry.
To charm.

These are all things a character is trying to do — the things that motivate
their actions in a scene. Often they are not on the surface, they are hidden or
what we call “between the lines.” Often, this is the only guidance an actor
needs.

THE cONFLICT

If two characters in a scene have two different verbs — then you already
have conflict, which is the basis of drama and comedy.

Blocking the Actors

Blocking means giving the actors instructions on where to stand, sit, walk,
open a door and so on — all of their physical actions. It is a very important
part of the director’s job. It makes a big difference in how the scene plays
out on-screen. The director blocks all of the key actors, but the Assistant
Director usually handles blocking for the extras and atmosphere performers.

BLOCKING FOR THE CAMERA

Of course, it’s not just the actors who might move in a scene. Blocking the
camera moves is important also. You will need to be very specific about
where you want the camera for each part of the scene, whether you want
movement or not and the timing of each movement. Sometimes directors
leave it up to a trusted DP to work these out, but most often it is the director
who makes these decisions.

AVOID FLAT SPACE

Flat space is when the actors just stay at the same medium distance from the
camera for the whole scene. While this might be OK for some scenes, if
every scene in your film is like that, it is boring; more importantly, it is
failing to create a three-dimensional world for the audience. In other words,
if you do every shot in flat space, you are missing out on some great
opportunities that filmmaking offers you.

BLOCKING AND REHEARSAL

When you are on the set, the first thing a director will do is block the scene.
The director will walk through the scene with the actors and show them step
by step where they will be in the scene. For example: “You will enter
through that door, then walk over here. When the phone rings, sit at the
desk and pick up the phone.”
The blocking is important for the actors to know obviously, but there is
more to it than that. Blocking is also important for the DP, the gaffer, the
first AC (focus puller), the dolly grip and the boom operator. All of these
people need to know what is going to happen in a scene.
For the DP and gaffer, what happens in the scene and where the actors
will be strongly affects the lighting of the scene. For the focus puller, they
need to know where to focus the lens — obviously it is a high priority that
the actors be in focus, nobody cares if the back wall is in focus, it is the
actors that matter.
This part of the day is called the blocking rehearsal. The crucial thing to
remember is that the blocking rehearsal is solely for the purpose of getting
everybody on the same page, making sure everyone knows what is going to
happen. It is important that it not turn into an acting rehearsal — there will
be time for that later. Actors love to rehearse their scenes (they want to keep
making their performance and the scene better and better), the director and
AD need to work together to keep things on track — just do the blocking and
then let the crew do their work while the actors go off to makeup and
wardrobe.
Once the blocking rehearsal is complete, the AD turns the set over to the
DP and the lighting crew. All actors should move off the set, everyone else
gets out of the way and the DP walks through the set with the gaffer and
key grip and lays out the plans for lighting the scene. Once that is done, the
gaffer works with her electricians and the grips to get the lighting done.
When the DP informs the AD that the lighting is ready, the actors and
director are called back to the set. The AD calls “first team in.” Now is the
time for the acting rehearsal. The director takes as long as she needs to
rehearse with the actors and get the scene ready to shoot. The crew have
done their jobs and at this time it is important for them to be very quiet and
stay in the background so as not to disrupt the rehearsal or distract the
actors. When they see the actors really doing the scene at full energy, the DP
may decide that a few small tweaks to the lighting are needed. Hopefully
none will be needed, but if they are, this is the time. Once the director
decides everything is ready, the actual shooting begins.
 Figure 5.3.
Block, Light, Rehearse, Shoot.

Block, Light, Rehearse, Shoot

Block, Light, Rehearse, Shoot. This is not just a suggestion, this is how it’s
done!
 Block: The director tells the actors what their movements will be in
the scene as the DP, AD, and others observe.
Light: The DP takes control of the set and with the gaffer and grip
lights the scene while the camera assistants position and prepare the
camera.
Rehearse: This is where the director and actors really work out the
scene. No one should interrupt them for technical stuff, this is all
about the actors.
Shoot: When the director decides the scene is ready, the AD sets
things in motion and shooting starts.

Professionals do it this way for a reason: this is the way that works!

Action, Cut, Circle That

There is a well-established and time-honored method for the procedures of
shooting a scene. Once everything is ready to shoot: the camera, the
lighting, the actors, it goes like this:

The Assistant Director says “roll sound” and the sound recordist
starts the recorder.
The sound person says “speed,” meaning it is recording audio.
The First AD says “roll camera” and the AC or operator turns on the
camera.
The first AC says “speed,” meaning the camera is rolling.
The director says “action” and the actors do the scene.
When the director feels the shot is complete, she says “cut,” and the
actors, camera and sound recorder stop. It is important that nobody
says cut except the director — this is an old tradition. Sometimes, the
actors and camera operator might think the scene is over, but the
director feels that something is still happening that works for the
film.
The only exception to this rule is that some directors ask the DP or camera
operator to stop the shot when they see something that means the shot is
worthless anyway, such as a stranger walking into the background of the
scene. This is something that needs to be worked out in advance between the
director and crew: some directors work this way and some don’t.
Directors used to say “Cut. Print.” This is a film term. It means that they
should print the take. When shooting on film, not every take is printed in the
dailies. The dailies are prints of what has been shot each day — they are
usually viewed the following day after being sent back from the film lab. In
video, you can view things whenever you wish, of course.
Now when shooting on video, it is more likely the director will say “Cut,
circle that.” This indicates that the script supervisor should circle the number
of the take, meaning that it was a good take and everything worked. You
will still have the not so good takes on the media, but at least the editor will
know which take the director prefers. Since it may not always be important
to even know which takes are circled, then more often nowadays, it’s
something like “Cut, loved it. Moving on.”

The Shooting Methods

There are many different ways to shoot a scene, but some basic methods are
used most often. The following summaries are some of the most
fundamental and frequently used techniques for shooting a scene.

THE MASTER SCENE METHOD

Of the various methods of shooting a scene, by far the most commonly used,
especially for dialog scenes, is the Master Scene Method (Figures 5.4 through
5.7). In principle, it’s quite simple: first you shoot the entire scene as one shot
from beginning to end — this is the master. Once you are happy with this
master, you move on to the coverage. The master does not have to be a big
wide shot; it usually is. Nor does it have to be static, a moving master is fine
too. The important thing about the master is that it is the entire scene from
beginning to end.

Figure 5.4.
The master shot — the whole scene from beginning to end.

Figure 5.5.
An over-the-shoulder on her.

 Figure 5.6.
A loose close-up on her. The other actor may need to move aside to get the
camera in position.

Figure 5.7. A tight CU on her. If the other actor can’t be in position, give her a target for
her eyeline.

COVERAGE
The coverage consists of the over-the-shoulders, the medium shots and close-
ups that will be used to complete the scene. Think of the master as a
framework for the whole scene — the coverage are the pieces that fit into
that framework to make it all work together. This is why you should always
shoot the master first. It establishes the continuity for the scene —
everything you shoot after has to match the continuity that was established
in the master.
If for example, he says “I quit” and then sits down in the master, then in
all of the other coverage he has to do it the same way. The actor can’t all of a
sudden sit down and then say “I quit.” It won’t match. Professional actors are
very good at this and know that it’s part of the job. If you are working with
non-professionals, you will need to be extra alert to make sure everything
matches. If it doesn’t match, editing the scene will become extremely
difficult. Good ideas when shooting with the master scene method:

Always shoot the master first. If you try to shoot coverage first and
the master later, it will very likely cause problems in continuity.
Get the whole scene from beginning to end in every shot you do.
If characters enter, start with a clean frame and have them enter.
If characters leave, make sure they exit entirely, leaving a clean
frame. Continue to shoot for a beat after that.
You might want to use transitional devices to get into or out of the
scene. Just as an example, a typical (if somewhat cliched) transition
is to end the scene by panning over the fireplace or window or
whatever.
Shoot all the shots on one side before moving to the other side of the
scene.

If you know you are going to use mostly the coverage when you edit, you
may be able to live with some minor mistakes in a master. If you think you
might want to use the master as a self-contained shot, then you may need to
do as many “takes” as needed to get it right. In other words, for a long
master, you don’t need to “beat it to death.”
 Figure 5.8.
The turnaround — where we get the other side of the coverage. Some people
call it the reverse, but turnaround is the correct term. This one is an OTS on him.

OVERLAPPING OR TRIPLE-TAKE METHOD

The overlapping method is sometimes called the triple-take method (Figure

5.11). It is not used as much as other ways of shooting a scene. Let’s take an
example: a lecturer walks into a room, sets his notes on the lectern, then
pulls up a chair and sits down. This is where the overlapping part comes in.
You could get a wide shot of him coming in, then ask him to freeze while
you set up for a closer shot of him putting the notes on the lectern, then
have him freeze again while you set up another shot of him pulling up the
chair.
What you will discover is that the shots probably won’t cut together
smoothly. The chance of finding a good, clean cutting point is a long shot. It
is the overlapping that helps you find smooth cut points. Here is what will
work much better: you get a wide shot of him walking in and let him take
the action all the way through to putting the notes on the lectern. Then set
up a different angle and ask the actor to back up a few steps. Once you roll
the camera, the actor comes up to the lectern again (repeating the last part
of his walk). You then shoot the action all the way through to pulling up the
chair.

Figure 5.9.
A medium on him. As with the coverage of her, if the actor needs to move
aside to leave room for the camera, he will need a target to keep his eyeline correct. A
paper cup on the end of a grip arm is sometimes used for this.

Again you halt to set up a different angle, and have the actor back up
from the lectern, and repeat the action of putting down the notes and then
carrying it on through to the end of the scene. All this overlapping will
enable you to cut the action together smoothly with good continuity cuts.
The most important principle to take from this is to always overlap all
action, no matter what shooting method you are using. Giving the editor
some extra overlap at the beginning or end of any shot will prevent many
potential problems when editing the scene. Again, it is important to
remember that this is one of our primary responsibilities — making sure all
the footage is cuttable.
Figure 5.10.
The tight CU on him.

Figure 5.11.
The overlapping or triple-take method is used to get coverage of a
continuous action or movement when we don’t want to or can’t cover it as a dolly shot,
 handheld, or panning shot. The most important part is to overlap the action. Make sure
the actor goes beyond the end of the shot and starts the next shot several steps back from
where you actually want the shot to begin — this creates the overlap that makes it
immensely easier for the editor to match the action.
With this and other shooting methods, always make sure the actor makes a clean
entrance to the frame and then makes a clean exit to leave the frame before you call cut.

Figure 5.12. There are many ways to shoot a walk and talk. Obviously, you are unlikely
to shoot all these angles, but it can be very valuable to shoot it two or three different
ways for editing.

IN-ONE

Of all the methods of shooting a scene, by far the simplest is the In-one. This
just means the entire scene in one continuous shot. A scene might be simple
as “she picks up the phone and talks” or “He slams the door and storms out
into the rain,” in which case a single shot is probably plenty. In-ones can
involve camera or actor movement, but in general, when most people say In-
one or Oner, they are usually thinking of a fairly simple scene that just
doesn’t need a lot of coverage.
THE DEVELOPING MASTER

The Developing Master is a type of In-One or in the French term plan scène
or plan séquence, but it’s generally longer and more involved than a simple
single shot. Developing Masters often involve a good deal of movement by
the actors and the camera. Frequently, actors move into the foreground, into
the background or even walk toward the camera into a close-up; this is a
favorite technique of Spielberg, for example. It’s important to avoid flat
space in scenes like this. Flat space is when the actors stay the same distance
from the camera the whole time. Scenes of this type are a great opportunity
to exploit the possibilities of depth: the foreground, midground, and
background. You can think of the developing master as a series of key frames
connected by camera movement, thinking in reverse, thinking of the last
frame first and working backwards to the first.
Some Developing Masters can be vastly more complicated: such as the
famous four-minute opening shot of Touch of Evil or the long Steadicam
shot of entering the Copacabana in Goodfellas. Take a look at the first four
minutes of Touch of Evil — it’s all one continuous shot, but it is no ordinary
shot — it is mysterious, evolving, introducing new characters and setting up
the basic backstory. Not every shot can be that great, in fact, not every shot
needs to be that intense — a whole movie made of shots like that would be
exhausting to watch. A caution, however: when these shots work, they can
be great, but if they don’t work — for example, if you find in editing that the
scene drags on much too slowly — your choices are limited. If all you did
was several takes of the long in-one, you really don’t have much choice in
editing. Play it safe — always shoot some coverage and cutaways just in
case!

If it seems a trifle slow, if it feels a trifle slow on the set, it’ll be twice as
slow in the projection room.
Robert Wise (West Side Story, The Sand Pebbles, editor of Citizen Kane)
WALK AND TALK

Another variation is the walk and talk (Figure 5.12). It’s pretty easy — the
camera just follows along and two or more people walk and talk. The
camera can be leading them, alongside them, or following them. It’s wise to
shoot several angles. If you only shoot one angle (such as leading them),
then you are stuck with using that take from start to finish, no matter what
problems may show up in the editing room — you have nothing to cut to
combine two or more takes.

FREEFORM METHOD

Many scenes theses days (and even entire movies or TV shows) are shot in
what is commonly called documentary style — the camera is handheld,
loose, and the actor’s movements don’t seem pre-planned. It seems like
documentary style and many people call it that, but it is not really. When
shooting a real documentary, we can almost never do second takes, or have
them repeat an action. Our aim in shooting fiction scenes like this is to make
it
 Figure 5.13. The opening shot in a typical developing master. It makes use of deep focus
to include close foreground and deep background.

Figure 5.14.
The shot as it appears on camera.

 
 Figure 5.15.
He moves forward and the camera moves slightly left to adjust to a new
frame — a two shot of both people.

Figure 5.16.
The resulting frame.

 
 Figure 5.17.
He moves forward and the camera moves slightly left to adjust to a new
frame — a two shot of both people.

Figure 5.18.
The resulting frame.

 
 Figure 5.19.
He moves to behind her, she turns and the camera dollys in for an over-the-
shoulder.

Figure 5.20.
The OTS.

 
 Figure 5.21.
She turns away from him and the camera adjusts to the right to create the
final frame featuring her in the foreground, him in midground.

Figure 5.22.
The final frame of the scene — all done as one continuous shot.

seem like a documentary. In most cases, scenes like this are shot several
times with the actors repeating the scene for several takes. Since the camera
is handheld, the camera operator typically does their best to follow the
dialog: they pan the camera back and forth to always be on the person who
is speaking. This can sometimes be a disaster for the editor. Imagine that you
shoot a scene three times like this. You end up with three takes that are
almost the same and the camera is only on the actor who is talking. Since
there are so many things that can go wrong — muffed dialog, the camera
operator misses a pan, the camera assistant doesn’t quite nail the focus, you
can end up doing take after take after take, and even then maybe still not
getting exactly the scene you want.

Figure 5.23.
The Dialog Pass—the camera operator pans back and forth to the actor who
is speaking.

Figure 5.24.
The Reaction Pass—the camera pans to the person who is not speaking. This
gives the editor plenty to work with and most importantly, it gives you reaction shots,
which you don’t get if the camera only follows the dialog.

Figure 5.25.
In the Freeform Pass, the camera operator improvises, moving freely around
and into the scene—this gives the editor many options.

 No matter how many takes you do, it is very unlikely that you will able to
edit them together if you want to take some piece of one take and cut it
together with pieces from another take. An even bigger problem is that you
have no reaction shots. These are shots where we are seeing the person who
is listening — they are an important part of filmmaking. Without reaction
shots, we are not seeing the whole scene; we’re not giving the actors a
chance to see what they are thinking, how they are perceiving what is going
on in the scene. Reaction shots are important no matter what style of
shooting you are doing — in the Master Scene Method, it’s one of the
reasons we shoot the entire scene for every angle, not just the moments
when someone is talking.
Figures 5.23, 5.24 and 5.25 illustrate a method that works well for
providing the editor with lots of cuttable material and is also very efficient
in shooting — we call it the freeform method:

On the first take, follow the dialog. Do your best to stay with the
actor who is speaking. This is the dialog pass. Don’t worry if you
don’t get a perfect take — that’s the beauty of this method, you don’t
need a flawless take because you’ll have the ability to cut the scene
freely.
On the next take, pan back and forth to stay with the person who is
not talking. This will give you lots of good reaction shots. It will also
give the editor lots of things to cut away to. This is the reaction pass.
For the third take improvise: follow the dialog sometimes, go to the
nonspeaking actor sometimes, occasionally back up to get a wide
shot or an over-the-shoulder — whatever seems appropriate. This is
the freeform pass.

All these together will give you a scene you can cut together smoothly and
give the editor lots of flexibility to cut the scene in various ways and to
tighten up parts that seem to be dragging, to cover up blown lines or
occasional bad focus.
MONTAGE

There is a special form of editing used in dramatic narrative filmmaking that

does not aim for continuity at all; this is called montage. A montage is
simply a series of shots related by theme. Say the theme is “Springtime in
the city” — you might have a series of shots of the flowers blooming, gentle
rain showers, the sun breaking through the clouds, that sort of thing. Or
“Paris in the rain” — the opening montage of Midnight in Paris is an
excellent example of this.
Some kinds of montage advance the story but without linear continuity.
For example, Rocky prepares for the big fight: we see him working out,
punching the bag, running on the streets of Philly, then finally running up
the stairs to triumph. It is not real-time continuity but we see the story
develop. It’s a series of related shots, not scenes with linear continuity.

INVISIBLE TECHNIQUE

All of these methods — Master Scene, In-One, Walk and Talk, Overlapping,
Freeform — share one common goal: to be invisible. We don’t want the
viewers to be aware they are a movie because this would distract them from
the story. It’s called invisible technique and it is fundamental to filmmaking.
Cinematography
The Camera Department

DIRECTOR OF PHOTOGRAPHY

The DP (director of photography, also called the cinematographer) is the

person in charge of photography on the set. They supervise the lighting of
the scene and set up the shots that the director asks for. Outside the US, it’s
usually abbreviated as DoP.

FIRST AC

The First AC is the head of the camera department. The DP is the big boss, of
course, but in terms of running the day-to-day operations and doing things
such as signing time sheets, the First AC is in charge. There is no way the
Director of Photography wants or needs to spend time figuring out where to
park the camera truck or checking if the batteries are being charged; that’s
up to the First AC and her or his crew.
First AC is also called Focus Puller. The First pulls focus on the shot, sets
the aperture of the lens, checks that everything is working properly and
generally manages everything to do with the camera. An old rule of thumb
is that the First AC is never more than two arm lengths away from the
camera; for bathroom breaks, the Second AC covers at the camera.

SECOND AC

The Second AC helps the First “build” the camera at the start of the day,
brings new lenses when needed, takes the memory cards to the DIT when
they are full and generally helps out wherever needed. The Second also helps
the First measure focus by holding the other end of the measuring tape, then
lays down focus markers (tape or otherwise) for the actors.
CLAPPER-LOADER

On film jobs, the Third AC was generally called the Loader or

Clapper/Loader — they loaded and unloaded the film magazines; a huge
responsibility. On digital shoots, they deal with the media: whether it is CF
(Compact Flash) cards, SD (Secure Digital) or hard drives. Of course, they
assist the First and Second ACs with whatever is necessary. The clapper part
of the job means they operate the slate, clapping it at the start of a take to
make syncing sound possible.

DMT

As independent productions almost never use film anymore, the Loader has
been replaced by the Digital Management Technician (DMT), who takes the
filled camera media from the Second AC and downloads them to hard
drives, checks them to be sure all is OK and then gets the media back to the
Second. The DMT is sometimes called Data Wrangler.

DIT

The Digital Imaging Technician (DIT) is a crucial and highly skilled position
on the camera crew. Just downloading some Compact Flash cards does NOT
make you a DIT (that’s what the DMT does). The DIT may monitor the
camera signal on the waveform/vector-scope, create LUTs and Look Files or
check the integrity of camera files for proper exposure (guarding against
clipping and noise), color balance, file corruption and so on. Some DITs also
do basic color grading and work with the DP to achieve a “look.” They might
also transcode files so that the director/producer can view dailies and
prepare the files in the proper format for the editors, VFX and other post-
production people. Of course, many times the jobs of the DMT and DIT are
combined.
OPERATOR

The DP does not always necessarily operate the camera. Especially on bigger
productions there is usually a separate person whose only job is to operate.
If more than one camera is in use (B-camera, C-camera, etc), those will have
operators as well. The DP still handles the lighting, sets the exposure and
controls the camera look. In the UK, the operator works more closely with
the director than is usual in the US.

SECOND UNIT

Second unit handles shots that don’t involve the main actors and thus don’t
need the director and DP to be there. Action shots, explosions, chase scenes,
establishing shots and aerial footage are almost always handled by second
unit, which will have its own DP, ACs, DIT and so on. On some very big
second unit shoots, there will be nearly a full crew: gaffer, grip, audio, etc.

Shooting Digital
Everything is high def (HD) these days; “standard def” or “SD” (like TV was
up until a few years ago) is as dead as disco. But there are different varieties
of high def; the ones you need to be aware of are HD and UHD (ultra high
def). HD is usually considered to be 1920x1080 pixels. UHD (often called 4K)
has several variations but it’s usually 3840×2160 pixels. Resolution is
measured by counting the pixels horizontally: 4K means there are
somewhere around 4000 pixels across, 2K is 2000 pixels.

ASPECT RATIO
Aspect ratio is the “shape” of the frame — how wide and how tall it is as a
ratio (Figure 6.1). If you see an old black-and-white movie, it will probably
be 4:3 — four units wide by three units high, more square than we are used
to seeing now (Figure 6.2). Both HD (High Definition) and UHD (Ultra High
Definition) can be shot and displayed in a variety of aspect ratios but 16x9 is
the most widely used standard.
 Figure 6.1.
Various aspect ratios. For HD and UHD video, 16x9 is the most commonly
used, but you can use others if you want.

Figure 6.2.
Dutch tilt in the classic film The Third Man.

FRAME RATE

In the beginning, movie cameras didn’t have motors, they were hand
cranked, which means that there was some variation in the frames per
second (FPS). When sound recording was introduced, it was very important
to keep the rate uniform and universal in order to synchronize the image
and the sound, so 24 FPS was chosen to be the universal frame rate. Even
today, movies are shot at 24 FPS. Until a few years ago, most video cameras
shot only at 30 FPS and TV was the same. Doesn’t sound like much of a
difference, does it? Actually, it makes a big difference. Shooting at 30 FPS
will give you what is called the “soap opera look.” It definitely looks like TV,
not cinema, which isn’t often desirable. If your camera has a selection, you
will normally want to set it to 24 FPS for a “film look.”

Camera Terms
STATIC SHOT

Nobody calls it this, but that’s what it is. It’s a simple shot where the camera
doesn’t move and the frame doesn’t change.

PAN

A pan (short for panoramic) is when a camera turns to the left or right.
Turns, not moves; the camera stays where it is but just rotates to one side or
the other.

TILT

A tilt is when the camera stays where it is but tilts up or down. Many people
say “pan up” or “pan down.” Sure, it’s not technically correct to say that, but
don’t feel like you have to correct them just so you look like a smartie. If
everybody knows what they mean, what does it matter?

ZOOM

A zoom is when the focal length of the lens changes from wide to narrow or
narrow to wide. Most cameras now have zoom lenses. Years ago, zoom
lenses were avoided as they were never quite as good as a fixed focus lens
(one that cannot zoom in or out), but zooms have greatly improved since
then.

DOLLY IN / TRACK IN / MOVE IN

This is when the camera moves toward or away from the subject. It might be
handheld (called move in) on a dolly or some kind of a mobile camera
support such as a Steadicam, or one of the many handheld stabilizers (Figure
6.57).

DOLLY LEFT / DOLLY RIGHT

When the camera moves left or right in relation to the subject; also called
track left or track right. This is in no way restricted, you can combine a track
in with a track left and move in at an angle, for example.

BOOM

The boom is the arm on a dolly that holds the camera; it can “boom” up or
down so the terminology is simple: boom up or boom down.

DUTCH TILT

Most of the time, it’s important to keep the camera perfectly level, but in
some cases, it might be tilted left or right for effect. The most famous
example of this is the movie The Third Man, where Dutch tilts are used
extensively (Figure 6.2).

Focal Length
We talk about lenses in terms of its focal length. This is a measure of its
angle of view — which just means whether the lens gives you a wide angle
view of the scene or a narrow angle view (Figures 6.3, 6.4 and 6.7). A short
focal length (a lower number in millimeters) is a wide angle, a long focal
length (a higher number in millimeters) gives a narrow angle view of the
lens. Long focal length lenses are sometimes called telephoto. Think of them
like a telescope or a pair of binoculars — the reason they only give you a
narrow angle of view is because they are magnifying the scene, just like a
telescope would. On a 35mm film camera, an 18mm lens would be a very
wide angle while a 250mm would be a very long focal length lens. It is
important to understand that angle of view for a particular lens varies
depending on what format you are shooting.

Figure 6.3.
A scene shot with a wide angle lens. Wide lenses expand the sense of space.

Figure 6.4.
The same scene shot from the same camera position with a long focal length
lens. It is important to note that the camera has not moved, neither have the actors. Long
lenses compress space; they also have less depth-of-field.

 For example, a 25mm lens is fairly wide angle when shooting with a
35mm camera, but if you put the same lenses on a 16mm camera, it becomes
a medium (or “normal”) lens; in other words it will look the same as a 50mm
lens would look on a 35mm camera. If you put the same lens on a smaller
camera, it would be telephoto: a very long focal length lens.

THE PERSONALITY OF A LENS

There is another very important aspect of lens focal length: how they show
space. Look at the illustrations in Figures 6.3 and 6.4. Neither the actors or
the camera have moved between these two shots, only the lens has changed.
Notice that with the wide angle lens the two actors appear to be standing
several feet apart, one in front of the other. In the shot done with a long
focal length lens, the two actors appear to be only inches apart.
Long focal length lenses compress space. Wide focal length lenses expand
space. This is an enormously important storytelling tool. It is very important
for directors as well as cinematographers to understand these aspects of
lenses.

Iris/Aperture
It is very important that we control how much light gets to the film or video
sensor. Here’s the key point: a particular type of film or a particular video
sensor needs exactly the right amount of light in order to give us a good
image. Let’s talk about it in film for a moment; however, the same principles
apply to video.

THE BUCKET
Think of the video sensor like a bucket: we need to exactly fill up that bucket
to the rim. Too little water and it’s not filled. Too much water and it
overflows. Cameras are same: it needs exactly the right amount of light in
order to give a good image. Too much light and it will be overexposed:
washed out, blown out — terrible. Too little light and it will be dark and
murky.
Giving that piece of film exactly the right amount of light is one of our
most important jobs. Sounds trivial but it’s really important for getting a
good, professional looking image. Of course, there are exceptions — you
might want a scene darkly lit for artistic effect, for example. What we are
talking about here is getting the ideal good image, which is what we are
trying to do most of the time.

THE APERTURE/IRIS

The aperture (sometimes called the iris) is simply a light valve (Figures 6.5
and 6.6). It is a circular opening inside the lens that has the ability to open
and close. When we open up to a wide opening, it lets more light through.
The camera is set up to produce the best picture if it receives a certain
amount of light. When the scene is very brightly lit and there is too much
light, we can close down the iris. If there isn’t much light in the scene, we
open up the iris to let more light in.
 Figure 6.5.
The iris (aperture) wide open — a lower f/stop number. This is a prime lens —
it has a fixed focal length — in other words, it’s not a zoom lens.

Figure 6.6.
The iris closed down to a higher f/number. This will let in less light. This will
also increase your depth-of-field in the shot.

F/STOP

We measure how closed or open the iris is in terms of f/stops. A low f/stop
means the iris is more wide open and lets more light in. A larger f/stop
means the iris is more closed down and letting in less light. F/stops are a
power of 2, meaning that one stop more open doubles the amount of light
and one stop less reduces it by one half. Cutting the number in half reduces
its speed by one stop. This applies to light as well; a stop is a power of 2 —
one stop more means you are doubling the light, one stop less means cutting
it in half. Think of it this way: the camera always wants to have the exact
same amount of light — if there is more light than that in the scene, you
need to let less of it in, and vice versa.

Focus and Depth-of-Field

Many things are important in getting good cinematography, but two things
are absolutely fundamental: exposure and focus. You can do the most
beautiful and exciting shot ever: wonderful lighting, great camera
movement, good use of the lens, everything perfect. But if that shot is not in
focus and properly exposed — it’s garbage. When a shot is in focus, the main
subject is sharp and clear. When a shot is out of focus (commonly called
soft) then the subject is fuzzy and indistinct (Figures 6.10 and 6.11).

CRITICAL FOCUS

The lens is always focused on exactly one point out in the scene. However,
things in front of and behind that point also may appear to be in focus. The
exact point the lens is focused on is called critical focus. The things in front
of and behind this point that appear to be in focus are called apparent focus.
If a lot of things are in focus back-to-front, we say that the shot has a lot of
depth-of-field. If only things right at the point of focus are sharp, then we
say the shot has very narrow depth-of-field. Depth-of-field (DOF) can be
controlled in several ways.
 The easiest way is with the aperture. If we close down to a smaller
aperture, this increases the depth-of-field. If we shoot with the lens wide
open (at f/1.4 for example) then we reduce the depth-of-field to its smallest.
Two other factors change the depth-of-field: long focal length lenses have
less depth-of-field and moving the camera closer to the subject also reduces
the DOF.

STORYTELLING WITH FOCUS

Obviously, if you close the lens down to a very small f/stop, then you need
more light to get a good image. This is the strategy used on a film that is
famous for its deep focus (lots of depth-of-field), Citizen Kane (Figure 6.7).
On the other hand, narrow depth-of-field, where only the actor is in focus
and all else is slightly out-of-focus, draws the viewer’s attention to the
subject. Focus and depth-of-field are critical storytelling tools!

RACK FOCUS / FOCUS PULL

A rack focus is the practice of changing the focus of the lens during a shot.
The term can refer to small or large changes of focus which play with the
depth of field.

SHALLOW FOCUS

Shallow focus is a technique using very narrow depth-of-field. In shallow

focus one layer of the image is in focus while the rest is out of focus.
Shallow focus can be used to emphasize a certain part of the frame and all
attention to it. It is most often used to focus attention on one actor by
keeping the rest of the frame more or less out of focus.
Figure 6.7.
Very deep depth-of-field as a storytelling device in Citizen Kane. The shot
shows three levels of story at the same time: Kane in front typing, his friend horrified at
what he is doing and his business manager in the background, trying to stay out of the
situation.

Figure 6.8.
The focal length of a lens determines how wide its angle of view will be. A
lower number focal length (such as 10mm) will be a wide angle lens and a higher
number focal length (like 100mm) will be a narrow angle lens, sometimes called a
“telephoto lens.”

Figure 6.9.
The depth-of-field (DOF) is how much of the scene is in focus. Two things
determine depth-of-field: the focal length of the lens and the f/stop. Wider lenses have
more depth-of-field and long focal length lenses have less depth-of-field. Lower f/stops
(like f/2) have less DOF and higher f/stops (such as f/11) have less DOF. With the lens
wide open (low f/stop number), only the King in the middle is in focus, the rest of the
cards are out of focus.

Figure 6.10.
With the lens stopped down to a higher f/stop, all of the cards are in focus
(although the King in front is slightly soft).

Figure 6.11.
Diagram of what a histogram tells you.

 Figure 6.12.
A typical normal exposure on the histogram.

Figure 6.13.
Overexposed.

Exposure
Exposure is critical; it is one of the two fundamentals — focus is the other
one. If your shots are not correctly exposed, there is no way you can ever get
a good, professional looking image. Contrary to the myth, it cannot be
“fixed” in post. True, some minor adjustments can be made, but if the
exposure in a shot is really off, then “fixing” it will only result in an image
that is grainy, flat and ugly. Whether you are shooting film or video,
however, you are only going to get a good image if your exposure is correct.
It is important to think of exposure as more than just “it’s too bright,” or
“it’s too dark.” It is much more than that. Exposure for film and video is
essentially the same, but for simplicity we’ll first talk about it in terms of
video. What do we need to know in order to set the lens aperture at exactly
the right setting? Remember this is film — there is no monitor to refer to.
There are some things we need to know:

What is the speed of the camera?

What is the shutter speed?
How fast is the lens?
 

SPEED — ISO

Let’s take it one at a time. What is “speed”? Every type of film and every
video camera has a speed rating, which is called ISO. This is a measure of
how sensitive it is to light. For film it is set as it is manufactured; on video
cameras it is adjustable. A very high ISO will be able to get a good image
even in very dim light. A low ISO needs lots of light to get a good shot. But
there is catch — the higher the ISO, the more noise there will be in the shot;
lower ISO leads to less noise, so always use the lowest ISO setting that still
gives you the f/stop (and thus depth-of-field) you are going for.

LENS SPEED

The widest the aperture will open up is important too. If the aperture is wide
open, this is the setting that lets in the most light — in other words the
setting we would use in the dimmest, darkest situations. The widest aperture
a lens will do is how “fast” the lens is. We say “it’s an f/2 lens,” or “that’s an
f/4 zoom.”
One other thing should be mentioned while we are talking about day
exteriors. Often we just have more light than we want; for example, we just
might not have any day exterior film stock available. In this case we often
use Neutral Density Filters (ND) — these are light or dark grey filters which
have no color bias at all; their only job is to reduce the amount of light.
Don’t forget that the aperture setting affects your depth-of-field — a higher
f/stop (such as f/11) will give you more depth-of-field (more of the frame is
in focus) and a smaller f/stop (such as f/2.8) will result in less depth-of-field.
 Figure 6.14.
An underex-posed frame.

DON’T BLOW OUT THE HIGHLIGHTS, DON’T GET INTO

NOISE

The important thing about exposure is that you don’t want to overexpose,
which “blows out” the highlights (something which cannot be fixed in post),
and don’t underexpose, which creates video “noise” (some call it grain, but
it’s really just noise).

DON’T TRUST THE LCD SCREEN

The viewing screen on your camera is a handy guide to exposure, but don’t
trust it too much. Another thing to watch is that in dark shooting situations
it is tempting to turn the brightness up on the viewing screen, but this
means it might influence your exposure decisions, which is dangerous. Don’t
completely trust it for focus either — when the image is very small,
everything looks like it’s in focus. Try to use the biggest monitor you can.

HISTOGRAM
A very reliable guide is the histogram, which nearly all cameras have these
days. The histogram shows you how much of the picture is in the dark areas,
the light areas and in between. Figure 6.12 shows the basic concept of a
histogram — it shows how many pixels are darker, all the way to pure black,
and how many pixels are lighter, all the way to pure white. Figures 6.13
through 6.15 show examples of a typical normal exposure, an over-exposed
picture and an underexposed one. Remember that over exposure will lead to
part of the picture burning out and under exposure results in more video
noise.

Figure 6.15. A normally exposed frame. Zebras appear only over things in the scene that
we want to be highlights.

ZEBRAS

Some cameras will show you zebras in the viewfinder. Zebra stripes will
appear on the part of the picture that is exposed over a certain level and will
help you judge your exposure. Figure 6.16 shows normal exposure with
zebras — only the highlights have zebras over them; Figure 6.17 is a very
overexposed frame which will have lots of detail burned out.
 Figure 6.16.
The same shot very overexposed — zebras appear on parts of the scene that
are in the middle of the scale, which means that they will burn out, which always looks
bad.

Figure 6.17. Strong composition from The Maltese Falcon.

Color Balance
We can’t show color balance here, but there are examples on the website.
Humans perceive most normal lighting as “white” but in fact it’s not.
Daylight is more on the blue side. Indoor tungsten light (ordinary light
bulbs) is reddish-orange. Fluorescent lights, such as you might find in office
buildings, warehouses, schools, and so on, are very green, as are many LED
household lights. We don’t see this because our eye/brain adapts and fools
us into thinking it is white light. Cameras are not so easily fooled so we
have to make adjustments for different kinds of light. Keep in mind that for
some scenes, you might not want technically “correct” color balance. For
example, you might want romantic scenes to be slightly warmer, alien attack
scenes to be bluer, or you might want to go for a Fight Club style green
overcast.

VIDEO WHITE BALANCE

Video cameras can automatically adjust their color balance to adapt to the
kind of light you are using on your scene. It is called white balance, but
some refer to it as color neutral balance. It’s very simple: you point the
camera at something neutral in color, something pure white or pure grey,
and push the color balance button.
The camera analyses the light and if it is off in any direction, such as too
red or too green, it changes the camera electronically to make the camera
“see” the light as neutral. Here is the important point and the one people
most often forget: you must shoot the neutral white or grey object under the
same light you will be using on the scene.
Also, if you are planning to use colored gels on your scene, then make
sure you take them off before you white balance the camera. For example, if
you are going to use a deep blue gel on your scene and you color balance the
camera with that blue gel on — white balancing the camera will just remove
the blue, thus defeating your purpose. Most people use something white, but
it’s hard to know if it’s really neutral white. It is better to use something you
know is truly neutral, such as a Neutral Grey Card, available at any photo
shop. A neutral grey card or other type of more professional color balance
chart is an essential tool for cinematographers. See Cinematography: Theory
and Practice or Motion Picture and Video Lighting (both by the same author
as this book and both from Focal Press) for more details on professional
color charts.

Composition
Composition is an intense subject and we can only touch on the high points
here. For a more in-depth discussion, see the chapter Visual Language in
Cinematography: Theory and Practice by Blain Brown or Picture
Composition for Film and Television by Peter Ward. In general, we are
trying to get the composition of the frame to present the subject in an
organized way: one the eye can perceive in a meaningful way. We want to
not just see the subject, we want the composition to tell us something about
what we are seeing, we want it to be part of the storytelling. In most cases
we are looking for some kind of visual balance, although in some cases we
might want an unbalanced frame for artistic purposes. Figure 6.18 shows
examples of a disorganized, unbalanced frame and an organized, balanced
composition.

Figure 6.18.
Composition is about balance and order. This doesn’t mean that every shot
has to be perfectly centered and balanced, but it is something to keep in mind when
setting up your shots, and when the director is blocking the actions of the actors.

 “Cinema is a matter of what’s in the frame and what’s out”

Martin Scorsese

THE RULE OF THIRDS

A very rough rule of thumb for these things is called the Rule of Thirds
(Figure 6.19). Divide the frame into three parts vertically and horizontally. If
major elements of the frame comfortably fit on these lines and intersections,
most likely you will have a basic decent composition. This is a very rough
guideline, but it’s a good starting point.

Figure 6.19.
The Rule of Thirds can be a helpful guideline in composition.

Point-of-View
We use the term point-of-view (POV) in a couple of different ways in
filmmaking. The most commonly used one is the POV of the camera. If the
camera is seeing what the character would see in a scene, we say “it’s her
POV.” If the camera is more or less distant from the scene, we say it is an
objective POV — it’s not the point-of-view of any particular person. It’s like
in writing in the third person, such as “Look at them over there.” If the
camera gets closer and gets into the scene, it becomes more subjective. For
example, an over-the-shoulder shot is more subjective, but it’s not exactly
what the character in the foreground is seeing; it’s like writing in the second
person “I see what you mean.” If the camera is seeing the scene exactly as
one of the characters might see it, then it is a completely subjective POV. It’s
like speaking in the first person “I am seeing this.”
A true subjective shot has certain conventions: it is always done
handheld, this helps create the feeling that it is really how a person sees. It
should also be at the same eye level as the character. For a typical person,
this means handheld camera on the shoulder is just about right. If you are
doing the subjective POV of a dog (like in Figure 6.22), then the camera
needs to be much lower — at the same eye level as the canine actor. This
doesn’t mean that all handheld shots are subjective POV. Doing entire scenes
or even entire movies handheld has become a frequently used device. Many
TV shows are shot as pseudo documentary. Handheld camera helps convey
the feeling that it is shot by a documentary crew.
This kind of loose, handheld feel may not be explicitly intended to imply
that it is documentary, but it is more informal and gives a more realistic,
“you are there,” kind of feeling to the scene. Remember that the camera is in
some ways a character in the scene — some shots are better with an
objective POV and some with a more subjective point-of-view. Think about
what is best for your scene before you decide how to shoot it.
Figure 6.20.
A purely objective point-of-view.

Figure 6.21.
The dog’s POV of the man. This is a true subjective POV.

Figure 6.22.
The man’s POV of the dog; also a subjective point-of-view shot.

 Figure 6.23.
An over-the-shoulder shot is more subjective but not purely so. It includes
both of them but it is very close to the subjective POV of the man.

The Shots: Building Blocks of a Scene

It is useful to think of “building” a scene. Since we make scenes one shot at a
time, we can consider that we are assembling the elements that will make
the scene. If we think of a language of cinema, these shots are the
vocabulary; how we edit them together would be the syntax of this
language. These are the visual aspects of the language of film; there are, of
course, other properties of this language that relate more to plot structure
and narrative, but here we are concerned only with the visual side of this
subject. In terminology, there are two general types of shots: framing shots
(defined by how much is included) and function shots — defined by what
purpose they serve in editing. In a by no means exhaustive list, they are:
Framing Shots

Wide shot (or long shot)

Full shot
Cowboy
Two shot
Medium
Close-ups
Clean single
Dirty single
ECU
Over-the-shoulder

Function Shots

Establishing shots
Cutaway
Insert
Connecting Shot
Transitional Shot
Reaction Shot

With a few exceptions, most of these shots apply to people, but the
terminology carries over to any subject. As they appear in the script, they
are called stage directions. Let’s look at them individually. As with many
film terms, the definitions are somewhat loose and different people have
slight variations in how they apply them, particularly as you travel from city
to city or work in another country; they are just general guidelines. It is only
when you are lining it up through the lens that the exact frame can be
decided on.
 As they appear in the script, stage directions are completely non-binding
— it is entirely up to the director to decide what shots will be used to put the
scene together. The screen-writer really has no say over what shots will be
used, but they are helpful in visualizing the story as you read the script —
especially if you are giving the script to people in order to secure financing
for the project or to actors so they can decide if they want to be involved.
These shots are the basic vocabulary we deal with — both in terms of editing
and also in terms of the director communicating to the DP what it is they
are trying to do. These basic elements and how they are combined in
editorial continuity are the grammar of cinema.
An important function of choosing the shot is deciding what it is you
want the audience to pay attention to; what you want them to mentally
focus on or take in. An essential part of choosing the shot you want is what
you want the frame to be: what you want to include but also what you don’t
want them to see.

WIDE SHOT

The wide shot is any frame that encompasses the entire scene. This makes it
all relative to the subject. For example, if the script designates “Wide shot —
the English Countryside” we are clearly talking about a big panoramic scene
done with a short focal length lens taking in all the eye can see. On the other
hand, if the description is “Wide shot — Leo’s room” this is clearly a much
smaller shot but it still encompasses all or most of the room.

ESTABLISHING SHOTS

cut to a shot of Helen at her desk, we know where we are: in her office
building. We’ve seen that it is a big, modern building, very upscale and
expensive and that it is located in midtown Manhattan, and the bustling
activity of streets indicates it’s another hectic work-day in New York. The
establishing shot has given us a good deal of information.

The establishing shot is normally a wide shot (Figures 6.24 and 6.25). It is the
opening shot of a scene that tells us where we are. The scene heading in the
script might be “Ext. Helen’s office – Day.” This might consist of a wide shot
of an office building, so when we

Figure 6.24. An establishing shot from Manhattan. It shows us the location, but also the
time, tone and mood of the scene. This is a wide shot also called a long shot.

 
 Figure 6.25.
An establishing shot from Metropolis—it shows us the world of the future
where the story takes place. Also a wide shot.

Establishing the Geography

A phrase that is often used is that we have to “establish the geography.” In

other words, we have to give the audience some idea of where they are,
what kind of place it is, where objects and people are in relation to each
other. Other aspects of this were discussed earlier in this chapter.
Establishing the geography is helpful to viewers to let them know the “lay
of the land” within a scene. It helps them orient themselves and prevents
confusion that might divert their attention from the story. There are times
when you want to keep the layout a mystery, of course. As we will see
throughout the discussion of film grammar and editing, one of the primary
purposes is to not confuse the audience. There will be times of course where
you will want to confuse them, but if you don’t give them information and
they have to spend time trying to figure something out, however
subconsciously, you have taken their minds away from the characters and
the story. Figure 6.24 is an example of an establishing shot that has value in
ways beyond just showing the geography — it can also establish tone, mood,
and time of day.
An establishing shot, such as our office building example, might also
include a tilt up to an upper floor. This indicates to viewers that we are not
just seeing an office building, but that we are going inside. Shots of this type
are sometimes considered old-fashioned and prosaic, but they can still be
effective. Even though they give us a good deal of information, they are still
a complete stop in the dramatic action.
Many filmmakers consider it more effective if the establishing shot can be
combined with a piece of the story. One example: say we are looking down
that same bustling street and our character Helen comes into view, rushing
frantically and holding a big stack of documents; we pan or dolly with her as
she runs into the lobby and dashes to catch a departing elevator. The same
information has been conveyed, but we have told a piece of the story as
well. Something is up with Helen; all those documents are obviously
something important that has put her under a great deal of stress. Of course,
in the story, Helen may already be in her office. One of the classic solutions
has been to combine a bit of foreground action with the establishing shot.
For example, we start with a medium shot of a sidewalk newsstand. An
anonymous man buys a paper and we can read the headline “Scandal
Disclosed,” and we then tilt to the building. What we have done here is keep
the audience in the story and combined it with showing the building and the
context.

CHARACTER SHOTS

There are a number of terms for different shots of a single character. Most
movies and short films are about people, so shots of people are one of the
fundamental building blocks of cinema.

FULL SHOT

Full shot indicates that we see the character from head to toe (Figure 6.29). It
can refer to objects as well: a full shot of a car includes all of the car. A
variation is the cowboy (Figure 6.30), which is from the top of the head to
mid-thigh.

TWO SHOT

The two shot is any frame that includes two characters (Figure 6.36). The
interaction between two characters in a scene is one of the most
fundamental pieces of storytelling; thus, the two shot is one you will use
frequently. The two characters don’t have to be arranged symmetrically in
the frame. They might be facing each other, both facing forward, both facing
away from the camera, and so on, but the methods you use for dealing with
this type of scene will be the same in any case.

Figure 6.26.
A two shot from Casablanca. A shot like this could also serve as the master,
if you are going to do more coverage of the scene (which you always should).

Figure 6.27.
An over-the-shoulder.

 Figure 6.28.
A fifty-fifty from Casablanca.

MEDIUM SHOT

The medium shot, like the wide shot, is relative to the subject. Obviously, it
is closer than a full shot. Medium shots might be people at a table in a
restaurant, or someone buying a soda, shown from the waist up. By being
closer in to the action, we can see people’s expressions, details of how they
are dressed, and so on. We thus become more involved in what they are
saying and doing (Figure 6.31).

CLOSE-UPS

Close-ups are one of the most important shots in the vocabulary. There are a
number of variations: a medium close-up (Figure 6.32) would typically be
considered as something like from top of head to waist or something in that
area. A close-up (CU) would generally be from the top of the head to
somewhere just below the shirt pockets. If the shot is cut just above the shirt
pocket area, it is often called a head and shoulders. A choker would be from
the top of the head down to just below the chin (Figure 6.34). An extreme
close-up or ECU might include the eyes and mouth only; this is sometimes
called a Sergio Leone after the Italian director who used it frequently.
Terminology for close-ups includes:
 Medium CU: Mid-chest up.
Choker: From the throat up.
Big Head CU or tight CU: Framed from just under the chin and
giving a bit of “haircut.” That is cutting off just a little bit of the head.

Over-the-Shoulder, Clean Single and Dirty Single

The over the shoulder shot is a camera angle that frames itself from behind a
person who is looking at the subject of the shot. The over the shoulder shot
abbreviation is “OTS.” Other names: Sometimes this shot is called the “Dirty
single.” A “clean shot” means there’s nothing in the frame but the subject. A
“dirty single” is the view of something else in the frame other than the main
subject.

ANSWERING SHOT

If you shoot a close-up of one actor in a scene, you should always get the
same shot (same lens, distance and shot size) for the other actor — it is called
the answering shot.

50-50

A 50-50 is a shot with two actors facing each other so we see them in profile
(Figures 6.28 and 6.38). It’s a perfectly usable kind of shot, but be careful not
to use it as an excuse for not getting proper coverage with over-the-
shoulders and close-ups.

CUTAWAYS — ALWAYS SHOOT SOME!

A cutaway is any shot of some thing or person in the scene other than the
main characters we are covering that is still related to the scene. The
definition of a cutaway is that it is something we did not see previously in
the scene, particularly in the master or any wide shots. Examples would be a
cutaway to a view out the window or to the cat sleeping on the floor.
Cutaways may emphasize some action in the scene, provide additional
information, or be something that the character looks at or points to. If it is a
shot of an entirely different location or something unrelated to the scene,
then it is not a cutaway, it is a different scene. An important use of cutaways
is as safeties for the editor. If the editor is somehow having trouble cutting
the scene, a cutaway to something else can be used to solve the problem. A
good rule of thumb is in almost every scene you shoot, get some cutaways,
even if they are not called for in the script or essential to the scene — a
cutaway might save the scene in editing.

REACTION SHOTS

A specific type of close-up or medium is the reaction shot. Something

happens or a character says something and we cut to another person
reacting to what happened or what was said; it can be the other person in
the dialog or someone elsewhere in the scene. Generally, the term refers to a
facial expression or body language, not dialog. A reaction shot is a good way
to get a safety cutaway for the editor. Sometimes the term just refers to the
other side of the dialog, which is part of our normal coverage — it’s only a
reaction shot if the actor isn’t talking. Reaction shots are very important and
many beginning filmmakers fail to shoot enough of them. Reaction shots
may not seem important when you are shooting the scene, but they are
invaluable in editing.

Typical Character Shots

There is a fairly standard repertoire of shots that are commonly used in film.
You are not limited to these shots; not by any means. It’s just that these are
the most common ones that have names. There are some variations in the
names from place to place, but overall they are fairly consistent.

Figure 6.29. A full shot.

Figure 6.30.
A cowboy shot.

Figure 6.31. Medium.

Figure 6.32. Medium CU.

Figure 6.33. Close-up.

Figure 6.34.
A choker, also known as a Big Head Close-up.

Figure 6.35.
An ECU (extreme close-up). Sometimes called a Sergio Leone.

Figure 6.36.
Any shot with two people is called a two-shot.

Figure 6.37.
A three-shot.

Figure 6.38.
A 50-50 (fifty-fifty) is two people from the side.

Figure 6.39.
An over-the-shoulder (OTS).

Figure 6.40.
The answering shot for the OTS in 6.39. Every shot you do in coverage
should have an answering shot.

Figure 6.41. Bond fighting on top of a train.

Figure 6.42. Close-up of Moneypenny aiming.

Figure 6.43.
Her optical POV of the fight through the telescopic site on her weapon.

Figure 6.44.
The connecting shot that ties it all together.

 Figure 6.45.
A reaction shot from Jurassic Park.

Inserts
An insert is an isolated, self-contained piece of a larger scene. To be an
insert instead of a cutaway, it has to be something we saw in the wider
shots. Example: she is reading a book. We could just shoot the book over her
shoulder, but it is usually hard to read from that distance. A closer shot will
make it easy to read. Unlike cutaways, many inserts will not be of any help
to the editor. The reason for this is that since an insert is a closer shot of the
larger scene, its continuity must match the overall action. For example, if we
see a wide shot of the cowboy going for his gun, a tight insert of the gun
coming out the holster must match the action and timing of the wider shot;
this means it can be used only in one place in the scene and won’t help the
editor if they need to solve a problem elsewhere in the scene. Inserts tend to
fit into a few general categories:

Informational inserts: a shot of a clock on the wall is a practical

insert, as is reading the headlines on the newspaper or the name of
the file being pulled from the drawer. These are mostly about giving
 the audience some essential piece of information we want them to
know (Figure 6.47).
Emphasis inserts: the tires skid to a halt, the coffee cup jolts as he
pounds the table, the windows rattle in the wind. Emphasis inserts
are normally closely connected to the main action but not absolutely
essential to it.
Atmosphere inserts: these are little touches that contribute to the
mood, pacing, or tone of a scene.

CONNECTING SHOTS

Most scenes involving two people can be adequately edited with singles of
each person; whether they are talking to each other or one is viewing the
other from a distance, such as a shot of a sniper taking aim at someone. This
is sometimes called separation. A connecting shot is one that shows both of
the characters in one shot; often it is in the form of an over-the-shoulder or
wide angle that includes both of them.

TRANSITIONAL SHOTS

Some shots are not parts of a scene themselves but instead serve to connect
two scenes together. We can think of these as transitional shots. They might
come at the end of a scene, at the beginning, or between scenes. Some are
simple cutaways: a scene ends, cut to a shot of a sunset and then into the
next scene. There are many other types of transitional shots as well, they are
a sort of visual code to viewers that the scene is ending. Scenes of the city or
landscape are frequently used as transitional devices as they also add to the
mood or pace and are generically visual — meaning they don’t need to make
a specific point in order to be interesting.
 Figure 6.46.
He picks up the cardboard tube and looks at it.

Figure 6.47.
An insert shot—his POV of the label.

Framing People
Certain guidelines apply to framing up people in your scene. The most
important of these are called headroom and nose room.

HEADROOM

Above are some examples of headroom: not enough (Figure 6.48), way too
much (Figure 6.49), and just right (Figure 6.50). Too much headroom is one
of the most common signs of poor camera operating. It’s a natural human
impulse to put the head in the center of frame; watch out for this when
you’re operating the camera.

Figure 6.48. Not enough head room.

Figure 6.49.
Too much head room.

 Figure 6.50.
Goldilocks! Just right.

NOSE ROOM

Nose room is also called looking room. It is the room in front of a person’s
face as they look to either side. Below are some examples:

Figure 6.51.
Not enough nose room.

 
 Figure 6.52.
Good nose room.

On the left is an example of not enough nose room (Figure 6.51). See how he
seems jammed up against the edge of the frame? On the right is an example
of better nose room (Figure 6.52). It gives him some comfortable room in
front of his face.

THINGS TO AVOID

Don’t let something grow out of their head — such as a light pole, a
cactus or anything else that is distracting.
Don’t cut them off at the knees.
Don’t have too much headroom (see next section).
Avoid having the subject dead center — unless that is the effect
you’re going for.
Fill the frame — don’t leave too much dead air.

FOREGROUND, MIDGROUND, BACKGROUND

One of our challenges in filmmaking is to recreate the three-dimensional real

world in a two-dimensional frame. Shots that have depth and dimension
will help with this. If your shot doesn’t have depth and dimension, it is flat
space — more of a two-dimensional scene.

AVOIDING FLAT SPACE

Flat space is when all of the key elements (mostly the actors) just stay the
same distance from the camera for the whole scene — no depth or
dimension. Avoiding flat space is about how things are arranged in the
scene, but it’s also about camera placement and use of lenses. Remember
that long lenses compress space and make it flatter and wider lenses expand
space and make it more in depth.

Camera Support
Camera support is the general term for things that hold the camera where
we want it to be.

TRIPOD (STICKS)

A tripod (often called sticks) is the oldest method of holding the camera
steady (Figure 6.53). You will also need a fluid head to make sure all your
camera moves are smooth and steady. Some type of camera head is needed
for most of the camera support methods.
 Figure 6.53.
A tripod with a fluid head.

Figure 6.54.
A jib arm. Jibs come in many different sizes.

DOLLY

A dolly (Figure 6.57) is the most commonly used type of camera support. It is
as steady as a tripod but can freely move in any direction and also boom the
camera up and down.

HANDHELD
Handheld cameras can bring a feeling of realism and a pace to the scene.
They are used for POV shots and for that “documentary” feel.

SLIDER

A slider enables you to shift the camera from left to right with fluidity and
stability. You can move in and out with the slider and always appear
controlled (Figure 6.55).

Figure 6.55.
A camera slider from CAME-TV.

Figure 6.56.
A crane with seats for the operator and camera assistant.

 Figure 6.57.
A dolly and the names of various moves it can execute.

STEADICAM

A Steadicam (or one of the several types of gear that do the same thing as a
Steadicam) lets you have the access and fluidity of handheld, but the
stability of the slider or tripod (Figure 6.59).

GIMBAL

A gimbal is a support that allows the rotation of the camera in several

directions (Figure 6.60). The gimbal is something to use if you don’t have the
room or access to a Steadicam setup.

CRANE
If you want to emphasize scope and scale, consider mounting your camera
on a crane (Figure 6.56). A crane is not cheap to rent and you need
professional grips to operate it, but a crane shot can add size and scope to
the scene.

JIB

Cranes are built to support the camera, an operator and a camera assistant.
If you don’t need that, a jib works like a crane, but is smaller and can be
controlled mechanically or by one person (Figure 6.54). The jib allows you to
go smoothly high or low and swing left or right. Most often, you will need a
remotely controlled camera head to point it in the right direction.

DRONE

Drones (Figure 6.58) have become extremely popular as a way to get camera
angles and moves that wouldn’t be possible any other way (you can’t fly a
helicopter indoors, for example). They also have the advantage of being
relatively cheap to rent or buy.
Figure 6.58. A drone with HD camera. (Courtesy DJI, Inc.).

Figure 6.59.
A Steadicam. In this case it’s rigged on a wheelchair type dolly with large
wheels for very smooth moves.

 Figure 6.60.
A three-axis gimbal. (Courtesy CAME-TV).

Camera Angles
Camera angles are an important tool because they can help convey different
emotions and open the audience up to a different viewpoint.

EYE LEVEL

This is the “default” placement for the camera most of the time — at the
actor’s eye level. Sometimes the impulse is just to set the camera up at a
level convenient to the operator’s eye level, but it is the character in frame
that matters.

LOW ANGLE
Shots from a low angle give power to the objects in the frame. These provide
scope and scale, dominance.

HIGH ANGLE

When the camera looks down on the scene. It can make someone feel
insignificant or can lay out the pathway for what lies ahead — commonly
seen in film noir.

HIP LEVEL

A hip level shot is a camera angle that focuses on the characters from the
waist up. This shot was popular in Westerns as it could feature the
gunslinger’s sidearm in the foreground.

LOW ANGLE

Let’s get low with the ground level shot. Here maybe you’re following ants
in your reality show or your Pixar movie. This shot takes you close to the
earth for a falling boot or to give scale to the horizon.

DUTCH ANGLE

Most of the time, we want the camera to be absolutely level. Checking the
level is an important part of the AC’s job for every setup. If we lean the
camera to the left or right, this is called Dutch Tilt. Be sure that it is tilted
enough so it doesn’t just seem like a mistake.

BIRD’S EYE VIEW

Also called an overhead or a God’s Eye shot, this is any shot from a very
high angle or even directly over the subjects.

AERIAL SHOT

Aerial shots from a drone or helicopter can have a large view, a sweeping
panorama and graceful sweeping moves.

Camera Movements
Moving the camera is a key tool that can be used for many purposes: to
change the framing of the shot, add energy to the scene or to convey some
subtle emotional undercurrent.

STATIC / FIXED SHOT

The camera does not move. This is the default for tripods as you can’t really
move the sticks unless it is mounted on something that moves.

PAN

The camera rotates from side to side so that it aims more to the left or right.
The camera does not change its location.

TILT

The camera rotates to upward or downward without moving where the

camera is. Directors often say “pan up,” and newbies take great delight in
correcting them. Don’t be that way; you know what they mean, just do it.

SWISH PAN / WHIP PAN

A whip pan is a type of pan shot in which the camera pans so quickly that
the picture blurs into indistinct streaks. A swish pan can be used to meld
two scenes together so it seems like you’re just panning, when it fact it is
two entirely different shots.

TRACKING MOVE

The camera moves and follows a subject, left or right, forward or backward.

CRAB MOVE

A version of tracking, trucking and dollying. This is side-to-side movement

at a constant distance from the action at hand.

ARC MOVE/CIRCLE MOVE

An arc move is a camera move around the subject, somewhat like a tracking
shot, where the camera moves in a rough semi-circle around the subject.
Michael Bay loves these shots.

ROLLING SHOT

Anytime the camera is mounted on a vehicle, camera car or truck, it is a

rolling shot. On bigger budgets, remotely controlled cranes mounted on the
top of cars are very popular.
ZOOM

Zooms were popular in the seventies but are out of favor now for one simple
reason — they call attention to themselves and take the viewer out of the
story for a moment. They remind the audience they are watching a movie —
not usually what you want.

The Prime Directive

If the shot is not in focus and properly exposed, then it doesn’t matter how
artful your lighting is or how “cool” your camera moves are — it’s garbage.
Above all else, the DP is responsible for getting usable images, and of course,
the art as well. Also critical is making sure the camera is level; your first AC
should check this, of course, but it is still ultimately the responsibility of the
cinematographer. To be more specific, the parts that you want to be in focus
should be in focus. Remember that focus is an important storytelling tool —
it can be used to draw the viewer’s attention to elements in the frame.

DON’T JUST DO ALL CLOSE-UPS OR ALL WIDE SHOTS

Variety is important in your shot selection. A movie that consists of all wide
shots or only close-ups will be visually boring and, more importantly, you
are giving up one of your most important tools for visual storytelling. You
have a lot of ways of engaging the audience, don’t give them up unless you
have a very strong reason for doing it.

Managing Your Media

Digital cameras generally fall into two categories: the high-end pro cameras
that record to a hard drive and cameras that record to an SD (Secure Digital)
or CF (Compact Flash) card. All of these are referred to as media (Figure
6.61).

Figure 6.61.
A Secure Digital (SD) card, used in many video cameras.

The important thing to remember about media that comes out of the
cameras is that this is your movie. All of the time, effort, money and sweat
that went into shooting the movie is now entirely contained on those little
cards — it doesn’t exist anywhere else. Damage that card or accidently erase
it and it’s never coming back. Needless to say — proper handling of your
media is critical.
DON’T DRAG AND DROP!

A standard method of transferring computer files (and all digital camera

video is a computer file) is to “drag and drop.” However, this is a dangerous
way to capture your footage because it doesn’t usually involve error
checking. If possible, it’s better to use software specifically designed for this,
such as Shotput Pro.

THREE BACKUPS

It is impossible to overstate the importance of backups. Keep in mind that

those files are your whole movie — all the time, money and effort that was
put into making the film only exists in those files — back them up! A single
backup is never considered to be enough, professionally, three backups are
the minimum and for many projects there are more. On a large professional
project, the original hard drives or memory cards are often not erased until
the clone copies have been verified by the insurance company. As this
obviously involves a lot more hard drives or cards, it isn’t feasible on most
productions.

Marking
Both the actors and the camera need marks to tell them where to be in
various parts of the scene (Figures 6.62 and 6.63). For the actors, “hitting
their marks” is an important part of the job. A big part of this is that the
First AC knows where to focus on them for sure only when they are on their
marks. The same applies to the camera movements.
Figure 6.62.
Types of toe marks for the actors. Which one is used is up to the preference
of the camera assistant.

 Figure 6.63.
T-marks used for the actor’s blocking so that focus is consistent. It’s an old
Hollywood saying that the key to acting is to “know your lines and hit your marks.”

MARKING DURING BLOCKING REHEARSAL

One of the most important factors in keeping the action sharp is to make
focus marks. These serve two purposes: first they give the actors a reference
for where they need to be and second, they give the focus puller definite
places to focus on — assuming the actors “hit their marks.”

MARKING TAPE

There are several ways of making marks but the most frequently used is
marking tape. You can always tell who is the second AC on a film set — they
will have several colors of 1/2” paper tape hanging from their belt. Different
colors are used for different actors so they can tell which marks are theirs. T-
marks are the most commonly used, but some ACs use toe marks made from
a “V” of tape or box marks for both feet (Figure 6.62).

FOCUS MARKS ON THE DIAL

All follow-focus rigs have a marking dial made of white plastic that can be
marked with an erasable pen. Usually, each mark on the dial will correspond
with an actor’s mark on the floor, but sometimes, ACs will make marks for
references such as the door, the edge of the table, etc.

INVISIBLE MARKS

Marking becomes more difficult if it’s a full shot that includes the floor. In
this case, normal marks would be visible in the frame. Some ingenuity is
needed to make marks in situations such as this: a twig, a spit mark, a crack
in the pavement or any other reference can be used. Sometimes a very small
piece of black tape won’t be seen on camera. It’s more difficult for the actor
and the focus puller, but it’s better than nothing.

DOLLY MARKS

If there’s a dolly move, it will be necessary to make dolly marks as well —

there’s no point in measuring the distance to the actors if the dolly ends up
in a different place on every take! Generally, a piece of white tape is placed
on the floor even with the back axle of the dolly; this is what will be easiest
for the dolly grip to see. Chalk is also used for this.

Pulling Focus
Accurate focus depends on accurate measuring. All professional cameras
have a mark somewhere that shows the plane-of-focus — the exact place the
lens needs to focus to. This mark is a small circle with a line through it.

SOME FOCUS PRACTICES:

For critical focus, zoom in all the way, focus, then zoom back to your
framing.

Take the time necessary to make accurate marks during blocking

rehearsal: both for the actors and on the follow focus dial. The DP
and AD should be on your side if the director gets fancy and doesn’t
want to take the time. Remind them that taking a moment to get
proper focus marks will make shooting the scene go faster and be
less frustrating due to fewer blown takes. The DP and operator
should always back up the first AC when they need a moment — it
never takes as long as the director thinks it’s going to.
Be ready in case actors miss their marks. Make your own “reference”
marks either physically or mentally. For example, you may know
that the edge of the carpet is six inches from the actor’s mark and
you can reference that if they land somewhere between their mark
and the edge of the carpet.
Do eye marks if necessary. The operator can visually focus on
something in the scene, then the AC marks it on the dial. To do this,
zoom in all the way and have the iris wide open, thus reducing
depth-of-field for critical focus. With a very wide lens (or wide
zoom) and the iris closed down, almost everything “looks” like it’s in
focus; don’t be deceived.
Get a feel for how the actors move: a common problem is that in
blocking rehearsals, the actors are at half energy at most. When they
get into the actual scene (especially if it’s very emotional, physical or
violent) their movements will usually be bigger and frequently they
go past their marks. Anticipate and be ready for this.
If there is a camera move, don’t forget to set marks for the dolly as
well as marks on the focus dial. These marks will be used by the
dolly grip so that is who should set them. Most often the rear axle of
the dolly is the place used to line up to marks as that is going to be
easily visible to the dolly grip. On a studio floor, tape is OK (don’t
forget to clean it up after the shot) but chalk may be easier to deal
with. Outdoors, some grips use lawn darts to set dolly marks.
The eyes have it. Always measure focus to the actor’s eyes. When
pulling the tape measure, always to the plane of their eyes (this is
one reason ACs use a fiberglass tape instead of a steel one). If
holding up a flashlight or focus target, keep it next to their eyes. In
extreme close-up, it is disturbing to see the nose in focus and the
 eyes soft. In very extreme close-up, it’s wrong to see the eyelashes in
focus but the eyes out of focus. Nobody said focus pulling was easy!

Figure 6.64. Lighting the green-screen evenly is important.

Shooting Greenscreen
Shooting composites (where two or more shots are combined into one shot)
has become a major component of filmmaking at all levels. It is usually
called greenscreen for the color of the background most frequently used. It
consists of shooting a background plate, which will be the background of the
shot — it might be the forest of Endor, or a Martian desert or an alley (Figure
6.65). The foreground plate is what you want to appear on that background
— it’s usually the actors, but it could be anything (Figure 6.67). This
foreground plate is shot in front of a color backdrop (usually green) and then
computer software makes the green “disappear,” it becomes transparent, so
wherever there was green you can now see the background plate and the
two shots are now merged together.
Figure 6.65.
The background plate — this is what will appear behind the foreground
scene.

Figure 6.66.
The final composited image.

 Figure 6.67.
The whole setup. Note the black Xs on the greenscreen. These are tracking
marks; they will help the compositor align the foreground and background. They are
especially important if there is any camera movement on either the foreground or
background plate.

Any color can be used as the background color, but the important thing is
that whatever the backdrop color is (technically called the matte color) must
not appear in the foreground scene. If, for example, someone is wearing a
green hat in front of the green backdrop, in the final composite, part of their
head will disappear. Lighting for the greenscreen should be as even as
possible and should match the exposure of the foreground (actors). Lighting
for the foreground should be whatever is appropriate for the scene. For
example, if the actor is supposed to be walking through the jungle, then flat,
even lighting on the actor would look very strange.

BACKGROUND PLATES

The background plate is often shot first as this makes it easier to match the
lighting, camera angle and lens of the foreground plate (Figure 6.64). Most
often the background is a static shot as any camera movement would make
matching the foreground much trickier, although it is possible with more
advanced technology. A moving plate is used for traveling shots in a car or
train, for example.

THE FOREGROUND PLATE

Shooting the foreground can be a technical challenge but the basic rules are
simple:

Light the backdrop evenly.

Match the exposure of the foreground and the backdrop.
Match the camera angle and perspective (lens). For example, if the
background is shot from a very low angle, it will look odd if the
foreground is shot from a high angle. It also may not work if the
background was shot with a very long lens and the foreground is
shot with a very wide lens.

TRACKING MARKS ARE IMPORTANT

If the camera moves at all while shooting the foreground plate, remember
that the background will also have to move in the same way. It is difficult to
make the background move in sync if there is no way to judge exactly how
much and how fast to move it in the post-production process. The way this
is done is with tracking marks (Figure 6.67). Usually these are made with
black x-marks of paper tape on the green background. They are important —
don’t forget to add them!
Lighting and Grip
Why Lighting Matters

Figure 7.1.
An LED light panel.

A few years ago, a major manufacturer of professional video equipment

announced a new High Def camera and said in their ads that “this camera is
so sensitive that you don’t need lighting.” The reaction from the
cinematography community was angry and intense. The reason is simple: if
exposure were the only thing that mattered, then that might be true. A
faster, more sensitive camera would make a difference. The real issue is that
getting exposure is only one of the jobs that lighting does for us. What we
really need lighting to do is:

Create a mood.
Help us tell the story visually.
Shape the scene visually and emotionally.
Underscore the emotional values of the scene.
 Direct the viewer’s attention or in some case hide things.
Help us shape the composition of the frame.
Create beauty, or horror, or disharmony, or anything.

Sure, exposure is important and lighting helps us with that, but frankly,
getting enough light for exposure usually isn’t that hard. Doing lighting that
sets the mood and helps us with the visual story takes a little more doing
and a lot more thinking. If you only think about lighting as “do we have
enough light to shoot the scene?” then you are missing 90% of what lighting
can do for you as a visual storyteller.

THE MOST IMPORTANT THING ABOUT LIGHTING

There is one lighting basic that is so fundamental that it must be singled out:
avoid flat front lighting! What this means is that whenever possible, try to
light a scene from the sides and back: your lighting will be more interesting,
create more depth and dimension and will go a long way toward setting the
mood and helping tell the story. Of course, there are exceptions, but not
many. As with any general principle, there are times when lighting from the
front is the right thing to do, but as a general concept, avoiding flat, front
lighting is absolutely fundamental (Figure 7.10).

EXPOSURE

A shot that is not properly exposed will never be as good as it could have
been. While exposure is set at the camera, not having enough light on the
scene just makes it more difficult to get it right.

CREATE A MOOD
One of the most important things lighting can do for us is create a mood:
bright and sunny, dark and mysterious, evil shadows and so on. It is a
powerful tool for the filmmaker.

DIRECT ATTENTION

Lighting can emphasize certain elements of the scene. A shot where

everything is lit the same will not help direct the viewer’s attention to one
area or another. As with focus, you can use it to draw the eye toward the
part of the scene you want them to notice — usually the actors or some other
important object.

GIVE INFORMATION

We can use light and shadows to hide or reveal people or objects in the
scene. This is frequently used in horror films, of course, when the evil being
appears suddenly from the shadows.

THE LIGHTING PROCESS

Don’t just “start lighting.” This usually leads to many false starts and wasted
time. You have to have a process. The most important element is the scene
itself: the blocking, the mood, the atmosphere, the time of day.
You’ve read the script and interpreted it visually. Once you’ve seen the
blocking rehearsal you should have ideas on how to light the scene. Most
often, people start with the key light on the scene and then add to it as the
scene dictates. Sometimes it makes more sense to start with some big lights
punching through the window or an overall ambient. Which way you start
will depend on the situation — the set or location, the number of lights you
have, how much power is available, etc. For more on the process and
techniques of lighting see Motion Picture and Video Lighting, third
edition, also by Blain Brown.

Types of Lights
Professional lighting equipment is great and easy to use. In many cases, you
just won’t have pro equipment available. On some jobs we end up making
our own lighting units or using things from the hardware store. Lighting
units come in a couple of basic types: Fresnels, LED, open-face and
fluorescent.

FRESNELS

Fresnels are lights that have a lens. It’s a special type of “stepped” lens but it
is basically just a simple lens like a magnifying glass (Figure 7.2). All
Fresnels have a “spot/flood” knob that allows you to make the beam narrow
and intense or wider and more spread out (less light intensity).
 Figure 7.2.
A tungsten Fresnel light; in this case a 300 watt Tweenie. (Photo courtesy of
Arri Lighting).

Figure 7.3.
An example of carrying a lamp. It looks like she is being lit by the table lamp
but her lighting is actually a Tweenie just out of frame on the left.

OPEN FACE
Open face lights don’t have a lens. They are basically a bulb holder, a
reflector and a housing, nothing more. They do have some ability to spot-
flood. They are useful because they are more efficient than a Fresnel, just
because the lens absorbs some of the light. Open face lights are not as
“refined” as Fresnels; one would rarely shine an open face light directly on
an actor, but they are great for times when you just need raw power, such as
when you are bouncing a light off a reflector or punching the light through
some heavy diffusion — two ways to make a light softer.

LEDS

LED lights are the hot new thing in lighting for many reasons: they use a lot
less power, they don’t create as much heat and many of them have both
built-in dimmers and color control. The fact that they need less power is
important. It means that frequently you don’t need a generator or heavy
cable. This can be a huge cost and time saver. Being able to change the color
with a dial also means saving on color gels.

FLUORESCENT

Pioneered by the company Kino Flo, movie lights based on ordinary

fluorescent are extremely popular in film lighting. They are very efficient,
which means you get a lot of light with very little electricity. For example,
you can plug several of these lights into one household circuit, where with
ordinary tungsten lights (Fresnels and open face) only one 2,000 watt light
will go into a normal household circuit. Any more than that will cause the
fuse or circuit breaker to blow.

PRACTICALS
Some scenes can also be lit with the existing household desk lamps and floor
lamps that are already in the scene. Don’t be afraid to move them around
and experiment with the lamps until you get what you want. Ordinary
lamps that actually work are called practicals.
Lighting this way has become much more popular in recent years due to
several factors: cameras that can get a good image with much, much less
light, more powerful practical bulbs, color correct sources (LEDs, Kino Flos),
faster lenses and most importantly, the desire for a more naturalistic look
and feel to a scene. Birdman is a prominent example; with one or two
exceptions, it was lit entirely with practical lamps in the scene: hallway
fluorescents, hanging lamps, wall sconces, table lamps and so on.

Hard vs. Soft

There are really only two types of light when you really boil it down to the
basics: hard light and soft light. Of course there are all sorts of subtle
gradations in between hard and soft, but in the end there are just these two
types.

HARD LIGHT

Hard light is also called specular light. It is light that casts a clear, sharp
shadow. It does this because the light rays are traveling almost parallel.
What creates a beam of light with the rays pretty much parallel? The smaller
the source, the harder the light will be. Outside on a clear sunny day, look at
your shadow: it will be sharp and clean. Even though the sun is a large star,
it is so far away that it appears as a small object in the sky — which makes it
a fairly hard light. A Fresnel light by itself will also be a hard light.
 Figure 7.4. Hard light creates sharp well-defined shadows on her face.

SOFT LIGHT

Soft light is the opposite, it is light that casts only a fuzzy, indistinct shadow;
sometimes no shadow at all. What makes light soft? A very large source. Go
outside on an overcast day with heavy clouds — you will have little or no
shadow at all. This is because instead of a small hard source (just the sun)
the entire sky is now the light source — it’s enormous.

Figure 7.5. Soft light doesn’t create sharp shadows. It also wraps around her face for a
softer, more pleasing look. Soft light is not the solution in all cases; classic films from the
30s, 40s, and 50s used hard light beautifully, but soft light is used much more often these
days as it is tends to make the actors look good.

 How do we make soft light on the set? There are two ways. One is we
bounce a light off a large white object. Typically we use things like foamcore
(a lightweight artist board often used for temporary signs or mounting
photographs). The bigger the bounce board is, the softer the light will be. We
can use almost anything light colored as a bounce: a white wall, an
umbrella, a piece of white styrofoam building insulation (also called bead
board).
Another way is to shine the light through diffusion. In the past,
photographers used things like thick white tracing paper or white shower
curtains as diffusion. Nowadays, there are many types of diffusion available
in wide rolls and sheets. It is amazing for its ability to withstand the intense
heat of being put right in front of a powerful light: tracing paper can catch
fire and shower curtain can melt.
Many types of diffusion material are available in varying grades of
thickness. A popular light diffusion is opal; it is so thin you can almost see
through it. This doesn’t make the light very soft, but sometimes we want a
very subtle effect. Heavier diffusion is much thicker, it makes the light much
softer. About the heaviest, softest diffusion we normally use on the set is a
cotton cloth called muslin. It’s like a very heavy, coarse bedsheet.
 Figure 7.6.
What makes a light soft is purely a matter of the size of the source. (top) A
small light hitting a large object will not wrap around the object. (middle) A large light
on a smaller object will wrap around, thus softening the shadows. (bottom) Since there is
a limit to how big a light can be, we often use diffusion to make the light source appear
bigger.

Lighting Terms and Concepts

 Figure 7.7. Basic lighting for people: key light, backlight, background light, and fill.

There are a few terms that are essential when working with film lighting.

KEY LIGHT

The main light on a subject is called the key light. It is not necessarily the
biggest light on the set, it is just the primary light on the particular subject
(usually an actor). The key light will usually create shadows on the actor.
First of all, there is nothing wrong with shadows! They can be an important
part of the image. However, sometimes the shadows are darker than we
want, we say that the scene is too contrasty. It all depends on the mood of
the scene: sometimes we want deep shadows, sometimes we don’t.

FILL LIGHT
If we want to lighten the shadows, we can use fill light. It does exactly what
it says, it fills in the shadows. Don’t get carried away with fill light or your
scene will end up bland and flat.

BACKLIGHT

Backlight is a light from behind the actor. It is also sometimes called a hair
light or a shoulder light. It almost always makes people look better. A
backlight is a standard part of portrait or close-up lighting, where the whole
aim is to make people look as good as possible.

KICKER

A kicker is a light from behind the actor that sort of skims along the cheek.
It is different from a backlight in that it is on one side or the other. Most
often you will see it on the side opposite the key light; it helps define the
face even if the shadow side is fairly dark.

AMBIENT

Ambient light is overall light that is just sort of “there,” meaning it has no
apparent source and is usually very soft. Imagine a large office space lit with
dozens of overhead fluorescent fixtures: this will be ambient light. It is soft
but it is also shapeless and bland. The most common function of ambient
light is to just sort of build an overall base exposure.

EYELIGHT

Eyelight is a very small light right next to the camera that has only one
function — to give a little catchlight (highlight or twinkle) in the eye.
AVAILABLE LIGHT

Frequently, we use available light. This is simply whatever light there

already is at the location we are using: daylight, fluorescent, ordinary house
lights, street lights, whatever. Sometimes we supplement it with a few things
to make it more expressive or fix a few small problems, but often, we just
use what is there.

Basic Principles

LET THE SET AND THE SCENE MOTIVATE YOUR LIGHTING

Don’t just go to a set and start putting up lights. Your understanding of the
scene comes from the script, discussions with the director and seeing the
blocking rehearsal. Only when you understand the mood, intentions and
blocking of the scene can you really know how you should light a scene.

Light From the Upstage Side

The best way to avoid flat front lighting is to light from the upstage side.
This means that lights are not close to the camera. Often they are actually on
the other side of the actors — upstage (Figures 7.8 and 7.9).
 Figure 7.8. Lighting from the down-stage side produces flat, uninteresting light, because
the light is too close to the camera.

Figure 7.9.
Lighting from the upstage side creates pleasant shadows and a more three-
dimensional image.

BACK CROSS KEYS

Dialog scenes make up a very large part of every movie. By far the most
commonly used methods for lighting these scenes is back-cross keys (Figures
7.11 and 7.12). Not only does it make for good lighting, it is also fairly quick
and easy. It is extremely simple in practice: one key light for each actor —
that’s really the heart of it. There may be some additions as well: backlights,
a fill light and perhaps kickers. As for the two key lights, the most important
aspect is that they be on the upstage side — the side of the actors that is
away from the camera.

Figure 7.10. Flat front lighting is boring and adds little to the scene. It also looks
unrealistic.

Figure 7.11.
Lighting from the up-stage side adds shadows and depth to the scene. It also
looks more realistic.

 Figure 7.12.
Diagram of upstage lighting.

LESS IS MORE

Over-lighting a set is something to watch out for. Not only can it result in
lighting that is overdone, confusing and messy, it also takes more time and
money. Many cinematographers say that the one thing that changes as you
learn and grow as a lighting person is that you end up using a lot fewer
lights in a scene.

Don’t Be Afraid of the Dark

Shadows are an important part of lighting. Putting light evenly everywhere

on the scene is boring and uninteresting. Shadows help create variation and
make the parts that are lit more prominent — you can direct attention to the
areas you want to feature. Also, they are more natural; places in real life that
are uniformly and evenly lit are usually not visually interesting: warehouses,
big box stores, etc.
Lighting Methods
There are many ways to light a scene, but a few methods are the basis for
most lighting. Of course, each scene is different and you might end up using
a combination of these fundamental techniques.

CLASSICAL HARD LIGHT

Up until the late sixties, sets were pretty much always lit with hard lights
and the methods were pretty much standard: individual hard lights were
used for every actor and every part of the set. This was easy because the
blocking of the actors was very precise and the DP knew where they would
be for every part of the scene.

AMBIENT AND EXISTING LIGHT

Ambient means either a sort of overall light that goes everywhere, or just
the existing light in a location. Overall ambient is usually created by aiming
lights at the ceiling for a soft bounce or by covering the set with a cloth
material such as muslin or silk and shooting lights down through it.
Frequently, this overall ambient is supplemented with other lights to keep it
from being too bland.

THROUGH THE WINDOWS

There are many DPs who say “always light through the windows.” Of
course, this is not always possible, but there are good reasons to bring your
light in through the windows. It is more naturalistic, it creates its own
variations and it also means few, if any, lights, stands and cables on the set,
making camera movement easier. Even if you bring your main lighting
through the windows, it may still be useful to add a few accents/background
lights on the set and often you will want to bring in a few additional lights
for the close-ups. Often you will also want to add an eyelight for the actors.
An eyelight might be something small like an inkie, but the danger is that
this will add too much fill to the face. A better technique is to bounce a small
light onto a white reflector near the camera; it is always a good idea to have
this light on a dimmer/hand squeezer for adjustments.

Natural Light and Windows

Windows are an important element in film lighting and they can be used in
a number of different ways, whether you are on a set in a studio or at an
interior location.

What Makes Window Light So Beautiful?

Window light can be very beautiful, because it is soft and even. What makes
it soft is that it is bouncing from all directions from outside the window:
from the sky, nearby buildings, even the ground.

THE WINDOW PROBLEM

 Figure 7.13. Classical hard lighting as used in the film noir tradition.

One issue with windows occurs when an actor is placed in front of a

window. Since what we see through a window is almost always much hotter
(brighter) than the foreground, there are two bad choices: either expose for
the actor and let the background burn out (overexpose) badly or expose for
the background and let the actor be badly underexposed. There are ways to
solve the problem: you can put a lot more light on the actor or you can
control the light from the window with ND (Neutral Density) gel or by
partially or entirely closing the blinds, if there are any.

GODFATHER LIGHTING
 Figure 7.14.
Window lighting in Kubrick’s The Killing.

Named for the way Gordon Willis lit The Godfather, this method is soft
overhead light. One caution, if you are going for the dark, mysterious look
of that movie, you need to keep the soft overhead light off of the walls. In
the Godfather films, Willis famously let the eyes of Don Corleone stay dark,
suggesting that we can’t know what he is really thinking. Unless this is the
effect you are going for, you might want to add an eyelight, which is a small
light or reflector that just creates a small catchlight in the eyes, without
giving the face too much fill, which would spoil the effect you’re going for.

DEPTH AND SEPARATION

 Figure 7.15.
Lighting only the actor results in a scene with no depth; it’s not three-
dimensional. Of course, there are times when you want the background to be dark and
shadowy.

When we watch a video, we are looking at a flat surface — our job is to give
it depth and shape and perspective, to bring it alive as a real world as much
as possible. Lighting plays a huge role in this. This is a big part of why “flat”
lighting is so frequently the enemy. Flat lighting is light that comes from
very near the camera, like the flash mounted on a consumer still camera: it
is on axis with the lens. As a result, it just flatly illuminates the subject
evenly. It erases the natural three-dimensional quality of the subject.
By separation, we mean making the main subjects “stand out” from the
background. A frequently used method for doing this is a backlight. Another
way to do it is to make the area behind the main subjects significantly
darker or brighter than the subject. We try to create a foreground,
midground, and background in a shot; separation is a part of this.

Backlight For Depth

One technique that helps with depth and separation is the backlight, which
is any light that comes from the back of the subject. Backlight is a useful
technique in almost any scene.

Controlling Light
 Figure 7.16.
By carefully adding accents and pools of light to the background, the scene
becomes three-dimensional, it has depth and looks more realistic.

Just putting lights on the set isn’t enough — you have to shape and control
the light. This is mostly done by subtraction — toning it down where it’s too
hot, casting shadows, keeping light off something you want to keep dark and
so on.

Spot and Flood

Most kinds of lights can be spotted and flooded — meaning the beam of light
can be concentrated into a smaller area or flooded out to cover a larger area
but the most common use of the flood/spot control is to make the light a
little hotter (spot) or a little dimmer (flood). This allows for fine tuning of the
intensity.

Flags and Nets

Flags (also called solids) are made of opaque black and are used to cast
shadows and keep light off of anything you want darker. The basic sizes are
18”x24”, 24”x36” and 4x4s (four-by-fours) which are four feet wide and four
feet tall. Nets are made of scrim — an open weave material that reduces the
amount of light but doesn’t change its quality.

Barn Doors, Scrims and Snoots

Lights have barn doors, which can be folded in or out and cut down the
edges of the light. Scrims are just window screen material that reduces the
amount of light. A single scrim (green edge) reduces the light by one-half
stop and a double scrim (red edge) reduces it by a full stop (one half the
amount of light). Snoots are similar to barn doors in the way they cut the
spread of the light down as much as you want, but they are round and fixed,
not flexible like barndoors. Snoots come in a variety of sizes from a wide to
narrow beam.

Bounce and Reflectors

Sometimes you need just a little extra light on something, such as for the fill
side of a face. It is often easier to use a bounce board instead of adding
another light. A bounce is basically anything reflective but most often it is a
piece of white foamcore, which is easily cut to any size you want. Larger
bounces are cloth material that can be stretched on frames that come in sizes
from six by six feet up to 20x20 feet and sometimes even larger.

THE AMAZING C-STAND

 Figure 7.17. The right hand rule. When you face the C-stand, the knobs are on the right.
This means they will tend to tighten, not loosen, under the weight.

The C-stand (or grip stand) is one of the most ingenious devices ever
invented for film work. It’s like a light stand but with a grip head on top that
can hold a wide variety of objects. Most often a grip arm is held by the head
and the arm also has a grip head on it. This is used to hold nets and flags but
also many other different kinds of objects. Unlike a light stand, the legs have
different heights: high, middle and low.
There are a few rules for safe and proper use of a C-stand: always put the
weight over the high leg, always put a sand bag on the high leg but the most
important rule of all is the right hand rule.

Right Hand Rule

The reason for this method is that when a weight is pulling down on the grip
arm, you want it to tend to be tightening the grip head, not trying to loosen
it. The simple way to remember this is as you stand facing the grip stand,
the grip knob is on the right.

How To Set a Light

Figure 7.18.
A flag set properly — the arm is up and out of the way, the sandbag is on
the high leg and under the load and the right hand rule is observed.

When bringing a light to the set, it is important to bring the whole rig: the
light, the barn doors and the scrim. The barn doors should always stay with
the light, even if they’re not being used. Same with the scrim bag — it
should always be with the light, even if it’s hanging the grid. If you take a
scrim out of a light, do not just lay it on the floor — put it back in the scrim
bag!

Don’t Clothesline the Cable!

Another important rule is to never clothesline the cable, which is what we
call it when the wire attached to the light isn’t hanging straight down but is
stretched out so that someone might trip over it. If someone does, they
might get injured or hurt someone else and also the light might be damaged
or destroyed.

Getting Power

Figure 7.19.
Everything about this is wrong — the arm is right where it could poke
someone’s eye out, there is no sandbag and the right hand rule is not observed.

The number one thing to remember about electricity is that it wants to kill
you! Be careful! If you’re not absolutely sure you know what you’re doing —
don’t do it! Power for your lighting (and also monitors, battery chargers, hair
dryers and the all-important coffee pot can come from several different
sources. On big projects, it is usually supplied by portable generators (some
of them up to 2000 amps). On smaller projects, it is often just a matter of
plugging lights into the wall sockets. This used to be challenging but if
you’re using LED lights (or even Kino Flo lights) then it’s easy, as these
types of units provide plenty of light while using very little electricity. For
much more information on electricity, distribution and other lighting topics,
see Motion Picture and Video Lighting by Blain Brown.

Wall Plugging

In the US, most household electrical circuits in a building are 15 amps or 20

amps. For comparison, a 2K Junior (2000 watt light) is 16 amps, a 1000 watt
light (Baby or 1K) is 8 amps, while an LED light might only be 2 or 3 amps.
If you are on location and you plan on wall plugging several lights, be sure
to check the breaker (fuse) box to see how much total power is available.
Just because a wall outlet is in a different room does not necessarily mean
that it’s on a separate circuit — in most cases, several wall outlets will be
connected to each circuit. A good plan is to make a circuit map of the
location — plug something in to each outlet and then turn the breakers off
one at a time — an assistant with a walkie-talkie is very helpful for this.
Also, try not to plug anything in to the refrigerator or air conditioning
circuits. They might be OK at first, but when they turn on, they will blow
the circuit. However, in many cases, the audio people will ask that they be
turned off while shooting anyway.

Running Power

Once you have your power source, you have to get it to the lights and other
things that need it. The more electricity that is running though a cable, the
bigger it has to be — bigger in the sense of more copper. If you try to run too
much power through a small cable, it will overheat and possibly melt and
cause a fire.
On professional sets the smallest type of cable we use is called 12/3, which
means number 12 wire with three conductors (hot, neutral and ground).
These are also called singles or stingers. If we’re using a large amount of
power (which we frequently do), we use much heavier cables, such as Bates
cables, or #2 banded distro (or distribution) cables (three or four separate #2
cables).

Don’t Let It Get Hot!

Even if you’re using the heaviest professional power cables you still need to
guard against overloading the lines. The simplest check is to put your hand
on the wire or the connectors (not touching the copper conductors, of
course) — they should be warm but not hot. If they are hot, then you’ve got
a problem — check how much load is on each line and if it’s too much, turn
the light off or switch it to another line.
Always remember — electricity wants to kill you. If you are doing
anything that requires a generator or any large power source, only hire
experienced lighting technicians (sometimes called electrics in the film
business) to work on your project.

Expendables
 Figure 7.20.
Wooden clothes pins, also called C-47s, are essential for lighting. They are
used to hold gels and diffusion on the hot lights. Because they are wood, they are less
likely to burn you when you grab them. On the left is a regular C-47; on the right is C-74
— a clothes pin when has been reversed so it can be used to grab hot scrims from the
tight space in the front slot of the light.

Some supplies used in lighting a grip get used up during the course of the
production; these are called expendables. They include tape, clothes pins,
gels and diffusion, and so on. The production company supplies these based
on lists given to them by the gaffer and key grip. For big productions, the
expendables order can be very large, but here’s a typical list for a small
independent production.
ELECTRIC DEPARTMENT EXPENDABLES

Clothes pins. Also called C47s, they are used for attaching gel to a
light.
Gaffer tape — black.
Gaffer tape — white.
2” paper tape — black.
2” paper tape — white.
Sharpies.
Dulling spray.
Sash cord — #8.
Trick line (mason’s line — black).

Other items the lighting crew might need include zip ties, and drywall
screws. The electricians might have a few items with them, like electrical
tape, but they should not be expected to supply them for your project.

Lighting Order
Lighting orders vary greatly depending on the size of the production,
whether or not there are night exteriors, large sets, and, of course, the
budget. On the website, you will find typical lighting orders for small,
medium and large productions. Here’s a typical sample of a lighting order
for a small project with interiors only.

Power

1 — Generator 450 amp

Lights
 4 — LED panels
1 — 5K Fresnel
4 — Mightie Mole open face 2K with barn door, scrims, stands
4 — Baby Junior with barn doors, scrims, triple riser stands
4 — Baby Baby with barn doors, scrims, stands
4 — Tweenie with barn doors, scrims, stands
4 — Inkies with barn doors, scrims, snoot set
4 — 1K soft lights (worklights for craft service, makeup, etc.)

Distro

500’ — Five wire banded feeder cable — Cam-Lok

10 — Cam-Lok tees
6 — 100’–100 amp Bates extensions
5 — Bates 100 amp to 60 amp splitters
8 — 50–60 amp Bates extensions
2 — 3-phase distribution boxes

3 — lunch boxes
3 — 60 amp Bates to 6 outlet Edison
25 — 50’ single extension (stingers)
20 — 25’ single extension (stingers)
2 — Flicker boxes (three channel)

Grip

15 — C-stands
30 — Sand bags
8 — Shot bags
6 — Cardellini clamps
6 — Mafer clamp
10 — full apple boxes
 10 — 1/2 apple boxes
10 — 1/4 apple boxes
10 — pancakes
1 — box of wedges
2 — 4x4 silk
8 — 24x36 flags
4 — 24x36 single nets
4 — 24x36 double nets
6 — 18x24 flags
6 — highboys
4 — 1K offset arm
2 — 1K sidearm

Dolly

Fischer 11 with seats, side boards, etc.

2 — 12” risers
5 — pieces straight track
4 — pieces wide circle track (45°)

EXPENDABLES

Full CTB (Color Temperature Blue)

1/2 CTB
Fulll CTO
1/4 CTO (Color Temerature Orange)
Rosco Opal
Rosco 3026 (216)
Rosco 3027 (1/2 216)

5 — Bags wooden clothes pins

 2 — Rolls 2” black gaffer tape
1 — Roll 2” white gaffer tape
2 — Rolls 2” black paper tape
1 — Roll 2” white paper tape
1 — Black wrap 24”
2 — Sash cord 200’ #8
1 — Trick line (mason’s line) — black 100’
1 — Can Krylon Dulling Spray
1 — Streaks n’ Tips — black

Lighting Definitions
Ambient is light that is just sort of “there.” It is soft light from above; a
general sort of light that just fills the room.

Amps are a measure of how much electrical current is flowing (the total
amount of electrons flowing through the system). Each type of light draws a
certain number of amps. In film, we usually round them up for safety. For
example, a 1K (1000 watt Baby) actually draws 8.3 amps but we round it up
to 10 amps. These are called Paper Amps.

Baby: A 1000 watt light or a smaller version of a Fresnel light.

Back cross keys is a reliable method of lighting two people in a dialog

scene. Both lights are on the upstage side of the actors; one light is a key
light for Actor A and a backlight for Actor B. The second light is a keylight
for Actor B and a backlight for Actor A.

Bates: These are the heavy cables with 3 pin connectors that run power to
the set. A Bates connector can be 100 amps (the big one) or 60 amps (the
smaller ones).
Bounce board is made of either foamcore or beadboard. It is used to reflect
light and make it softer. The bigger the bounce board, the softer the light will
be.

Cardellini is a type of clamp useful for grabbing onto pipe, lumber or

almost anything. It is solid enough to hold a heavy light on its baby pin
(5/8th”)

CTB and CTO. CTB (Color Temperature Blue) to make a tungsten light the
same color as daylight. CTO (Color Temperature Orange) to make daylight
the same color as a tungsten light.

Diffusion is opaque white material we use in front of a light to make it

softer. Flag is a rectangular black cloth on a frame, used to make shadows.
They come in sizes: 18”x24”, 24”x36” (two by three) and 4’x4’ (four by four).
Some four by fours open up with an extra flap to make a 4’x8’ — this is
called a four by floppy.

Flat front lighting (where the light is near the camera) is almost always
dull and boring: no shadows, no depth, no dimension.

Fluorescent lights: (the type of lights found in most offices, classrooms and
industrial buildings) are usually very green and have a discontinuous
spectrum, making it not very good for film or video shooting. It is important
to shoot a grey card (with film) or white balance the camera (on video).

Fresnel: The “steppy” lens on front of many movie lights. A light with no
lens is called an “open face.”

Junior: A 2000 watt Fresnel light.

Kelvin scale: Degrees Kelvin (K) is a measure of the color temperature of a

light source. Warmer lights (more reddish) have lower Kelvin temperature.
Sources that are more blue have higher numbers. For example, a tungsten
bulb (reddish-yellow) like we use in our motion picture lights, is 3200K.
Daylight (more blue) averages 5600K. With video, you must color balance
the camera to the type of light you will be shooting under.

LED: Light Emitting Diode.

Lunchbox: A box that distributes electricity. It takes a 100 Amp Bates input
and has five outputs of 20 amp circuits each.

Mafer: Type of clamp that will go onto something as large as 2”x4” lumber
and has a baby pin.

Pigeon is a baby plate screwed onto a pancake. Good for getting a light very
low to the ground.

Primary colors in lighting are Red, Green, Blue (RGB). Secondary colors
in lighting are Cyan, Yellow, Magenta (CYM).

Scrims are metal screens we put in front of the lights to reduce the
brightness. They do not make the light softer. A single scrim (Green) reduces
the output of the light by ½ stop. A double scrim (Red) reduces the light by
one stop. Nets are the same except they are made from cloth netting
(bobbinette).

Stinger: A heavy-duty extension cord. It can take 20 amps.

Tungsten light is 3200K — it’s what we get from our tungsten movie lights.
The Art Department
The Art Department

The art department is the team that handles anything physical on the set or
location that appears on camera. This covers sets, location set dressing,
props, makeup, wardrobe and mechanical effects (EFX) such as rain, snow,
fog, etc.

PRODUCTION DESIGNER

One of the great joys of filmmaking is building a world — creating a visual

and story world that the characters and the audience is going to exist in. It is
the job of the director, the production designer, the cinematographer, and the
whole art department.
The production designer is responsible for the visual appearance of the
film. To achieve the overall look, they will coordinate with the director,
cinematographer, art department, costume department, makeup department,
and more. They not only collaborate closely with the director to bring his or
her vision to life, they also work with the producer to calculate the needed
budget. Unlike other departments, the production designer is usually given a
certain amount to spend and they use it as they see fit, for personnel, sets,
props, set dressing and so on. They will break down the script to estimate the
cost needed to bring the story to the screen. If sets are being built, the
production designer will give sketches and outlines to the art director, who
in turn delivers the plans to the construction department.
As the head of the art department, the production designer is in charge of
making sure each shooting location or built set is prepared, and in tune with
the vision of the film (and on budget). Film is a medium of visual
storytelling, and so the visuals in front of the camera matter enormously to
the success of the project. The locations, sets, costumes, makeup, etc. all
work together to build a world on screen — the world where the story plays
out, the world the actors live in. The production designer’s job starts during
preproduction collaborating with the director and producer of the project.
The production designer takes the writer’s script, the director’s vision, and
the producer’s plan, and synthesizes them into a visual story.
During pre-production, the art team formulates ideas and plans for the
visual context that will be used for the film. This includes deciding on colors,
themes, compositions, and other visual elements that work best to evoke the
tone, emotions, and themes of each scene and the film as a whole.
Once the desired look and feel of the movie has been decided, it is up to
the production designer to make it happen. This begins with research.
Production designers help identify which places and assets will be needed to
create the right atmosphere for each scene. No matter what the time period
or place where the story is set, the production designer needs to ensure that
every detail is considered when creating a believable set or location.
Another big responsibility left in the hands of the production designer is
the budget. Production designers must keep the whole film and the whole
budget in mind at all times. Unlike other parts of the film team, the art
department is usually given an overall budget that the production designer
and art director spend as they see fit — keeping all the receipts, of course!
After all the design sketches and discussions with the directors, the art
team is finally ready to turn all those drawings and ideas into reality. Since
the art department is usually the largest on any film set, the production
manager needs good management and people skills to make sure everyone is
on the same page. This includes working with set designers, graphic artists,
wardrobe supervisors, set decorators, prop masters, and makeup artists. A
production designer is often called upon to come up with quick, effective
solutions on set, all while making sure the whole team stays motivated,
creative, and productive.

ART DIRECTOR

The art director reports directly to the production designer. They oversee the
artists and designers who help create the overall look of the film. It is their
job to supervise the planning and practical design of sets and set pieces. On
large-budget projects, there may be several art directors. On smaller
projects, the job of the production designer and art director are typically
combined. The art director will manage the creation, dressing, and striking
of all sets and locations. On smaller projects, the head of the art department
is often called the art director and there is no one with the title of production
designer; it’s really up to them what title they’d like to have in the credits.

SET CONSTRUCTION, SCENIC ARTISTS

If you are building sets, then a construction crew will be needed to build it.
All painting is done by scenic artists who are far more than just “set
painters.” Professional scenic artists are highly skilled at creating illusions
such as brick and stone, backdrops like a forest, a cityscape, or outer space.

Figure 8.1. Concept design for a science fiction film. (Courtesy Andrew Glazebrook).

SET DECORATOR

The set decorator is responsible for decorating a film set. This includes
furniture, drapes, fixtures, paintings, and overall decor. They are also
responsible for dressing props, which includes everything from cars to
furniture, to household items. Set decorators might also act as the buyers —
within a given budget they buy, rent or borrow whatever is needed and
make sure it’s in the right place at the right time. The art department will
usually have their own truck for transporting items and having them
available on location.

SET DRESSER

Set dressers (sometimes called the swing gang) place and remove all set
dressing. They are responsible for practically everything on the set:
furniture, rugs, drapes, lamps, decor, doorknobs, etc. The term swing gang is
most often used to refer to the on-set dressers, those making any last minute
changes prior to cameras rolling. Any parts of the set that are not permanent
are referred to as the swing set. These are items that can be moved around
on set or easily removed if they don’t work for the overall look of the shot.
Set decorating and set dressing is just as important if you’re working on a
location as it is on a studio set. Some of them might need to be present
during shooting if sets need to be redressed — for example a set might look
one way at the start of the film but very different after the story has
progressed.

PROPS
 Figure 8.2. An art department location breakdown list. A fillable version of this form is
available on the website. Typically, there will be several scenes in any one place,
otherwise, it’s hardly worth going there. If there is only one scene at a particular place,
the First AD is likely to ask “couldn’t we do this scene at one of our other locations.” It is
also typical to fake it. For example, the second bedroom at Samy’s apartment could
dressed to make it work as Daniel’s office, thus saving a time-consuming company
move. Company moves in the middle of the day (where the whole crew packs up and
goes somewhere else) should be avoided if at all possible.

The prop master has many important responsibilities on a film project. So

what is the difference between set dressing and a prop? It’s only a prop if an
actor picks it up and uses it in some way. This includes food, dishes, swords,
or specific items like a cell phone or light saber. The distinction between set
dressing and props is important because anytime an actor uses or moves
something, it usually has to be reset for every take, meaning that it has to be
returned to its original position and condition; glasses need to be refilled,
newspapers need to folded back up, a vase that was smashed has to be swept
up and replaced with a new one for the actor to smash again in the next
take, and so on. The prop buyer might not come to the set, but on smaller
productions, the person who obtains the props will usually be on the set at
all times, providing what is needed, bringing replacements if something is
broken, resetting the props that got moved during a scene, resetting any
clocks that appear in the scene, and generally overseeing anything to do
with props.
ARMORER AND PYRO

All guns are handled by a prop specialist called an armorer. Any explosions
are managed by pyrotechnicians (pyro) who much have a federal license,
which is not easy to come by. Don’t even think about trying to handle guns
or explosions by yourself. If something goes wrong you might hurt
somebody and end up in big trouble — leave it to professionals.

Finding the Look of a Film

The look of a film comes out of the content of the story and the director’s
concepts of how to tell that story. It is the job of the production designer to
pre-visualize the world of the film, to translate the script into visual images
that will become the actual sets and dressed locations. Details will come out
of concepts. To get started you will need a working metaphor, a specific
psychological, atmospheric, and emotional image of what you want this
world to be. The look of the film is not in an imposed or personal attitude
toward visual style — the story will lead you there.
A useful technique for production design is to create a mood board or a
look book to develop the visual ideas you’re working on. It’s not only a
valuable aid to your own thinking, it’s also an effective tool for
communicating your ideas to the director and the DP. You don’t need to
have advanced artistic skills to create look books, mood boards and set
sketches. To do this, you can find fitting images and place them together on a
piece of foam core art board to show the director and set designer exactly
what you want.

A SENSE OF PLACE
The design of a film should create a sense of place — a real place that
resonates with the audience as where these characters would actually exist.
The atmospheric qualities of the sets, locations, and environments are
essential in establishing a mood and projecting an emotional feeling about
the world in which the story takes place. The director of photography works
together with the production designer in terms of color, texture, perspective
and using lighting to supplement the actual sets and locations. The
production designer and the director of photography can work together to
impart an emotionally evocative sense of atmosphere.
 Figure 8.3. Set design by Andrew Glazebrook. These are computer generated, but most
often set designs are hand drawn. For larger, more elaborate sets, actual blueprints might
be produced by a drafter who works with the set designer. (Courtesy Andrew
Glazebrook).

THE RIGHT DETAILS

A set (whether it’s one you built or it’s a borrowed or rented location) has to
be dressed so that it’s right for the scene and the characters who inhabit it.
The big things are obvious (if it’s a hermit’s cave, you probably won’t put
modernist furniture in it), but it is often the little details that really allow a
set to be an important part of the atmosphere and tone of the story. Things
like:

Posters on the wall — My Little Pony or Metallica?

Flowers — fresh and artfully arranged, or dead on the window sill?
Neat and tidy, or messy, dirty and disorganized?

A person’s clothes make up part of his character. I draw the character

with his costume. I suggest it to the stylists with my drawings; the
drawings translate some of my emotional impressions. For me, elegance
happens when there is a correspondence between a person’s
personality and how she dresses herself.
Finally, don’t forget that costumes, like dreams, are symbolic
communication. Dreams teach us that a language for everything exists
— for every object, every color worn, every clothing detail. Hence,
costumes provide an aesthetic objectification that helps to tell the
character’s story.
Federico Fellini (8-1/2, La Strada, La Dolce Vita)
WARDROBE

The wardrobe and makeup departments operate more or less independently

but of course they coordinate with the production designer for the overall
look of the film. On a bigger project you might have a costume designer, but
even if you don’t, the wardrobe people need to be sure that everything fits,
and that it is kept clean and ready. They might also make minor repairs and
usually have backup pieces standing by in case something gets ruined.
The Costume Designer is head of the department. She or he is responsible
for the look, style and “feel” of everything worn by the actors, whether it is
rented, borrowed, built or even if the actor brings their own clothes. They
work with the director to make sure all wardrobe fits the visual concept of
the picture, is appropriate for the time period and most importantly, that it
communicates something about the character, their lifestyle, their mood and
what their inner life is like.
The designer will need at least two days of prep for every day of shooting;
more if you are doing a period piece or science fiction piece. On bigger
projects, the prep time for
wardrobe can be many months, especially for
something where lots of period or unusual (such as futuristic or hobbit
costumes) need to be designed and created.
One thing the wardrobe department needs to do is break down the script,
just as other departments do. They have one additional element to contend
with though: script days. Often the Script Supervisor will prepare a Story
Days Report that outlines what happens when in the script. For example, a
story might take place over one week. The report would list what scenes take
place on Monday, what scenes take place on Tuesday, and so on. They would
also specify whether the scenes are day, night or perhaps something
particular like “early morning.” This will be put together as a wardrobe
“bible,” which should be able to answer any questions that come up about
who wears what, and when. The continuity book or costume bible on set
consists of pages with information that relates to each garment that is part
of the costume. The supervisor uses these to make sure that in the line-up
everything is correctly ordered on the truck and then the On-Set Dresser
ensures that this is kept updated on set. When the director is happy with a
take, at the end of the scene, a photograph will be taken so all wardrobe can
be matched for other scenes that take place before or after that require the
same wardrobe.

WARDROBE SUPERVISOR

The Wardrobe Supervisor is an important member of the team. They make

sure everything the designer is looking for is provided, in proper shape,
cataloged and in the right place at the right time. If you visit the wardrobe
room or trailer you will see that it is not just a bunch of clothes on racks.
Each outfit is kept together on hangers with the shoes or hats in clothing
bags. Each outfit is carefully tagged with the name of character, name of
actor, what scenes it is for, what is included in the set and special
instructions for cleaning, etc. For anything more than a small production,
there may be wardrobe assistants as well. Period films that take place in the
past present a particular challenge for wardrobe, and rentals are usually
necessary, unless you have some talented costume builders working for you.
Obviously, the same applies to stories that take place in the future.

ON-SET DRESSER

Someone from wardrobe needs to be on set at all times to attend to

whatever comes up during shooting. They will have a number of items on
their belt or in a bag: lint rollers, safety pins, clothing pins, etc. The On-Set
Dresser (sometimes called Standby Wardrobe) along with hair and makeup,
come in for touch-ups when the AD calls for last looks.
CONTINUITY

A continuing problem for wardrobe is when actors forget and wear

something home and then fail to bring it back the next day. This happens
most often when actors are wearing their own clothes for the picture.
Another problem with this is that there are most likely not going to be
backups for these clothes, meaning that something ripped or stained can
become a continuity problem. Continuity photos are taken when each actor
is dressed, and kept on a continuity form (Figure 8.4).

Figure 8.4. A wardrobe continuity sheet.

WARDROBE RENTALS/PURCHASES

Start with your script. Figure out the number of wardrobe changes each
character goes through. Add these together and you’ll get a sense of the sets
of wardrobe that are needed. Add multiples of outfits if you have stunts or
blood effects, you will definitely need multiple backups for repeat takes.
Uniforms, period costumes, and special items (helmets, kilts, samurai armor,
etc.) will cost more. This will give you some idea of how much to budget for
wardrobe purchases/rentals. Stunt people will need matching wardrobe.

Hardware

You’ll need to rent racks to hang clothes on, clothing bags, hangers, a
steamer, and possibly privacy screens so the actors can change. Just one of
the many details that are easy to forget about when budgeting a project.
You’ll need to provide a budget for the wardrobe people to buy expendables
— lint rollers, plastic bags, shoe polish, tape, safety pins, etc. On bigger
productions not shot in a studio or at a single location, wardrobe might have
their own truck or trailer.

Loss/Damage/Cleaning

Inevitably, something borrowed or rented will get destroyed or soiled and

you’ll have to pay for it. You can hold a wardrobe sale at the end to make
back some money. You will need to allocate funds for cleaning. The range
depends on the size of the wardrobe and whether we can use a free
washer/dryer.

MAKEUP AND HAIR

The makeup and hair department has a similar structure to wardrobe. The
makeup and hair key works with the director and production designer to
determine the overall look of the characters, then decides what style of
makeup and hair style is needed to express something about the character
that helps tell the story, then the stylists execute that plan. As with props
and set dressing, keeping track of continuity is important. Once an actor is
in full makeup, photos are taken and kept on file. For the photos, the actors
hold up their hands to show any fingernail polish, rings, watches, etc.
Building Sets
Even on small productions, you might need to build a set (Figure 8.5). If you
don’t have a studio, it might be in a garage, a warehouse that’s not in use, or
anywhere you can. If you can’t afford set builders, it’s not difficult to do it
yourself. A basic component of all sets is called a flat. Flats are usually 4’x8’
or 4’x10’ (ten foot high flats make low angle shots easier). They are made
with 1”x3” lumber and skinned with luan, which is a type of 1/4” plywood
with a very smooth surface. With a coat of primer and a coat of paint, they
can be made to look like just about anything you need: an apartment, an
elevator, or inside a space station.

Figure 8.5. Typical set built with 4x8 and 2x8 flats. Set braces and strongbacks keep it
stable. In includes a door flat and a window flat. Above the window flat is a plug — a
small piece to fill the gap.

Joining them together has to be done carefully, so there is no visible joint

or gap between them. You will need someone in back of the flats and
someone in front to make sure the two surfaces are level with each other. Do
it first with clamps, then when everything is set, you can use screws to
secure them. If you can’t get them perfectly level, a good trick is to put paper
tape over the joint and paint that. You can use spackle to smooth it out, but
that makes it more difficult to reuse the flats. Once a wall is built, a
strongback (sometimes called hog troughs) is run across the whole wall and
screwed in. A strongback is just two pieces of 1”x3” screwed and glued
together at right angles. Set braces are also needed to keep the whole thing
from falling over.
Besides the 4x flats, you might need some 1’ or 2’ wide flats to get the
right layout of your set. You might also need window flats and door flats.
Windows don’t always need to have glass in them, especially if they are
behind blinds or curtains. Whether or not you need real windows will be
determined by the script and the director’s preference. Some trim around the
outside and some small strips of wood in the middle will completely sell the
idea that it’s a real window. It’s all pretty simple and only very basic
carpentry skills are needed.

WILD WALLS

Especially if you are building a four wall set that is enclosed, you might
want to have some wild walls. These are just parts of the set that can be
quickly removed by taking out a couple of screws. For smaller sets, wild
walls are essential for getting all the camera angles you need. They might
also be important for lighting, laying dolly tracks, etc.

SMILEX

If your windows don’t have shade or curtains, you’ll need something

outside. Drops are painted canvas or transparent mylar with a scene painted
on them: sky, cityscape, forest — just about anything you would want. They
are, however, not cheap to rent. A more economical option is smilex, which
is a film term for plants and vegetation. Part of this might be a branchaloris,
which is a branch cut from a tree and suspended from a C-stand or the
ceiling. If it’s a night scene, you might be able to keep the curtains from
looking “dead” by hanging Christmas lights or twinkle lights outside the
window, (which is covered by a thin, translucent curtain), obviously for city
scenes only. For less urban scenes, the gaffer can shoot a light though the
branches or smilex, simulating either sunlight or moonlight. In either case,
you might want to add a fan to make them move gently. It has to be a very
quiet fan, otherwise it will be picked up on the audio.
Slating and Scripty
Scripty

The script supervisor (also called continuity supervisor) is a department of

one. They have a very important job; many people think that the scripty (as
the position is often called) just keeps script notes but actually the job is a lot
bigger than that. It will help if we think of it in terms of who uses the notes
that scripty produces. They have several functions:

Reference notes so that continuity can be maintained within a scene

or across several scenes, especially if they are being shot on different
days (Figure 8.4). This is particularly important for wardrobe: if an
actor has blood on their shirt in scene 27 and appears in the same
shirt in scene 31 (which might not be shot till weeks later), it’s up to
scripty to remind everyone that not only is there blood on the shirt,
but also where the stain is and also whether it would have dried by
then. To do that, they need to keep track of the story timeline; in
other words, scripty should be able to tell anyone who asks whether
scene 31 occurs a few minutes after scene 27 or if it happens a week
later in the story. To do this, some script supervisors prepare a report
before shooting begins which briefly outlines the story timeline.
Notes and a lined script (Figure 9.1) for the editor which indicate
which parts of the scene a particular shot covers. Post-production
will rely on these notes along with the camera notes, to find the
footage they need and get it into the right order.
An end of day report for the producers that lets them know what
scenes were shot, what time the shoot day started and ended and
most importantly, how many pages were shot. The number of script
pages that have been completed is the primary measure of whether
the production is on schedule or not. How many setups were shot
also indicates how efficiently the shoot is being run. Big-budget
productions might only shoot part of a page a day, because they have
the luxury of a long schedule. Low-budget productions that have
 short schedules need to shoot many more setups per day; maybe 25
or more, in order to stay on schedule.

Scripty will almost always sit near the director and usually looks at the same
monitor(s). They usually have a stopwatch in hand to time the shots
(important for estimating how much screen time has been shot during the
day). They will also be making lines in the script along with notes about
continuity. The script notes shown here are generated using computer script
supervisor software but they will give you an idea of how they appear even
if done by hand. So, what’s the difference between how many pages were
shot and how much screen time was shot? An action scene might be just
1/8th of a page (scripts are always marked by the AD in 1/8ths of a page).
A minor function of scripty is to help actors if they occasionally have a
little trouble remembering the lines. It’s important to not jump in unless it’s
really important (such as if the actor says “Janice is the real killer,” if in fact
the script says it was James) or if the actor asks for it — many times the
actors will deviate from the script but that may or may not be OK with the
director; often the actors will come up with an even better interpretation of
the intent of the scene.
Same thing applies to continuity. Some script supervisors are fanatical
about always sticking to the strict traditional rules of continuity. They can
sometimes make a real pest of themselves to the director and DP — some
judgment and diplomacy is called for. Yes, continuity is important, but there
is such a thing as too much continuity in some cases — it’s an art form after
all, not a computer game.

LINING A SCRIPT

Wiggly lines indicate action that is off-camera — not in the shot.

Draw the lines left to right in shooting order.
Red is the standard color used for a lined script.
 Sometimes different colors are used to indicate different shots, i.e.
blue ink for single shots, green ink for cutaways, etc.
A horizontal line indicates the end of the take.
If a shot continues to another page an arrow is placed below the line
and continues onto the next page.
Lined scripts are also called Marked Up Scripts or MUS.

A Sample Lined Script

The arrows indicate which takes cover which parts of the scene. A straight
line means the dialog is shown on camera, a wiggly line means the dialog is
off-screen. The arrow means it continues on the next page; a horizontal line
means that is the end of the take. Numbers have been added to the lines of
dialog for later reference in the script notes. This one is computer generated,
but traditionally script supervisors do this by hand with different colored
pens.
 Figure 9.1.
A sample lined script. The original uses several coded colors, which we can’t
show here. The color version is on the website. (Courtesy Jonathan Barbato, digital script
supervisor).

Sample Script Notes

 Figure 9.2.
Sample script notes by Jonathan Barbato.

Script Notes Key

Figure 9.3.
Standard script note color codes and abbreviations.

End of Day Report

Figure 9.4.
An End of Day report. Courtesy Jonathan Barbato.

Anatomy of a Slate
 Figure 9.5. This slate is for an MOS shot (no audio is being recorded). It is noted in the
lower right hand corner, but more importantly the clapper sticks are not used and the
assistant’s fingers are held between the sticks to make it obvious to the editor that there
is no audio recorder for this shot.

Let’s take a look at what goes on the slate.

Production: The title of the production.

Roll: The roll that you’re currently shooting on. In digital, it’s what
memory card you’re using.
Scene: The scene number.
Take: The current take number of the shot.
Director: Name of the director.
Camera: Name of the director of photography. Be sure to spell it
correctly if you want to keep the job!
Date: The month, day, and year of the shoot.
Day or night/interior or exterior/MOS or sync sound.
With a digital slate, sometimes called a smart slate (Figure 9.6), there will
also be timecode, which might be jammed from the audio recorder or might
be time of day timecode. Smart phones and iPads have many slating apps
available. Other data might include:

Unit: A Unit, B Unit, EFX Unit, etc.

Camera A, B, C, etc. With multiple cameras, it is common practice to
individually slate each camera with just the information on the
board, and then do common sticks — the same clapper which must be
visible to all cameras.

Most assistants treat every memory card as a new roll number every time it
is reformatted. This makes sense as it is really “new” media when it is
formatted and this is how it will appear in the computer files as they are
downloaded to send to the editor.

Figure 9.6. A timecode slate on an iPhone app, Movie*Slate.

SLATE NUMBERS FOR COVERAGE

When shooting with the Master Scene method, there are going to be several
very different shots: the master, the over-the-shoulder, the close-ups, and so
on. These are all part of the same scene which has only one number in the
script. How do we handle this? Just add a letter after the scene number to
indicate coverage. For example, the master is just scene 27. For the coverage
of the scene, letters are added for each setup (any time the shot changes).

First over-the-shoulder: 27A

Clean single: 27B
Close-up: 27C and so on.

If you get to 27Z (and yes, it does happen), you start over with “AA.” If you
get to 27ZZ, you might want to consider that you are maybe over-shooting
the scene! Remember from the chapter on scriptwriting that new added
scenes in the script have a letter in front, so you might be slating “A27A” or
“A27C.”

“PU” DOESN’T MEAN IT STINKS

Usually, when doing a shot, you start from the beginning of a scene. For
instance, an actor might have a long speech and they do it several times with
the first part being perfect, but they mess up the second part again and
again. The director might say to the actor “Let’s pick it up from your line ‘…
and furthermore.’” This is called a pickup. It is listed as PU on the slate. This
is to help the editor, who might end up looking for the rest of the take.
A pickup can be any type of shot, master or coverage, where you are
starting in the middle of the scene (different from previous takes where you
started at the beginning as it is written in the script). You can pick it up only
if you are sure you have coverage to cut to along the way.
Another use of the term is a pickup day. This is one or several days of
shooting after the film is already in editing. The director and editor may
realize that there are just a few shots here and there that they absolutely
must have in order to make a good edit.

TAKES AND SERIES

Take numbers are easy: every time the camera cuts, it is a new take, even if
you didn’t complete the scene. The only time it is not a new take is if you
roll the camera but it cuts before the slate is shot. Once the slate is shot,
even if the actor only says the first few words and the director cuts, that is a
blown take (or false take) and it needs a new take number. Sometimes
(especially for very short shots), the director might want to do a number of
takes without cutting the camera. This is slated as series.

Clapboards
Old-fashioned clapboards were black: they were designed to be written on
with chalk. Now slates are white plastic and you write on them with an
erasable marker. Be sure to use an erasable marker — a permanent marker
can cause problems. If you do happen to make a mistake and use a
permanent marker (like a Sharpie) you can save it: go over the marks with
an erasable marker and wipe it off; this usually will save the board. If that
doesn’t help, sometimes Goof Off (a paint remover) will do it. Do NOT use
acetone.

THE MOUSE

A mouse? Traditionally, it was a powder puff (obtained from the makeup

department) taped to the back end of the erasable marker. Nowadays, there
are special erasers that can be slipped onto the marker.

TIMECODE SLATES

Even better is a timecode slate. These slates have spaces to write the
important information but they also have an LED display that shows the
timecode of the video or audio. How does it know the timecode that is on
the video camera or the audio recorder? You have to jam it. Jamming the
slate is something the second AC and sound recordist will do at the start of
the day and a few times throughout the day, as necessary.
Jamming is done by attaching the timecode slate by a wire to the video
camera or the audio recorder. The slate can then stay in sync for several
hours before it needs to be re-jammed. A smart slate can sense when it
needs to be jammed and it will say “FEED ME” on the display. Whether you
take the timecode from the audio recorder or the video camera is a matter of
choice between the sound recordist and DP — ultimately it is up to the
editor, who is the one who will have to make sense of it later. See the chapter
Audio for more on this.

PLAYBACK TIMECODE ON MUSIC VIDEOS

On music videos, the timecode comes from the playback audio — which is
the song recorded on tape with timecode added. The singer lip syncs to this
playback audio and the timecode makes it possible to synchronize the video
or film to the song later on.

A VERY COOL TRICK

Here’s a very cool trick: instead of renting a timecode slate, you put the song
into editing software along with blank video. You then display timecode on
the blank video — most editing software can add this visible or “burned in”
timecode. You then transfer this video onto an iPod, iPhone or even a laptop.
Instant timecode slate!
Be sure it is close enough to be readable on the final video and be sure it
is in focus so the editor can clearly see the numbers.

USE THE RIGHT MARKER

Slates used to be done with chalk, which was easy to erase. Now they are
almost universally made of translucent Plexiglas and an erasable marker is
used. Traditionally, a powder puff from the makeup department was taped to
the end of the marker as an eraser — this was called a mouse. Nowadays,
very handy little erasers are available to slip onto the end of a marker.
Sometimes a PA might accidently use a permanent marker (such as a
Sharpie) on the slate. Don’t panic, it can be removed. Write over it with an
erasable marker and then wipe it off. It works great! Also, be careful, some
types of erasable markers are not really very erasable at all. Test a few types
before you buy them. Camera assistants have definite preferences for the
types that erase completely and don’t mess up the slate board. They can also
be cleaned with Goof Off. Do not use acetone, it will ruin the surface of the
slate.

SCENE NUMBERS

Scene numbering is an important part of keeping track of things. It all starts

with the script. Once a script is “locked” (a final shooting version is decided
on), the AD divides it up into scenes and numbers them. These days, it is
often done by the writer in the script-writing software, which makes it a lot
easier. What is a scene? In other words, when does one scene end and
another one begin? Several factors can determine this:

Any time the location changes. This might be as simple as something

like the characters being in the kitchen and then stepping out onto
the patio.
Change in time. It might be the same actors in the same room but
they are talking during the day and then we seem them continuing
the conversation at night.
Major change in makeup or wardrobe. For example, if the actor
needs to “transform” into a vampire, which might require hours of
makeup.
So why do changes necessitate a new scene number? You have to think of a
script as much more than just “what the actors say.” It is really a production
document, like the blueprints of a building. The actors and director are going
to read the script, but so is everyone else on the production. Everyone
working on the film will make notes, create order lists, send memos and
read the schedule based on the scene numbers. The editor will also follow
the lined script during the editing process; along with the script notes.

Figure 9.7. Bad slating — moving the slate while clapping the sticks makes it unreadable
by the editor and thus useless. Anything that makes the slate unreadable, such as being
in the dark or glare, is a problem and is going to make the editor’s job more difficult.

The DP is going to read it to get ideas about the lighting, which means she
might need different lights or even a different camera (like a highspeed
camera) for certain scenes. The gaffer is going to use the script to decide
what electrical equipment needs to be ordered for each scene. Same with the
props department and art director — all their work is based on certain scene
numbers: “we’ll need a sofa for scene 25 and some champagne glasses for
scene 54.”
 All of which means that it is important that the scene numbers in the
scripts they receive never change. If a new scene was inserted and all of a
sudden scene 25 becomes scene 26, that would be extremely confusing for
everyone. New scenes get added to scripts all the time, sometimes scenes are
deleted too. How do we make sure the existing scene numbers don’t change?
If a new scene is added after scene 25, it doesn’t become scene 26; instead it
is called A25. If another one is added, it is called B25, and so on. Deleted
scenes are kept in the script but written as “Scene 55 — scene deleted.”

SLATE LIKE A PRO

Slating is important and doing it right is something you should learn. The
basic rules:

Make sure the slate is well lit enough to be readable. Use a flashlight
if necessary.
Be sure it’s in focus — a slate that can’t be read is useless.
If you are recording separate audio (in addition to audio recorded on
the camera) you will need to slap the clapsticks.
If no separate audio is being recorded, hold your fingers between the
clapsticks. Also be sure to circle MOS that is on the slate. This is so
the editor won’t waste time looking for audio tracks that don’t exist.
Don’t put the slate in until everyone is ready to shoot, or better,
when the camera operator says “Slate in.” This is because people are
looking at the image for focus, composition, makeup and so on —
don’t block their view.
Be standing by, ready to stick the slate in quickly.
When the operator says “Slate” or “Stick it,” say the information
“Scene 27, take one.” Then say “Marker” and bring the sticks down
sharply.
After you say the scene name on the first take, no need to say it
again, just say “Take two,” “Take three,” etc.
 If you are close to the actor’s face, don’t do the sticks too loud.
Instead say “Soft sticks” and slap the sticks with not too much force.
Make sure the slate isn’t moving when you slate or it will be blurred
(Figure 9.7). However, once you have slated, get the sticks out as
quickly as possible. Don’t take your time walking out — get out
quickly, then settle so you’re not making noise.
If you are using a timecode slate, you will need to jam the timecode
a few times a day. This is done by the sound recordist, as the
reference timecode is generated by the audio recorder.

TAIL SLATES

Sometimes it is difficult to slate at the beginning of a shot or occasionally it

just gets missed. In these cases, a tail slate is done at the end of the scene
(Figure 9.8). Try to avoid them, as whoever is syncing up the audio is now
going to have to find the end of the shot, read the information and the sync
clapper, and then go back to the beginning. However, if you do a tail slate,
three things are important:

Hold the slate upside down.

Say “tail slate” and then the other verbal slates (such as “scene 27A”).
Quickly turn the slate right side up so it is readable by the editor.
Make a note of it in the camera report and script notes.
 Figure 9.8.
An MOS tail slate. The slate is held upside down to show the editor it is a tail
slate. After doing this, quickly turn it right side up so the editor can read it without
standing on their head.

BUMPING A SLATE

In the film days, it was common to bump a slate. This was just shooting the
slate information before the shot was ready — this might make sense for an
MOS shot where the clapper is not important, for example. This also worked
when shooting video with a tape-based camera, but those are now extinct.
With file-based cameras (video cameras that record to flash memory or a
hard drive), bumping slates doesn’t work. Why not? Because in this system,
every time you roll the camera, that is a separate computer file.

RESHOOTS

If a scene needs to be reshot, it will still have the same scene number in the
script. To avoid confusion, it is common practice to put an “R” in front of the
scene number. Without this, the editor could become very confused about
which take to use.

VFX PLATES AND ROOM TONE

If you have greenscreen shots in your production, there will be two parts of
the scene: the foreground plate (the part you shoot in front of the green
screen) and the background plate (the stuff you shoot that will appear
behind the actors when you use it to replace the green screen). These need to
be slated as Plate, Background, or VFX Plate. Obviously you need to include
the scene number, otherwise the editor may have no idea what the shot is to
be used for. The other information stays the same. The same idea applies to
room tone. When it is recorded only on separate audio, it is just verbally
slated and entered in the sound notes, but if the video camera is used to
record room tone, it needs a visual slate so that post can figure out why this
shot of nothing even exists.
Audio Basics

Double System vs. Single System Sound

Figure 10.1.
Three types of microphones. From top, a shotgun mic, a short shotgun mic
and a dynamic omnidirectional microphone.

Most digital cameras can record audio; however, only the higher end
cameras will have professional audio inputs, which are XLR plugs in most
cases (Figure 10.2). We’ll talk about connectors in a bit, but for now it’s
important to know that XLR inputs are usually essential to getting the best
audio. If you are recording directly into the camera, this is called single
system sound.
 Figure 10.2.
An adapter from male XLR to 3.5mm (1/8”) TRS plug.

All professional audio is recorded as double system sound, which means

there is a separate recorder. Frequently, we record the audio onto a separate
recorder but also feed the signal to the camera; this makes it much easier to
synchronize the audio to video in post-production. If recording into the
camera is your only option, then make sure you do the best you can with
microphone choice, microphone placement, and keeping the set quiet.
Whatever setup you use, test it before your shoot day!

LOCK IT UP!

One of the most important aspects of good audio is to not get any
extraneous talk or noise that is not part of the scene on the audio recording.
It’s why we “lock up” the set and silence everyone and everything that
might create noise during shooting.

WHY WE NEED CLEAN DIALOG

Frequently on location there are extraneous noises that we just can’t get rid
of; things like traffic, for example. For things like honking horns, helicopters
and other background noise, some beginners get fed up with waiting for
them to go away and try to convince themselves that “it’s natural sound, it
fits the scene.”

Sorry, it doesn’t work that way. Ironically, it frequently happens that crews
go to a great deal of trouble to get rid of these kinds of sounds only to have
the sound editor add them back in later to make the scene sound natural for
that environment. It they are needed in the scene, why not just leave them
in to begin with? First of all, sounds recorded on location are mixed in with
the dialog, which means that you have no control over them later on. You
can’t dial the volume up or down on that background noise, move them to
another track or anything else. Another issue is matching and continuity: if
you shoot one side of the conversation and it has lots of traffic noise and
then you shoot the other actor with the camera pointing in another direction
and these close-ups have little or no traffic noise, the mismatch will be very
noticeable and jarring in the final edit. The bottom line: get clean dialog
with as little background noise as possible — always!

WHY WE DON’T LET DIALOG OVERLAP

If two actors are talking at the same time, it can make it extremely difficult
for the audio editor. We generally ask the actors to not overlap their dialog.
Of course, some great classic films such as those by Howard Hawks made
overlapping dialog a feature, but it’s very dangerous — proceed cautiously.
It’s always best to avoid overlapping dialog.

Sound Recordist Team

 Figure 10.3.
The pickup patterns of three types of microphones.

The person in charge of audio is the Sound Recordist, also called the Mixer.
The equipment on the sound cart can be surprisingly technical and
sophisticated at the pro level or might be something as simple as a handheld
digital recorder or even an iPhone at the student level. There are three levels
of audio recording:

Recording directly into the camera. A separate microphone is needed

if you want to have any chance at all of getting good audio. It can be
a mic on a boom (so it can get as close as possible to the actors) or a
lavalier lapel mic (wired or wireless).
Separate microphone which goes to a mixer and then is sent back to
the camera.
Audio from the mics is sent to a mixer and then recorded on an
external recorder. This is called double system sound.

BOOM OPERATOR

The sound recordist may work alone, but ideally there should be a separate
Boom Operator. Working the boom is a real art form in itself and takes a
good deal of practice to get it right. On larger productions, there might also
be a cable puller, which is also known as audio utility. In some cases, there
might be more than one boom operator for complex scenes.

Microphones
There are many different types of microphones, cardioid, dynamic, super-
cardioid, etc. For basic filmmaking you really don’t need to know the
technical details of all those, but there are some important things you need
to know about mics. First, there is how directional the mic is and the second
is whether or not it needs phantom power.

MIC ON THE CAMERA? NO!

It’s tempting to just mount a microphone on the camera and be done with it.
Sometimes this is the only practical way if you’re working alone, but it is
almost never a good idea. It means that the mic will not get close to the
actors most of the time, and getting the mic close to the actor is how we get
the best audio. As for using the mics that are built in to most DSLR cameras
— don’t even think about it; your audio will be terrible.

DIRECTIONAL MICS

Some microphones are omnidirectional, meaning that they pick up sound

from every direction around them. Other mics are a little bit directional,
meaning that they are much more sensitive to sound coming toward the
front of the mic than anywhere else. When we’re shooting video we’re
almost always looking for a mic to be directional, since the sounds coming
from off the set are things we don’t want to record; in fact we very much
want to exclude those off-the-set sounds.
SHOTGUN MICS

Some mics are very directional; these are called shotgun mics. You can think
of microphones like lenses: some are wide angle and some are like long focal
length telephoto lenses — they only “see” a very narrow area in front of
them. Generally, they fall into the categories of short shotgun and long
shotgun. Long shotgun mics have a very narrow angle of acceptance, just
like a very long lens on the camera.

THE SHOTGUN RULE

When selecting a mic for a shot, the general rule is: The wider the shot, the
longer the mic you want. The reason for this is simple — if it’s a big wide
shot, then you won’t be able to get the mic very close to the actors at all so
you need a long shotgun mic. If the shot is a closeup of an actor, then you
will be able to get the mic very close to them and a wider mic is appropriate.
You also need to be careful with shotgun mics; keep in mind that they will
not only hear what the actor is saying, they will also pick up anything that is
coming from behind the actor and make it more prominent, just the way a
long lens would do with background objects. What is coming from behind
the actor might be extraneous noise like a fan, but it also might be a
reflection, such as a hard surface wall or glass in a window, both of which
will reflect sounds from elsewhere. The longer the mic, the more it will
emphasize echo in a room, so you need to think about this when you’re
aiming the mic.

MIC MOUNTS

If a microphone is hard mounted to anything — the boom pole, the camera, a

desk, there will inevitably be movement noise. To prevent this, special
floating mounts are used on the boom pole; they use devices such as rubber
bands to suspend the microphone and isolate it from any movement noise
(Figure 10.4).

Figure 10.4.
Two microphone shock mounts. They are designed to isolate the mic from
knocks and vibrations that would record as audio.

 Figure 10.5.
A foam cover (left) and a fuzzy (right) on two short shotgun mics.

WIRELESS LAVS

You’ve seen wireless microphones at concerts, on the set we use a different

type: lavalieres or lavs. They are usually attached or concealed in the actor’s
clothing, close to and point at their neck and mouth. They can create
remarkably good audio that greatly eliminates outside noise. The
disadvantages are that they can sometimes pick up outside radio interference
and also that they can rub up against the actor’s clothing and create a loud,
raspy sound which spoils the dialog. For this reason, concealing a lav mic in
an actor’s clothing is a real art form when pro sound people do it. Just think
it through carefully and experiment with good placements for the mics some
time before you start shooting. Even in the best circumstances, lav mics can
be a problem so the best practice is to always have a separate mic on a boom
also recording the actor’s dialog. Actors sometimes change volume
unexpectedly; one solution is to record the boom mic and wireless on
separate tracks, with one track at 6dB lower than the other to protect against
sudden loud sounds.

Figure 10.6. XLR inputs and cables. XLR connectors are the standard for professional
audio equipment.

PHANTOM POWER

Dynamic mics can just be plugged in to the camera, to a mixer or a separate

recorder. Condenser mics, on the other hand, require external power; usually
+48 volts DC. This is called phantom power. Some cameras have phantom
power available through the microphone inputs. It can usually be turned on
or off. Mixers and some external recorders can also supply phantom power.
Sometimes they will have a switch marked “48V Phantom” or something
similar. In some cases, it will be in the menus.

MIC VS. LINE INPUT

A microphone-level signal describes the voltage generated by a microphone

when it picks up sound, typically just a few thousandths of a volt.
Microphone level is very weak and requires a pre-amplifier to bring it up to
line level. A line-level signal is about one volt, or about 1,000 times as strong
as a mic-level signal. The two signal types do not ordinarily use the same
input.

Audio Basics
There are a few fundamental principles that you need to know in order to
get good audio for your production.

RULE #1

There is one rule that matters more than anything else in recording audio.
It’s a very simple rule: get the microphone as close as possible to the actor’s
mouth! In professional situations you will generally see that the microphone
is just inches outside the camera frame. You are always going to get the best
audio if the mic is as close as it can get. Having a high quality shotgun mic
does allow you to get usable audio from farther away, but it will never be as
good as what you would get with a mic very close (Figure 10.7). This is why
having a shotgun mic mounted on the camera is the laziest way to record
audio — not only is it farther away than it needs to be, but it is also right on
the camera and may pick up all sorts of extraneous camera and operator
noises. Having a mic mounted on the camera may be necessary in some
situations, but you should avoid it whenever possible.
 Figure 10.7. A boom operator at work. It’s important to get the boom mic as close to the
actor’s mouth as possible without getting into frame.

RULE #2

Always record audio, even if you’re sure you won’t need it. In filmmaking,
you never know. There are even instances where you will end up using the
audio for another scene or in a different movie. Always roll sound, even if
it’s just audio on the camera.

SCRATCH TRACK

If there’s no way around it and you have to anticipate doing looping, you
should always record scratch track anyway. Scratch track (also called guide
track) is audio that you know won’t be usable but at least it will serve as a
guide for ADR or other uses. It’s a good practice to always record audio,
even if you know it’s an MOS scene (mit out sound).

WILD TRACK
Wild track is a variation of scratch track. It is audio that is recorded without
any video. It might be sound effects, such as a telephone ring or it might be
actor’s dialog such as a missed line or a replacement line, such as “I’ve had it
with these monkey-fighting snakes on this Monday-to-Friday airplane!”
Voice-overs are also a type of wild track. They might be recorded on the set
(or in a quiet room near the set) but preferably in an audio booth.

FOLEY

One reason to record wild track sound effects while you’re on the set is to
minimize the need for foley sounds later on. Foley is sound effects such as
footsteps, punches, glass crashing, etc. that are added later on.

Figure 10.8.
A Rode shotgun mic and its blimp. Note that the blimp has a handle, in case
the situation doesn’t call for a boom. Handles like this always have a screw receptor for
a boom mount. (Courtesy Rode Microphones).

ROOM TONE

One example of wild track is room tone, which is just the sound of the room
or set you are shooting on, without any dialog or extraneous sounds. You
should always record room tone for every location you shoot at! Record at
least 15 seconds of room tone. It is used by the editor to fill in blanks in the
audio so that the background ambient noise matches from shot to shot. It’s
easy to forget. Not getting room tone is one of the biggest mistakes a
filmmakers can make. Don’t do it!

ADR IS EXPENSIVE

When it is difficult to get good audio or when you have been waiting ten
minutes for the airplanes to clear so you can shoot, it is all too easy to give
up and say “We’ll ADR it.” ADR stands for Automatic Dialog Replacement
(also called looping). This is where the actors are called back after production
has wrapped and go into a recording studio to repeat their lines in sync with
the pictures — it is very expensive and never quite as good as the original
dialog in terms of matching the actor’s lip movements.

HEADPHONES

Headphones are important for the audio team; they need them to give good
clear, neutral reproduction of the sound that is coming in from the
microphones but they serve an additional function as well — as much as
possible they should shut out the ambient sound so that the recordist can
focus on what is actually being recorded. The boom operator needs
headphones as well and this will be a feed that comes from the mixer.

HEADPHONES FOR THE DIRECTOR

It has become customary for the director to have headphones as well so that
they can clearly hear the actors even if they are speaking very softly. They
are fed from the mixer so it’s up to the sound dept. to provide these for the
director. The script supervisor will also need them so that he can clearly hear
the actors. Most often, these headphones will be wireless, but wired is OK if
you can’t afford wireless. Also, keep in mind that a lot of great movies got
made before directors had headphones.

Get room tone at every location and set you shoot at.

BOOM OPERATING

Microphones are almost always mounted on a boom — which looks like a

fishing pole and telescopes from short to long. The best ones are carbon fibre
and super lightweight, but also very expensive. If you’re doing sound all the
time, it’s worth the investment.

GET IT CLOSE

Since the purpose of the boom is to get the microphone into the best position
for good audio, it’s up to the boom operator to find the best positions to get
the mic as close as possible to the actor who is speaking. They will also need
to cue the mic (turn the boom slightly) as different actors speak.

KNOW YOUR LENSES

Experienced boom operators ask the camera operator what lens is being
used for the shot: if it’s a long lens, they know they can get close to the
actor, if it’s a wide lens, they know they have to leave more room.

GET FRAME LINES

The biggest mistake for a boom operator to make is to let the microphone
dip into frame. It ruins the take and forces everyone to start over again. It
takes practice but the main way to avoid it is to get a frame line. This is done
with the camera operator — they look into the viewfinder and tell you when
you are “in frame.” Once you have the frame line, try to find a reference
point: the top of a window frame, a picture on the wall — anything to help
you hit that mark again and again.

Figure 10.9. A Zoom F4 combination field mixer/recorder. “Field” meaning that it is

battery powered. Always be sure you have plenty of extra batteries for all your audio
gear. This unit has XLR inputs for microphones which can also accept a line input. A
typical line input might be audio from an MP4 player or a music amplifier. On this
particular unit, whether it provides phantom power or not is selected in the operations
menu.

MAKE SURE IT’S POINTED IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION

You’ll know you’re watching a student film crew at work if the boom
operator is holding the microphone far away from the actors even though
the frame is tight and if they are not even aiming the mic at the actor’s
mouth.
Beware of “Straight On”

If you point a microphone straight and level at an actor, it might be good for
getting their dialog, but it also might pick up any noise that’s going on
behind them — distant traffic, kids playing or even echoes off a hard surface
wall. This is another reason why a mic mounted on the camera is such a
terrible idea.

DEAD RATS AND BLIMPS — WIND NOISE

A big problem when recording outside is wind noise, which is created by the
air rushing past the grill on the front surface of the mic. It can be quite loud
and even with the slightest wind can make your audio completely unusable.
Fortunately, there are some solutions to this problem. The most common
solution is foam cover that slips over the microphone; another one of them is
a fuzzy cover that goes over the microphone (Figure 10.5). These have fake
fur on them which muffles the wind sounds. They can be effective, but for
windier situations, something more is needed. For this, sound mixers use
blimps, which are rigid enclosures (Figure 10.8). On a small production, you
might not be able to afford these, but it’s usually easy to get a foam cover for
any mic.

Mixing Audio
Actors seldom speak in a monotone at the same volume all the time; if they
did we probably wouldn’t think they were very good actors. If their volume
gets too low, it won’t be a good recording because if we raise the level in
post, we will also be raising the audio level of all the background noise, hiss,
echoes and wind sounds. If they speak too loudly, the audio may get
distorted and cause other recording problems. We need a way to instantly
control the recording volume to deal with this. The person who does this is
the key sound person who is also called the mixer — he or she is head of the
audio department.

DO NOT USE AUTOMATIC VOLUME CONTROL

With auto volume control, every time the actor stops speaking the auto
control will think it needs to raise the recording level and there will be
horrible hissing and other problems. Some cameras are worse than others,
but it is something you want to avoid. Most cameras have audio control on
them, but it is very impractical for the camera operator to adjust volume in
the middle of a shot and even more difficult for someone else to reach in and
do it. Having some sort of mixer is important. These are not the same as a DJ
mixer; the ones used in film are generally called field mixers, as they are
most often run on batteries.

TYPES OF MIXERS

Mixers are usually separate from the recorder but not always. The sound
recordist (who is also called the mixer or production sound mixer) needs to
be able to easily manipulate the volume controls for individual channels as
the scene progresses. The mixer itself will also need to have outputs to the
audio recorder and for the headphones worn by the audio recordist, the
boom operator and usually the director, the script supervisor and perhaps
some producer. Figure 10.10 shows a typical cabling diagram for a lav mic
on the actor (wireless) and a boom mic (wired). A more common situation
might be a boom mic and two, three or more lav mics for actors. Plan ahead
and be sure your mixer has enough inputs to accommodate how many mics
you will be using.
 Figure 10.10.
Typical connections for audio recording. Bigger productions always record
audio separately from the camera, but also recording to the camera in addition can make
syncing the audio in post much easier. On smaller shoots, you may not have a mixer
(meaning both the mixing equipment and the person called the mixer) but if you don’t
have these, it is essential to constantly monitor the audio with headphones to make sure
it’s within acceptable limits.

SHOOTING TO PLAYBACK

Say you’re given the job of producing La La Land 8: The Revenge. This
means you will be recording song and dance numbers on location and in a
sound stage. It has long been known that recording the actors actually
singing on the set makes it nearly impossible to get good quality audio. To
remedy this, the songs are recorded to playback. Shooting to playback
means that the sound department has digital files of the actors singing the
songs that were recorded under ideal conditions in a sound studio. The
performers then lip-sync to the playback.
An audio player is wired to powered speakers on the set so the actors can
hear the song and lip-sync along with it. The sound recordist (mixer) still
records the live audio — some of the on-set ambiance of the actors might be
blended into the final mix and there might be dialog before, during or after
the songs; there might also be incidental sounds that need to be captured.
This means that the audio recorder used by the mixer cannot also be used to
do playback — a separate unit will be needed.

The actors will almost always ask for the music and lyrics to be played as
loud as possible, especially on music video shoots, so you will need some
fairly powerful speakers to use on the set — an iPhone without external
speakers won’t cut it. Most often, powered speakers, which have built-in
amplifiers, are the choice for this job. Be sure to alert the gaffer that you will
need AC power for your speakers. If it’s a day exterior shoot, the gaffer may
have been planning on only using reflectors to light the set and not
intending to provide AC power on the set with a generator or other means,
such as asking a local shop if they can plug in a line to run out the door to
your set.

SOUND REPORTS

The sound recordist also keeps the sound report, which is a list of every shot
and where it occurs on the audio tape — usually listed by timecode (Figure
10.13). A sound report is a written form that’s filled out by production’s
sound mixer. The sound reports accompany the film rolls, memory cards or
hard drives of the video and audio shot that day. Some recorders, such as the
Zoom F4 (Figure 10.9) will automatically generate a sound report that can be
downloaded via USB.
Figure 10.11. The traditional clapper slate.

Figure 10.12.
A Zoom H4n recorder mounted to the top of the camera. It has XLR
connectors on the bottom — these same inputs can also accept 1/4” TRS plugs. A small
cable runs from the output on the side of the recorder to the in audio input of the camera
 — this both makes a real-time backup of the audio and also makes synchronization of
picture and sound much easier. (Photo courtesy Zoom, North America)

Figure 10.13.
Movie*Slate 8 is an app that performs nearly all of the features of a
timecode slate.

Syncing

If you are using double system sound (where the audio is recorded on a
device other than the camera), you have to sync (synchronize) the audio and
video. Since the invention of “talkies” in 1929, this was done with a clapper
slate (Figure 10.11). On film and video, it’s easy to see the exact frame where
the sticks come together. The distinct clap sound it makes is clear on the
audio; then it’s usually up to the assistant editor to laboriously go through
each and every take, find the frame where the sticks come together, find the
distinctive “clap” on the audio and match them up. It’s a laborious and slow
process. Plural Eyes is a popular software that does a good job of syncing
audio and video. Final Cut Pro X, DaVinci Resolve, and Premiere Pro also
have syncing capabilities; however all of these applications have some
limitations, especially in more complex cases.
TIMECODE SLATE

A big improvement came with the timecode slate. So what is timecode? You
can see it in Figure 10.13 — it’s hours:minutes:seconds:frames. The beauty of
it is this is that it means every frame of your video and audio has a unique
identifier. This has tremendous utility in post-production; for one thing it
makes syncing audio and video practically automatic. It also helps editors,
sound editors, composers, and special effects creators keep track of
everything throughout the post process.

Of course, timecode doesn’t come from nowhere — it has to be generated.

Professional audio recorders are capable of creating timecode, but they are
very expensive. Separate timecode generators are also very expensive —
until recently. Affordable and easy to use timecode generators are now
available, notably from Tentacle Sync. Small, lightweight and easy to use,
they make timecode available to indie filmmakers. Let’s take a look at using
timecode on the set using the Tentacle Sync E as an example (Figures 10.14
and 10.16).
Figure 10.14. A Tentacle Sync E jamming timecode to the Timecode In BNC connector
on a Zoom F4 recorder. After timecode is jammed, the Tentacle can be disconnected and
used on a camera. For recorders and cameras that don’t have a dedicated timecode in
connector, you can record timecode to one of the audio tracks, as in Figure 10.16.

Figure 10.15.
A Tascam DR60D mounted under a DSLR. A wireless lavalier is plugged in
to channel 2 and a Tentacle Sync E is velcroed to the top of the camera and feeds
timecode into channel 3 of the Tascam.

Figure 10.16.
Timecode from the Tentacle timecode generator shows as a constant signal
on channel 3 of this Tascam recorder. Note also the switches at the bottom to select Line,
Mic, or Mic+Phantom Power.

First of all, you need to set the unit to the timecode you want to use. There
are two ways of using timecode: free run and record run. Free run timecode
is running all the time, even when the camera is not rolling. Most of the
time, we use it as time-of-day timecode — meaning it matches the actual
clock time of where you are shooting. Although it’s not necessary, having
the timecode match the time of day helps identify shots and makes things
easier to keep track of. In the case of the Tentacle, setting the time is done by
Blue-tooth through their iPhone, iPad app, or Android device. Since
smartphones and tables get their time from the internet, it is extremely
accurate. The app also indicates the battery level of each device and whether
or not it is connected.

Once all of your Tentacles are synced to the same timecode, it’s time to jam
it to the audio recorder and all of the cameras (Figure 10.14). Jamming just
means transferring the timecode from the generator to the audio device or
camera. Generally, this is handled by the audio department, as timecode
originates either from their recorder or from a time-code generator that they
supervise. Jamming is always done at the beginning of the shoot day, and
then again after lunch. The reason for this is that even high-end pro
equipment can drift over time, thus throwing sync off by a few frames or
even more. Each time, the audio person will jam sync to the timecode slate
(if there is one), and each of the cameras. The audio recorder is the origin so
it doesn’t need it. With pro equipment this would involve connecting and
disconnecting cables for each device. Since Tentacle works with Bluetooth,
the process is much simplified; however, the devices have to be fairly close
together, but since they are so small and light, this is not a problem.

Pro equipment has dedicated timecode inputs; however, even cameras that
cost up to seven or eight thousand dollars might not have them. Of course
DSLRs and other prosumer cameras that might be in use on indie or student
productions will certainly not have them. So what do we do? In this case,
the Tentacle comes with a short cable that has a 3.5mm TRS connector at
each end. DSLRs and many audio recorders have 3.5mm microphone inputs.
Connecting the generator to the mic input sends timecode as an audio signal
to one of the channels; you will see it as a constant level on the audio
display, you will also hear it as high-pitched noise on that channel. Does this
mean you have lost both audio channels on the camera? No, the Tentacle has
a built-in microphone that transmits location sound to the other channel. Is
it great audio? No, but it doesn’t need to be — it’s what we call scratch
track, which is just audio recorded to be used for sync or other purposes
later on. You should always record scratch track, no matter what your setup.
Figure 10.17. A sound report form filled out each day by the production sound mixer.
Just like with camera reports, it is all about helping the editors find and identify the
material they receive from the set. Record keeping like this is important on any project
bigger than a short film.

The Work of the Editor

Why Do We Edit?

So, when do we need editing? When do we stop using one shot in a scene
and go to another one? There are many different reasons for an edit:
continuity, juxtaposition of two things to make a new, third meaning and so
on. Sometimes we even edit in order to fool the audience; this effect is
frequently used in horror films, thrillers and even comedy. There’s another
reason, which doesn’t really fit into the world of high-minded cinematic
philosophy but it’s still very true: we edit when the audience starts to get
bored with a particular shot.
Editing also helps the audience interpret and understand a scene. Imagine
a scene of five people talking. If we just did a wide shot of all five of them as
they talked on and on, not only would it be boring, but it would be a little
hard to follow — it’s the close-ups, the reaction shots, the over-the-shoulders
that really help us get more involved with the individual characters and
really follow the conversation. Often it is the editing that gives the scene a
point-of-view, a particular take on the material that conveys meaning to the
viewer.

WHAT THE EDITOR DOES

Director Martin Scorsese put it like this: “It’s the editor who orchestrates the
rhythm of the images, and that is the rhythm of the dialogue, and of course
the rhythm of the music. For me, the editor is like a musician, and often a
composer.”

THE DIRECTOR/EDITOR COLLABORATION

The great editor Walter Murch (Apocalypse Now, The Godfather Part II) said
“The director’s method of working with the editor should be very similar to
the way the director works with actors. In general, you don’t give line
readings to actors. It’s similar with editors. With some exceptions, I would
hesitate to tell an editor ‘Take 10 frames off the end of that shot,’ because
how you interpret pace can be different. An editor can think, ‘This shot
looks like it’s on for a long time, but it only looks that way because of things
that happened earlier in the scene, so I’m going to accelerate those earlier
things and that will allow this shot to hold on the screen longer.’”

Film is a dramatic construction in which the characters can be seen to

think at even the subtlest level. This power is enhanced by two
techniques that lie at the foundation of cinema itself: the closeup, which
renders such subtlety visible; and the cut, the sudden switch from one
image to another, which mimics the acrobatic nature of thought itself.
Walter Murch (Apocalypse Now, The English Patient, Cold Mountain, Jarhead)

On the other hand, editor Ann Coates (Lawrence of Arabia, Chaplin) said
“I don’t care if a director tells me to take 10 frames off — because I don’t take
10 frames off. I take off what I think would be appropriate. Most directors
have no idea what 10 frames looks like. If you work with Sidney Lumet, he
knows what 10 frames are. Milos Forman does, too. But most directors,
when they say ‘take 10 frames off,’ they’re just kind of showing off to you.
I’ve learned through the years you just do what you think is right. And
they’ll think that’s great because they’ll never count the frames.” A big part
of editing is diplomacy.

The Six Steps of Editing

You don’t want to just jump in and “start editing.” The editorial process has
some well established stages that are logical in progression. Each step
prepares you and the material for the next stage.

LOGGING

This is the first time the editor sees the film, and since it is shot out of
sequence, it is out of context of the story. The editor views the rushes
(dailies) and looks for fluidity of movement and nuances that will later be
incorporated into the film.

FIRST ASSEMBLY

The editor considers all the visual and audio material collected on the shoot
for each scene and then re-orders it in the way to tell the story best. Editing
on a large project usually commences as soon as the film starts shooting. An
editor will work on the daily footage and assemble scenes for the director to
view. Often at this point the editor and director will decide that additional
footage of key moments is necessary in order to make more editing choices
available during the edit. First assembly is like a sketch of the finished scene.

ROUGH CUT

This is the editor’s first pass at really editing the project. Sometimes the
editor works alone and shows the day’s or week’s work to the director.
Sometimes the editor and director work together, discussing every nuance.
In the rough cut, the scenes are placed in order, and checked for continuity.
This all-important step in the editing process allows for revisions and new
ideas to be tried and tested. Make the edit points between the scenes very
obvious in order to emphasise the ‘roughness’. Failure to do so may result in
the editor committing to an edit before it is ready.
FIRST CUT

The first cut is the rough cut that is accepted by the editor, the director and
the producer. Selection and sequence are basically fixed, although changes
can still be made. Detailed fine cut starts out from its proportions, structures,
rhythms and emphasizes them. Once your first cut is done, it’s a good idea
to step away for a few days so that when you go back, it is with a fresh idea
and clear mind. It goes without saying that there is probably going to be a
second, third, fourth cut and maybe more — it’s all part of the process.

FINE CUT

The fine cut is usually not about the overall structure of the film, but the
details of each and every cut. The fine cut emphasizes and strengthens the
rhythms and structures identified in the first cut. It also hones the little
details, the small editing flourishes that really make the film sing.

FINAL CUT

When the editor, director and producer agree on a fine cut, the sound
designer, music composer and title designer come in to do their work. Sound
effects and music are created and added to the final cut. Who gets the last
say, the final cut, is up to the agreement between director and producers.
Not many directors get to have the absolute last word on the version that
will be shown to the public; that’s usually up to the producer of the film.

You get to contribute so significantly in the editing room because you

shape the movie and the performances, you help the director bring all
the hard work of those who made the film to fruition. You give their
work rhythm and pace, and sometimes adjust the structure to make the
 film work – to make it start to flow up there on the screen. And then
it’s very rewarding after a year’s work to see people react to what
you’ve done in the theater.
Themal Schoonmaker (Goodfellas, Gangs of New York, The Wolf of Wall Street)

What Is an Edit?
Almost every visual story we tell is made up of shots, sometimes a few,
sometimes hundreds or even thousands. Editing is how we put these shots
together so that they make sense and tell our story for us. However, don’t
think of editing as just “Putting them together.” The fact is that the editing
process is an enormously powerful part of the creative process. It has been
said that a movie is “written” three times. One time by the screenplay
author; a second time by the director and a third time by the editor. In many
cases, there can be significant differences between these three versions —
even, on occasion, when the writer, director and editor are the same person!
As the final stage of the creative process of making a film, editing is where it
all comes together. It is also where you finally have to make up your mind
about some of the alternatives you’ve been keeping alive, not sure which
way to go with it. At some point you have to decide, because the final edit
has to be finished at some point.
You can think of the filmmaking process this way: when we shoot on the
set, we are taking “reality” and cutting it up into a lot of different shots and
camera angles. When we edit the film, we are taking this “disassembled”
reality (we can call it deconstructed if you like) and “reconstructing” it. We
can put those pieces back together in any number of different ways — all of
which tell a slightly different story; sometimes a radically different story. We
can change the ending, we can expand or contract time, we can show
different viewpoints on the story — it’s an almost magical power!
 So back to basic definitions: what is an edit? An edit is the simple process
of taking two shots and joining them together in some way. Editing is the
process of arranging our shots in a specific order — usually with the clips
that are trimmed down from original length.

POST-PRODUCTION

Editing is a part of post-production, but “post” is a lot more than just editing
the video. It also includes editing the audio (an important part of the
workflow) and also adding music, sound effects, visual effects, perhaps some
animation or green screen, “sweetening” the audio, and so on. Post can be a
big and complex process, so larger productions often have a post-production
supervisor to oversee and coordinate all parts of the process.

For a writer, it’s a word. For a composer or a musician, it’s a note. For
an editor and a filmmaker, it’s the frames. Two frames added, or two
frames less… it’s the difference between a sour note and a sweet note.
It’s the difference between clunky, clumsy crap, and wonderful rhythm.
Quentin Tarantino (Pulp Fiction, Django Unchained, Once Upon a Time In Hollywood)

CONTINUITY CUTTING

Continuity editing — also called invisible editing or classic editing; it is

essentially the system that exists today. Understanding this system is crucial
to understanding not only for editors, but also for directors, and continuity
supervisors. Other members of the crew will benefit from understanding it
also. It is especially crucial that the Director of Photography knows how it
works, and how to shoot, so that the essential elements are delivered to the
editor.
The continuity is the development and structuring of film segments and
ideas so that the intended meaning is clear, and the transitions employed
connect the film parts. In a more specific meaning, “continuity” refers to the
matching of individual scenic elements from shot to shot so that details and
actions, filmed at different times, will edit together without error. This
process is referred to as continuity editing. To maintain continuity within
sequences, the editor will often cut on character action so that the scene
flows. Lapses in the flow of action can be avoided by transition and cutaway
devices. This system is associated with the following other terms:
Establishing shot — Refers to the shot at the beginning of a scene that shows the viewer where
(and sometimes when) the scene takes place.
Shot/answering shot — After an establishing shot, the shot-reverse shot refers to the close-ups
used when two characters are in conversation. (Because we have already used an establishing
shot, we now know where the characters are in relation to one another.)
Match-on-action — connects two shots cut together by having a character finish an action in the
second shot begun in the first shot. For instance, if a character lights a match in the first shot, the
same character will draw it up to a cigarette in the second.
Eyeline match — The directions that actors look affect the way we perceive their spatial
relationships to one another. Eyeline matches are important for establishing who a character is
talking to or what a character is looking at. For instance, if a character is talking to two people on
either side of him or her, then the character will look to the left of the camera to connote that he or
she is talking to the person in that direction.
The 180-degree rule — The rule that once a spatial relationship has been set with the
establishing shot, no close-up will cross the imaginary line drawn between those two actors until a
new line has been established. See Coverage and Continuity for more on this.

SHOT

Scenes are made up of shots. Each shot is a continuous piece of video — from
when you start the camera until you turn it off (although of course we trim
it down later on).
 My job as an editor is to gently prod the attention of the audience to
look at various parts of the frame. And I do that by manipulating how
and where I cut and what succession of images I work with.
Walter Murch

TAKE

If a shot doesn’t work the first time, the director calls for it to be done again
— every time the camera rolls on a particular shot, that is a take. If the
camera moves to a new location after a take, then it is a new setup, which
means it is also a shot, with a new shot number.

SCENE

A scene consists of continuous action in a single location at the same time. If

the location or time changes, it is a new scene. Scenes are usually (but not
always) made up of a number of shots. It’s one of the reasons the slug line of
every scene includes the location and time of day of the scene. If either of
these change, it’s a new scene. For example, if the action is in the same place
but it’s a different time (such as “Several hours later,”) it’s a new scene.

SEQUENCE

A sequence is a series of scenes that fit together in some way. For example,
there might be “the swimming pool sequence” — more or less continuous
action in a single location.
TRANSITIONS

Most of the time, when one scene ends and another begins, there will be a
straight cut, meaning that one shot ends and another begins, but there are
other ways to move from one scene to another. Films often begin with a fade
in, where the screen is dark and then the shot gradually becomes visible.
Fade out/fade in is also a way to transition between scenes. A dissolve is
another example. In a dissolve, one scene fades out while the next scene
simultaneously fades in.

Seven Elements of Editing

When we edit a project, we are most of the time aiming for basic continuity
— in other words, putting together a story that makes sense and where no
glaring holes or contradictions divert the viewer’s attention. This focus on
continuity began with the screenplay and is of prime importance to the
director and DP when shooting the film and now it is up to the editor to put
the footage together so it makes sense within the realm of continuity. So
what are the elements we are looking for as we edit the footage together?
There are many factors involved, but don’t let them overwhelm you — in the
end most of them are common sense and you’ll know by looking at the
footage what is right and what is wrong.

The essence of cinema is editing.

Francis Ford Coppola (The Godfather Trilogy, Apocalypse Now, The Conversation)

Motivation
Continuity
 Information
Camera angle
Composition
Audio
Continuity of motion

TYPES OF EDITS

Figure 11.1. Perhaps the most famous match cut of all from 2001: A Space Odyssey. The
ape discovers the bone as a weapon, throws it into the air and it cuts to a space station —
the entire evolution of technology in two cuts.

There a number of different types of edits; they include:

Action edit — also called a movement edit or continuity cut. This is

the process of putting the shots together so that the action of the
scene appears to be real time and continuous as if the viewer was
watching a real scene.
Concept edit — a cut or dissolve that puts two images together in a
way that generates a new and different meaning. Two famous
examples of concept edits are the fan that turns into a helicopter at
the beginning of Apocalypse Now.
Screen position edit — In a screen position edit, you draw the
viewer’s eye to a certain part of the screen. When you make the cut,
you place what you want the viewer to see in the same part of the
screen.
Form edit — A form edit is a cut between two similar shapes, such as
a cut from a Ferris wheel to a close-up of someone’s eye.
Combination edit — As you may have noticed, the fan to helicopter
edit and the bone to spaceship mentioned above are both concept
edits and form edits — these are combination edits.
Match Cut — A famous example of match cutting comes from 2001:
A Space Odyssey. The classic cut comes towards the beginning of the
film. After the apes have used a bone as a weapon for gathering food,
an ape throws the bone into the air. As it falls, we match cut to a
space ship carrying nuclear warheads. Both the bone and the ship
are of similar shape and color, and both happen to be moving
towards the bottom of the screen. The cut relates all of technology to
the development of weaponry as it cuts out all of human history.
Montage — A series of shots that are related in some way. Examples
are the training sequence in Rocky that ends with him on the steps of
the Philadelphia library, or the opening sequence of Midnight In
Paris — which is a series of shots of Paris in the rain. Their purpose is
to establish mood and theme.
MOTIVATIONS FOR A CUT

There are a few basic motivations for a cut:

Where there is a change of time or location — a new scene.

Continuity. Where the action is continuous but the scene is
composed of more than one shot — editing maintains continuity.
To keep things moving — looking at one shot for a long time can get
boring.
Pace.
Where there is a need for “punctuation” for impact.

Let’s look at these one at a time. The first is where there is a change of
location or time. We know that this means it is a new scene: these are the
main things the AD looks for as she “lines” the script to break it up into
scenes. If a scene is taking place in a bank and then different characters are
talking in a garage — there is no question but that is a different scene.
Clearly the edit that transitions us from one scene to another has a job to do:
it must make it clear that the location has changed and that a new scene has
started. If the edit doesn’t do these jobs, it will only lead to a very confused
audience.

An editor is successful when the audience enjoys the story and forgets
about the juxtapositions of the shots. If the audience is aware of the
editing, the editor has failed.
Ken Dancyger

The second case is also very interesting: in many cases, we use an edit to
add punctuation, emphasis or impact to a scene. This is where the editor has
the opportunity to really change the tone of the scene in very interesting
ways. That sudden close-up on the killer, the tight insert on the murder
weapon, the cutaway to the gathering storm in the sky — all of these kinds
of edits can dramatically alter the progress of the scene.

FINDING AN EDIT POINT

Like everything in film, every cut should have a reason. Don’t just cut shots
up and throw them together — there should be a reason for every clip or
select and every cut you make: edits should be motivated and help tell the
story. Whenever you put two shots together, you need to find the best edit
point where they fit together.
Especially when you are editing any type of action, there are several
considerations. First of all you need to match the action. For example, if one
of the people talking is raising and lowering his hand to gesture, you will
need to be sure the shots match from one clip to another. If you are just
using clean singles of each actor, it’s not as much of a problem, but let’s say
you are cutting back and forth between a two shot that includes both the
actors and an over-the-shoulder shot that shows the actor who is gesturing.
If his hand is in the air in the over-the-shoulder and you cut to the two shot
and his hand is at his side, the two won’t match — that would be a fairly
serious continuity error.
With bigger kinds of action, it’s pretty easy to see if the continuity is off,
but this kind of action matching is important in subtle ways as well. Since
people often turn their heads in various ways as they are talking, looking or
doing any kind of activity, most editors pay very close attention to head
position. Since it involves the head (the center of attention for most
viewers), it is very important to match the position of the head as you cut
from a wide shot to a medium, for example.

CUT ON ACTION
When editing, and to a certain extent while shooting a scene, we are always
looking for a good cutting point, also called an edit point, as we just
discussed. This is the moment when we can make the smoothest, most
effective cut from one shot to another. Keep in mind that with all edits
(except those at the beginning or end of a scene) we are dealing with two
shots. We need to find the right moment. One of the oldest and most reliable
rules of editing is to cut on action. What do we mean by this? If a character
in the scene does something physical, that’s often a good time to cut. A
classic example is a scene where someone walks into a room and sits down
at a desk.

The reasons for editing while you’re shooting are twofold. One is
simply to save time. If you have a fully edited version of the film two
weeks after the end of shooting, you’ve saved that many months of
assembly. The other is to discover any problems that there might be in
the coverage — or some opportunities that might occur to you once
you’ve put the stuff together, things that might not occur to anyone
else.
Walter Murch

ESTABLISHING THE GEOGRAPHY

The director will usually shoot a wide angle of the character entering the
room and crossing to the desk — this establishes the location and also
establishes the geography of the room, so the audience has a good idea of
where the scene is and where things are within the scene. Once the
character is sitting at the desk, then a wide shot isn’t much good now. We
really want to go to a medium shot or close-up at that point, because at this
point it’s not the whole room we’re interested in, it’s the guy sitting at the
desk that we want to focus on.

Invisible Technique
If we cut from the wide shot to the medium while he’s crossing the room or
after he is sitting at the desk, there’s a very good chance that the cut will be
noticeable, which violates one of the most basic principles of filmmaking —
everything we do should be invisible. This is something that applies not just
to editing, but to cinematography, acting, camera movements and many
other aspects of film — the basic concept is called invisible technique. If the
audience is aware of the artificial nature of anything we do, it takes away
from the basic illusion of cinema — the idea that we are watching real
people doing real things.
So, what’s our best chance of making sure the edit in this scene is invisible
and that the edited scene flows smoothly? Cut on action! In the simple scene
we described above, you’ll find that the cut from wide shot to medium or
close-up will almost always take place as he is sitting down, the most
obvious physical action that comes between things we want to see in wide
shot and the things we want to see closer up.

J AND L CUTS

It is sometimes a temptation to only use shots where the actor is speaking —

this is a mistake. In a dialog scene, editors frequently cut to shots of other
people in the scene reacting to what is being said. If you review clips of
some of the truly memorable lines in films, you will be surprised at how
often we don’t actually see the actor say those immortal words — often the
editor will cut away before the speech is finished or in some cases, not show
the speaker at all.
 There is a very basic reason for this: reaction shots are very important in
filmmaking. Reaction shots are where we show a medium or close-up of the
person listening to what is being said, or in some cases, reacting to what
they see. This is also why we always shoot both sides of the dialog,
including the parts where the actor isn’t speaking — this is to ensure we get
some good reaction footage. Editorially, it is also quite boring to have scene
after scene where we just cut back and forth to the person who is speaking.

JUMP CUTS

A jump cut cuts from a frame in a clip to a later frame in the same clip — or
to a clip that looks very similar. Most times, a jump cut will look like a
mistake, as if a piece of a shot was missing, but it can be used in a stylistic
way, where it can mean one of two things:

Passing time
Repetition over time

HIDDEN CUTS

Matching the two shots perfectly makes an invisible cut. Historically, the
intent of the invisible cut was to hide the transition from the audience.
Alfred Hitchcock used this in his film Rope; the same technique is used in
Birdman and 1917. Film cameras could not capture more than 10 minutes of
video at once, so he had to trick to hide cuts during long scenes. When well
done, an invisible cut gives the impression that the entire scene is a single
shot, increasing the sense of immersion for the audience. Using this
technique, Birdman and 1917 are entire films that look as if they have been
captured in a single take.
Walter Murch’s Rule of Six
In legendary editor Walter Murch’s book In the Blink of an Eye, he talks
about the Rule of Six. “What I’m suggesting is a list of priorities. If you have
to give up something, don’t ever give up emo tion before story. Don’t give
up story before rhythm, don’t give up rhythm before eye-trace, don’t give up
eye-trace before planarity, and don’t give up planarity before spatial
continuity.” The ideal cut is one that satisfies all the following six criteria at
once.

A film is, or should be, more like music than like fiction. It should be a
progression of moods and feelings. The theme, what’s behind the
emotion, the meaning, all that comes later.
Stanley Kubrick

EMOTION

How will this cut affect the audience emotionally at this particular moment
in the film? Telling the emotion of the story is the single most important
part when it comes to editing. When we make a cut we need to consider if
that edit is true to the emotion of the story. Ask yourself does this cut add to
that emotion or subtract from it? It is important to consider if the cut is
distracting the audience from the emotion of the story.
“How do you want the audience to feel? If they are feel ing what you
want them to feel all the way through the film, you’ve done about as much
as you can ever do. What they finally remember is not the editing, not the
camerawork, not the performances, not even the story — it’s how they felt.”
STORY

Does the edit move the story forward in a meaningful way? Each cut you
make needs to advance the story. Don’t let the edit become bogged in
subplot. If the scene isn’t advancing the story, cut it. If the story isn’t
advancing, then it’s confusing or worse — boring your audience.

RHYTHM

Is the cut at a point that makes rhythmic sense? Like music, editing must
have a beat, a rhythm to it. Timing is everything. If the rhythm is off, your
edit will look sloppy, a bad cut can be ‘jarring’ to an audience. Try to keep
the cut tight and interesting.
“Now, in practice, you will find that those top three things on the list are
extremely tightly connected. The forces that bind them together are like the
bonds between the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom. Those
are, by far, the tightest bonds, and the forces connecting the lower three
grow progressively weaker as you go down the list.”

An edit should come just a moment before the viewer expects it. If they
are anticipating the cut, it’s already too late.
Walter Murch

EYE-TRACE

How does the cut affect the location and movement of the audience’s focus
in that particular film? You should always be aware of where in the frame
you want your audience to look, and cut accordingly. Match the movement
from one side of the screen to the other, or for a transition, matching the
frame, shape or symbol. When editing Apocalypse Now, Murch used the
repetition of symbol, from a rotating ceiling fan to helicopters.
Break the screen into four quadrants, and try to keep the movement in
one of those quadrants. For instance, if your character is reaching from the
top left quadrant, and his eyes are focused to the right lower quadrant that is
where your audience’s focus will naturally move after the cut. Remember to
edit on movement and to match the action, keeping the continuity as close
as possible.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL PLACE ON SCREEN

Is the axis followed properly? Make sure your cuts follow the axis (180º
line). This will keep the action along its correct path of motion and maintain
the continuity. For a discussion of the 180° rule, see the chapter Coverage
and Continuity. It’s an important rule!

THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

Is the cut true to established physical and spacial relationships? A great

example of this is Stanley Kubrick’s The Shining: scattered throughout are
reverse-angle wide shots between characters, the freezer door opens from
both sides of the frame (from one cut to the next), even the architecture of
the set makes no sense with doorways to rooms that spatially would be
somewhere mid-air above stairways. The manager’s office (where Jack is
interviewed) has a window with a view to outside despite being located in
the middle of the hotel/set. The point is, stick to the 180º rule, and spatially
your edit will work, unless you really want to mess with your audience’s
minds.
Murch says that above all else emotion is the most vital element, beyond
that the top three (emotion, story and rhythm) should really be at the
forefront of the edit. “If you find you have to sacrifice any one of these six
things to make a cut, sacrifice your way up, item by item, from the bottom.”

ELLIPSIS AND CROSS-CUTTING

An ellipsis in writing is the three dots at the end of an uncompleted

sentence. Like this … In filmmaking, it means that something is left out.
Filmmaking is all about leaving things out. Suppose your story takes place
over a month — you certainly wouldn’t ask the audience to sit in the theater
for a month; of course we have to leave things out. Many young filmmakers
have a hard time doing this — they tend to think that if they don’t show
everything, the audience won’t understand. Here’s an example:
A man gets into a limo in front of the Empire State Building in New York
City. In the next shot, we see the limo door open and he steps out to reveal
that he’s in front of City Hall in Philadelphia. Beginning filmmakers often
feel compelled to see him saying to the driver “Take me to Philadelphia,” and
then have scenes of the limo going over the bridge and driving on the
highway. You can do those scenes if they serve some other purpose, but they
are not necessary to prevent any confusion in the audience. Viewers are
capable of filling in lots of information between scenes and between shots in
scenes. Don’t be afraid to leave things out; the audience is a lot smarter than
you might think.

CROSS-CUTTING

Also called parallel editing, cross-cutting is taking two scenes that occur in
physically different places and cutting back and forth between them. A very
simple example (and one of the earliest uses of this technique) is the
cowboys riding into town. In one scene, we see the bad guys (with black
hats) riding toward the town to shoot up the town. In the other scene, we
see the good guys (with white hats) also riding into town to save the people.
If we just let the scene of the bad guys riding in play out, and then went to
the scene of the good guys coming in, it would be a bit boring — there
would be very little tension. Cutting back and forth between the two groups
of riders adds tension, suspense and a sense of action rising to a climax.
An important point that the director must remember while shooting these
two scenes is that each group of cowboys has to be traveling in a different
screen direction. If the bad guys are riding into town traveling toward screen
left, then it is important that the group of good guys be traveling toward
screen right whenever we see them. If both groups are traveling in the same
direction, it will be confusing for the audience. It might seem like one group
is traveling toward the town and the other group is running away.
Of course, this is an extremely simple use of cross-cutting; a richer and
more complex example is the christening scene from The Godfather: the
main scene is Don Corleone’s niece being christened. At the same time this
is happening we see other scenes in different locations in the city: they are
all scenes of Coreleone’s enemies being assassinated. Set to a soaring aria, it
is grand sweeping drama that is also chilling and horrifying. Each scene
would be fine by itself (although a simple christening scene might be pretty
dull) but it is the cross-cutting between them that turns it into a grand opera
of gangsters.
Safety on the Set
Get Out Alive!

Make no mistake about it, film sets are inherently dangerous places. Not
only should you be very aware of safety issues, you will also find that it is
important to your career. Film professionals don’t want someone around
who ignores safety and puts everyone in danger; producers know that it puts
them in legal liability. You’ll find that in the professional film world, people
take safety procedures seriously, and you want to fit into that culture. On a
movie set, safety is everybody’s business. It’s no joke; this is for real. If
somebody asks you to do something you consider unsafe for yourself or for
others, politely remind them “Hey, it’s only a movie.”

THE PRIME DIRECTIVE

Never run on the set! This one is carved in stone. You don’t do it, no
matter how much of a hurry you are in, or who is yelling at you.
Never stand on top of a ladder.
Don’t operate any equipment if you are not familiar with it, or if you
are not the person who is supposed to be doing it. Don’t be afraid to
say “I don’t know this one,” or to ask for help. People will respect
your honesty and respect the fact that you chose to keep everyone
safe.
Don’t touch anything electrical unless you are one of the
electricians/lighting technicians working on the job.
Never leave anything on top of a ladder. Or anywhere on a ladder.
Ladders are not storage devices.
Know where the fire exits are, and how to direct people toward
them.
Do you have a flashlight on you? You should, even if it’s just one of
those small key-ring flashlights.
Know where the first aid kit is. There should always be a first aid kit
on the set!
 Know where the fire extinguisher is. If there isn’t one, mention it to
the AD.
No open toe shoes, no sandals or flip-flops.
Use safety chains on all lights hung overhead.
Don’t carry dolly track or a light stand horizontally, tilt down so it’s
not aimed right at someone’s face. Call “hot points,” or “free dental
work, coming through.”

ALSO

Consult the call sheet to know where the nearest hospital is, and
what their phone number is.
Learn CPR. It’s a good thing to know. CPR rules have been recently
updated; review them.
Know what to do if someone is being electrocuted.

FIRST AID KIT AND FIRE EXTINGUISHER

Three items should be on every set:

A first aid kit. A real one, not just a couple of band-aids.

A fire extinguisher. For a large set or location, more than one.
The phone number and address of the nearest emergency room.

FIRES, PYRO, AND FIREARMS

Fire is handled by the props department. They can set up fireplaces,

barbecues and other types of basic fire. For campfires, they generally use
propane with hidden feed lines and some type of burner that can be
concealed in the logs. Why not just burn logs? Continuity. The size of the
fire would constantly be changing as you cut from shot to shot. Of course,
they always have several fire extinguishers close by.
Pyro means anything explosive, from large explosions down to squibs,
which are the small charges attached to an actor or object to simulate a
bullet hit. Anything pyro absolutely must be handled by a licensed
pyrotechnician. These are people with a federal license who have passed
extensive testing in the use of explosives.

CRANES AND JIB ARMS

Cranes, especially ones that the camera operator and assistant ride on, must
only be operated by qualified grips. Don’t get on or off of a crane until the
key grip says so — the weight might not be balanced. Don’t get a crane or jib
arm anywhere near a power line.
Getting Started in the Business
Film School?

Yes, film school is a good idea, but it is by no means necessary. Lots of great
filmmakers did not go to film school. On the other hand, lots of great
filmmakers did go to film school. Don’t think of film school as only a way to
learn techniques; the networking is important, as is working with other
students who have much the same aspirations as you. It can also be useful
for figuring out what it is you want to do in filmmaking.

WORKING AS A PA

The classic way of getting started in the movie business (and to continue
learning even if you went to film school) is to work as a PA. We talked about
the duties of a PA in the chapter The AD Team. It can be tough work with
long hours, but it’s a great way to learn, make contacts, and become known
as hardworking and reliable. Of course, all PAs want to work on the set, and
they usually try to stand as close to the camera and the director as they can.
Unless that is your assignment, don’t do it. Crowding the camera is likely to
get you sent away, or even fired. There is plenty to learn elsewhere on the
set, even in the production office. No matter what your job, do it the best
you can; be the first to arrive and the last to leave — that’s how you get
asked back for the next production.

Department PA

Some PAs work in departments: camera, art, grip, etc. If your aim is to work
in any of the crafts, these are excellent assignments, and probably the best
way to get your career started in the crafts. Keep in mind that no matter
how brilliant you are, you’re still going to have to pay the rent while
working on getting financing for your first blockbuster. Being a technician is
a great way to stay involved and make contacts.
 I don’t think there is any one route to directing…. Other than that I
think you just have to think ‘by any means possible’ and take any job
you can that will get you experience. I also did a lot for free. I got paid
virtually nothing for my first film, but it changed my life.
Mary Harron (I Shot Andy Warhol, American Psycho)

Personal Assistant

In film credits, you’ve probably seen “Assistant to the director,” or producer,

or one of the key actors. It can involve anything and everything, and even
more so than any other job on a movie, requires extreme diplomacy, and
sensitivity to personal quirks and demands.

SHOOT A TRAILER

Many people work on getting financing for their first movie by shooting a
trailer. This is not the same kind of trailer as you see in the coming
attractions in a theater. It is a short compilation of scenes from your script. It
acts as your calling card, and shows potential investors what kind of movie
you intend to make, and most of all, showcases your skills as a writer and
director.
The absolute number one mistake people make in putting together a
trailer is being too ambitious. When presented with the reality that “you
have enough money to make ten minutes of mediocre, amateurish footage or
three minutes of absolutely thrilling professional film,” you would be
shocked at how often people choose the former.
MAKE A SHORT FILM, OR EVEN A WHOLE MOVIE

Of course, you don’t need to be shooting scenes from a potential movie — a

short film can serve to demonstrate your skills. Almost always, the film
school thesis film is intended for this purpose. It can work: George Lucas
(Star Wars) got his start by making an absolutely stunning silent film as his
thesis. Electronic Labyrinth: THX 1138 4EB was so amazing that he almost
immediately was offered financing to make it into a feature film (THX 1138)
with Robert Duvall.

BUILD YOUR REEL

For directors, DPs, and editors, it’s important to have a reel — examples of
your work. These days, reels are usually shown online, but you might want
to have a digital file on your iPad or tablet, maybe even a DVD/BluRay also
ready to show. Five minutes is the absolute maximum time.
Don’t show the mediocre stuff, only your best. Edit your reel brutally,
taking out anything that smacks of amateurism. Leaving in that one bad
scene is the most common mistake people make when showing their work.
It’s all about quality, not quantity! Remember, people are only going to
watch the first two or three minutes anyway. There is no point in trying to
impress them with how much work you have done.

WORK AS BACKGROUND/EXTRA

Being a known actor makes it much easier to get a job directing a film.
Getting work as an actor is, as any actor will tell you, not so easy. But you
can much more easily work as an extra or background player. Just keep your
eyes and ears open, and learn what you can.
Terminology
ABOVE THE LINE

Usually refers to that part of a film’s budget that covers the costs associated
with major creative talent: the stars, the director, the producers and writers.

ACTION

The scene description, character movement, and sounds as described in a

screenplay. Sound effects and character names are all caps. For example:
The sounds of TYPING rise above all the rest as Dave sits at the computer writing his essay. He
stops to sigh. Looks at what he’s written. Reaches over to the mouse. Highlights it all. And erases
it.

“Action” is also what the director says to start the scene while shooting.

AERIAL SHOT

Use only when necessary. This suggests a shot be taken from a plane or
helicopter (not a crane). For example, if a scene takes place on a tall building,
you may want to have an aerial shot of the floor the action takes place on.

ANGLE or ANGLE ON

Description of a specific shot within a scene. Use sparingly and only for spec
scripts. Directors don’t pay much attention to specific shots described in the
script.

BEAT
Many scripts will use the parenthetical (beat) to interrupt a line of dialog. A
“beat” suggests the actor should pause a moment, in silence, before
continuing the scene. “Beats” are often interchangeable with ellipses “…”

BELOW-THE-LINE

Everyone and everything who is not “above the line” — this includes the
crew, production staff, assistant directors, effects, stunts, etc.

BEST BOY

For obvious reasons, this term is no longer used. The second grip or second
electrician. Now the term Assistant Chief Lighting Technician is used for the
second electric.

B.G. (BACKGROUND)

Used to describe anything going on behind the main action (the background
as opposed to the main action or attention is focused in the foreground).
Always use this term in lower case initials or written in full (“background”).

CHARACTER

In a screenplay, the name appears in all caps the first time a character is
introduced in the “Action.” The character’s name can then be written
normally, in the action, the rest of the script.

CLOSE ON
CLOSE ON is a shot description that strongly suggests a close-up on some
object, action, or person. Might also be written CLOSE-UP / C.U. or CLOSE
SHOT

CONTINUOUS

Sometimes, instead of DAY or NIGHT at the end of a SLUG LINE/Location

Description, you’ll see CONTINUOUS. Continuous refers to action that
moves from one location to another without any interruptions in time. For
example, in an action movie, the hero may run from the airport terminal
into a parking garage. The sequence may include cuts, but the audience
would perceive the action as a continuous sequence of events from the
terminal to the lobby to the street to the garage to the second floor to a car
etc.

CONTINUITY

Continuity editing is the process of combining related shots into a sequence

so as to maintain consistency of story across both time and physical
location. In other words, it is about taking different shots done at different
times of the day (because it takes time to shoot a scene) and making them
seem like they are continuous action in real time.
Continuity also means making sure the props, wardrobe and other
elements of the scene stay consistent throughout the scene. Acting
continuity means that the actors do the dialog and action more-or-less the
same for every take. Sometimes the director will ask for variations, but
generally the actors must do the scene the same way for every take.

CONTRAZOOM
The Hitchcock zoom, also known as the contra-zoom or the Vertigo effect is
an unsettling in-camera special effect that appears to undermine normal
visual perception in a way that is difficult to describe. This effect was used
by Alfred Hitchcock in his film Vertigo; also in the film Jaws and in
Goodfellas. It rarely appears in a screenplay.

COVERAGE

Getting all the shots you need for editing is called coverage. If you don’t
have proper coverage of a scene, it may not cut together well. It is also about
having enough shots and camera angles to make sure the scene is not
boring. It’s all about giving the editor everything they need to edit the scene
to make it as good as it can be.

CRAWL

This is a term used for superimposed titles or text intended to move

across/up/down/diagonally on screen. For example, the text at the beginning
of Star Wars “crawls” up into infinity.

CROSSFADE

This is like a “Fade to black then Fade to next scene.” In other words, as one
scene fades out, a moment of black interrupts before the next scene fades in.
It is not to be confused with DISSOLVE, since CROSSFADE always involves
a black or blank screen.

CUT TO
The most simple and common transition. Since this transition is implied by a
change of scene, it may be used sparingly to help intensify character changes
and emotional shifts. The transition describes a change of scene over the
course of one frame.

DIALOG

What people are supposed to say according to the script.

DISSOLVE

A common transition. As one scene fades out, the next scene fades into
place. This type of transition is generally used to convey some passage of
time and is very commonly used in montages.

DOLLY

A mechanism on which a camera can be moved around a scene or location.

DSLR

Digital Single Lens Reflexcamera. They are designed as still photography

cameras but many of them are capable of HD and UHD video with excellent
imagery. A mainstay of very low-budget filmmaking.

ESTABLISHING SHOT

A shot, usually from a distance, that shows us where we are. A shot that
suggests location. Often used at the beginning of a film to suggest where the
story takes place. For example, if our story takes place in New York, we
might use a shot of the Manhattan skyline as an establishing shot.

EXT.

Exterior. This scene takes place out of doors. This is mostly for producers to
figure out the probable cost of a film project.

EXTREMELY LONG SHOT (XLS)

Means the camera is placed a very long distance from the subject or action.
Generally, this term would be left out of a screenplay and left to the director
to decide. Use only when necessary.

FADE IN/FADE OUT

Pretty much the same as a dissolve. Starting in black and letting the scene
appear slowly. A fade out starts in the scene and slowly becomes black.

FEATURE

A film (usually narrative) that is at least 85 minutes long although some

features are as short as 70 minutes. A long documentary is sometimes called
a “feature length documentary.”

FLASH CUT

An extremely brief shot, sometimes as short as one frame, which is nearly

subliminal in effect. Also a series of short staccato shots that create a
rhythmic effect.

FLASHBACK

Sometimes used as a transition or at the start of slug line to denote a

sequence that happened in the past. This can be followed by BACK TO
PRESENT DAY if required or the writer can use PRESENT DAY as the time
of day.

FREEZE FRAME

The picture stops moving, becoming a still photograph, and holds for a
period of time.

HINGE OUT

Move where camera pans to follow the actor part of the way as they walk or
drive, then lets them exit frame.

HOT SET

When shooting is not going on but the set needs to stay undisturbed so that
the crew can come back and shoot there again. Nobody should go onto a Hot
Set unless they are working there; nothing must be moved or touched. Hot
Set tape is available to cordon it off and warn everyone.

INSERT
When a writer pictures a certain close-up at a certain moment in the film, he
or she may use an insert shot. This describes a shot of some important detail
in a scene that must be given the camera’s full attention for a moment.
Inserts are mainly used in reference to objects, a clock, or actions, putting a
key in a car’s ignition. For example: if there’s a clock in the room, the writer
might have reason for the audience to get a good glimpse of the clock and as
such would use an insert shot to suggest the director get a closer shot of the
clock at a particular point in the scene.

INT.

Interior. This scene takes place indoors. It is an important part of the slug
line as it helps the director, DP, gaffer, grip and others plan for the shoot.

INTERCUT / INTERCUTTING

Some scripts may use the term INTERCUT: as a transition or INTERCUT

BETWEEN. At this point, two scenes will be shown a few moments each,
back and forth. For example, if Laura is stuck in her flaming house and the
fire department is on the way, a screenplay may call for intercutting
between the flames closing in on Laura and the firefighters riding across
town to save her.

INTO FRAME

See also: INTO VIEW.

The audience can only see so much through the window of a movie
screen. Use this term to suggest something or someone comes into the
picture while the camera stays put. It’s like a character or object coming
from off stage in the theater. For example: Forrest Gump sits on the bench.
OLD WOMAN INTO FRAME. She sits next to him.
INTO VIEW

The audience can only see so much through the window of a movie screen.
Use this term to suggest something or someone comes into the picture while
the camera pulls back (pans, etc) to reveal more of the scene.

IRIS OUT

Also written as: IRIS FADE OUT or IRIS FADE IN. When the dark edges of
the frame form a circle that shrinks down to nothing. Was used in early
silent films to indicate the end of a scene. Rarely used now except as a
vintage touch.

JUMP CUT TO

A transition which denotes a linkage of shots in a scene in which the

appearance of real continuous time has been interrupted by parts being left
out. Transitions from one moment to the next within a scene appear jarring
because they break the direct flow of time and space. This transition is
usually used to show a very brief lapse of time.

LAP DISSOLVE

See also Dissolve.

A transition between scenes that is achieved by fading out one shot while
the next one grows clearer.

LOCK IT UP
Called out by the AD and echoed by the PAs when the camera is about to
roll. It means everyone must be silent and foot traffic or vehicle traffic held
up while the camera is rolling. Be sure to release the lock when cut is called,
otherwise the pedestrians and traffic will get so annoyed they will ignore
you the next time.

MARKS

When actors move in the scene, marks are made on the floor so they will be
in the same place for every take. This is not only for the blocking of the
scene, but also so the camera assistant can make sure they are in focus.

MATCH CUT TO

A transition often used to compare two completely unrelated objects. It is

film’s version of metaphor. This involves cutting from one object of certain
color, shape, and/or movement, to another object of similar color, shape,
and/or movement. For example, a circular saw to a child’s merry-go-round.

MATCH DISSOLVE TO

See also Match Cut To. / Dissolve To.

This contains similar qualities to the MATCH CUT. A match dissolve
involves two objects of similar color, shape, and/or movement in transition
from one scene to the next. For example: if Scene A is following (tracking)
an arrow whizzing through the forest, one might match dissolve to a
tracking shot, in Scene B of a bullet whizzing through the inner city.

MONTAGE
From the French term “to assemble.” A series of images showing a theme, a
contradiction, or the passage of time. This film style became common in
Russia in the early years of cinema. Russians were the first to truly use
editing to tell a story. Modern day examples can be seen in Goodfellas and
the opening sequence of Midnight In Paris— a love letter to Paris in the rain,
which is the theme of the whole movie.

MOS

Mit Out Sound. MOS is a scene where no audio is recorded. It needs to be

written on the slate and in the script notes so that the editor will not waste
time searching for audio track that does not exist. Also when slating an MOS
shot, the AC should put their fingers under the clapper stick.

O.C. / O.S.

Off-Camera or Off-Screen. This is the abbreviation sometimes seen next to

the CHARACTER’S name before certain bits of dialog. It means the writer
specifically wants the voice to come from somewhere unseen.

PAN

Camera movement involving the camera turning on a stationary axis.

Imagine standing in one spot on a cliff in Hawaii. You want to absorb the
view so you, without moving your body or feet, turn your head from the left
to the right. This is the same effect as a pan.

PARENTHETICAL
If an actor should deliver his or her lines in a particular way, a screenplay
will contain a description in parentheses to illustrate the point.
Parentheticals should be used in cases where a line of dialog should be read
in some way contrary to logic. It should not be used for action description.
For example:
ZOLTAN

(calmly)

I know it sounds impossible.

POV

Point-of-View. The camera replaces the eyes (sometimes the ears) of a

character, monster, machine, surveillance camera, etc. As a result, we get to
see the world through the sensory devices of some creature. This can be used
to bring out the personal aspects of a scene, or it can be used to build horror
and suspense. An example of horror and suspense in POV can be seen in the
opening shot of Halloween.

PULL BACK

The camera physically moves away from a subject, usually through a zoom
or dolly action.

PULL FOCUS

The camera focus changes from one object or subject to another, to direct the
viewer’s attention from one part of the scene to another. For example:
PULL FOCUS TO INCLUDE POLICE CAR IN B/G (background).

PUSH IN
The camera physically moves towards a subject.

REVEAL

Something that was hidden comes into view, either by way of a camera
move or something changing in the frame.

REVERSE ANGLE

Often used to reveal things for comic or dramatic effect. Could be described
as a counter POV shot. Basically, the script suggests the camera come around
180 degrees to get a shot from the “other side” of the scene. For example, in
the There’s Something About Mary script, Tucker is playing a joke on Mary
in her office in one scene that the writers didn’t want to reveal right away.
They use a REVERSE ANGLE to show that he’s got two tongue depressors in
his upper lip to represent teeth.

SCENE

An event that takes place entirely in one location or time. If we go outside

from inside, it’s a new scene. If we cut to five minutes later, it’s a new scene.
If both, it’s a new scene. Scenes can range from one shot to infinity and are
distinguished by slug lines.

SHOOTING SCRIPT

This is the truly final draft used on set by the production people, actors, and
director to make the movie from the screenplay.
SHOT

One image. If there’s a cut, you’ve changed shots. Shots can range from split
seconds to several minutes. Shots are generally chosen by the director
although the writer can use capital letters to suggest where the camera
should be. When a writer absolutely must have a certain shot at a certain
moment in a film, he has a few options each described in detail elsewhere in
this list: Insert, Angle On, and Close On.

SLUG LINE

The text in all CAPS at the beginning of a scene that briefly describes the
location and time of day. For example:
INT. JIMMY’S BEDROOM - NIGHT or
EXT. SCHOOL YARD - DAY

Note: sometimes slug lines are abbreviated to something as simple as

“LATER” or “BEDROOM” to maintain the pace and flow of a sequence.

SMASH CUT TO:

An especially sharp transition. This style of cut is usually used to convey

destruction or quick emotional changes. For example: If you were writing a
horror movie but wanted to lighten the gore at the beginning, you might
have:
EXT. FOREST - NIGHT
A races through the forest, but then trips and falls.
SMASH CUT TO:
EXT. HIGH SCHOOL YARD - DAY

SPEC SCRIPT / SCREENPLAY

If a writer finishes his/her own screenplay outside the studio system (it isn’t
an assignment) then sends it to the studios for consideration, it is a spec
script.

SPLIT SCREEN

The screen is split into two, three, or more frames each with their own
subject. Usually the events shown in each section of the split screen are
simultaneous. Split screen can also be used to show flashbacks or other
events. For example, two people are talking on the phone. They’re in
different locations, but you wish to show the reactions of both
simultaneously.

STEADICAM

A camera built to remain stable while being moved, usually by human

hands. Occasionally seen in scripts to suggest a handheld shot be used in a
scene, although a Steadicam is smoother than a regular handheld shot and
as such produces a different result.

STOCK SHOT

Footage of events in history, from other films, etc. Basically, anything that’s
already filmed and you intend to be edited into the movie. For example, the
Austin Powers movies use stock footage for comic effect. Some old B films
use stock footage to keep their budgets low.

STOP AND GO
A rehearsal done one step at a time. The director calls “action on rehearsal”
and then stops the action where she wants to set a mark or give an
instruction, then calls “action on rehearsal” again.

SUPER

Abbreviation for superimpose. The superimposition of one thing over

another in the same shot. Sometimes titles are superimposed over scenes. Or
a face can be superimposed over a stream-of-consciousness montage shot.

SWISH PAN

A quick snap of the camera from one object to another that blurs the frame
and is often used as a transition. Sometimes called a FLASH PAN. Cuts are
often hidden in swish pans, or they can be used to disorient or shock the
audience.

TIGHT ON

A close-up of a person or thing used for dramatic effect. A tight frame

encloses a subject with very little space surrounding it. Not in common use.
Use only when necessary.

TRACKING SHOT (TRACK, TRACKING, TRAVELING)

A tracking shot involves a camera following a person or an object. As long

as the camera isn’t locked down in place by a tripod, for example, and is
following (tracking) a subject, then it’s a tracking shot. For good examples of
tracking shots, watch the one take episode of The X-Files, or the first shots of
Touch of Evil, and The Player.
TRAVELING SHOT

Shooting while a vehicle is moving. Also called a rolling shot.

TRAILER

This term has two meanings. The trailers you will see most often are in the
coming attractions at the movie theater, in television commercials and on
the web. The other meaning of trailer is a short promotional sales piece for a
film project. These are put together by filmmakers who are pitching a project
to investors or producers.

TRANSITION

These describe the style in which one scene becomes the next. Used
appropriately, these can be used to convey shifts in character development
and emotion. In other words, a Cut To: is not required at every scene change.
Some major transitions include: Dissolve To:, Match Cut To:, Jump Cut To:,
Smash Cut To:, Wipe To:, and Fade To:. Occasionally a writer will make up
his own transition. In these cases, the transition is usually self-defined (such
as Bright White Flash To: suggests whiteness will fill the screen for a brief
moment as we pass into the next scene).

VFX

Visual effects, these days usually created in the computer.

V.O.
Voice-Over. This abbreviation often appears beside a character’s name before
their dialog. This means the character voices that dialog but his or her
moving lips are not present in the scene. Voice-over is generally used for
narration, such as Full Metal Jacket or A Clockwork Orange.

WIPE TO

A transition in which one scene “wipes away” to the next. Rarely used
except in industrial films as it is self-conscious and a bit cutesy.

ZOOM

Performed with a variable focal length lens (a zoom) which is capable of

changing the lens field-of-view from wide angle to telephoto in a smooth,
continuous shot.
Resources

How To Read a Movie

“Reading” a movie means going beyond merely watching it. If you are going
to learn from films, you need to analyze why and how each shot, each scene,
works to make the whole movie great. The best way to start doing this is to
go shot-by-shot, scene-by-scene.
First, look at each individual shot in a scene. Pause the video. Work out
why this particular shot was chosen. What does it bring to the film? How
does it help you understand the story? How does it contribute to the roller
coaster effect of an engaging plot? How does it set you up for the next
scene? How is information conveyed — do the characters just talk the
information, or is it conveyed in some other form, such as visual elements in
the scene, or by superimposed titles like “Summer, 1986.” Take notes, do your
own director’s commentary, write it up, summarize your thoughts and
organize them — the process will help you clarify your thinking and help it
really “stick” in your head.

THE STORY

Who is the main character?

What is their need? What obstacles do they face? How do they
overcome them?
Who is the antagonist? What is their need? How do they operate?
What is Plot Point One? What gets the story moving?
Are there subplots? How do they add to the story?
 What is the resolution? How does the story get wrapped up?

THE FRAME

What’s in the shot? Look at everything you can see in the shot:
people, clothes, setting, vehicles, background. Why are they there?
What can you tell about them?
What’s not in the shot? Do you think anything has been deliberately
left out or hidden, perhaps to add mystery, or to be revealed later?
How close is the camera?
What’s the shot size? Is it a close-up, a medium, or a wide shot that
just shows the setting? Or something else?
Why did they use that particular kind of shot? What do you think
was the director’s intention in choosing that shot?
What’s the camera angle? Try and work out the camera position.
Was it at the same level as the subject, or was it higher or lower?

How does that affect what you think of the subject? Was it directly in front, at a slight
angle, at the side, or behind? Why was it filmed from there?

How are things arranged in the shot?

Does the shot look natural, or is the composition obviously formal or symmetrical? Or is
it unbalanced, crooked, and deliberately awkward?

Does the film utilize effects like voice-overs, text, direct addresses to
the camera, and other narrative devices? What is the effect of these
devices?

MOVEMENT

How do things move? What movement is there in the shot? Do

things or people in the shot move? If so, are they moving towards or
 away from the camera, across the screen, up or down the screen?
How does this make you feel about them?
Does the camera move? If it does, what kind of movement is it? Is
the movement steady or handheld? What do you think was the
reason they chose to shoot this way? How does camera movement
add to the feel and energy of the scene?

LIGHTING

What colors are in the shot? Are they vivid or drab? How do they
make you feel? What about the color balance of the light: is it warm,
cold, or something else?
How is the scene lit? Is the light bright and flat, or dramatic and
shadowy? Do you think the scene was filmed with natural light or
artificial lights? Can you figure out where the light sources were?
Is the lighting naturalistic or stylized? Does it fit with the mood and
style of the film?

EDITING

Find the cut. Consider where the editor decided to make the cut
between two shots. Use slow motion, sometimes it helps you better
understand the edits.
What comes next? Look at the shot that comes next. How is it
different from the one you’ve just been looking at? What does the
new shot bring to the story? Does it show the same thing filmed
differently, or does it show something new?
How does the scene go together?
How are the shots edited? Are they joined with simple cuts (where
one shot goes straight to the next one), or are there more
complicated transitions, like dissolves or fades?
 If so, what are the transitions telling us?

How does the edit point fit with the action, the dialog, the soundtrack or the actors’
performances? Do the sound and picture change together, or at different times (split
edits)?

Pacing. Is the editing fast or slow? Does it get faster? How does this
match the mood or the action?

TIME

How does the scene represent time? Is it in real time – where things
take as long as they would in real life? If not, is it compressed time
where they leave things out? If so, what’s been left out and what’s
been kept in? Or does it use stretch time, where things take longer on
screen than they would in real life? If so, why? How have they
extended or compressed the time?
You might also see cross-cutting or parallel editing, where the film
cuts between action happening in two or more places at the same
time. If the film uses this, how have they managed to do this without
you getting confused? How do you know which location is which?
Does the scene use flashbacks or flash forwards? How can you tell?
Do they use some kind of visual device to signal that it’s a
flashback/flash forward?

AUDIO

What can you hear in the scene?

If the voice-over is the narrator, is it a reliable narrator (telling you
the truth all the time) or is it an unreliable narrator (distorts the
truth, usually for their own benefit).
Play some scenes, or the whole movie, listening only to the
soundtrack. What different kinds of sound can you hear? Can you
 list them all?
Now watch it over again with the sound on and think about what
the sound brings to the story. If there’s a voice-over, who’s speaking?
How does their voice make your feel? Are they a character in the
story or an impartial, third-party narrator?
With natural sounds that were recorded on set, do they sound
realistic or are they exaggerated? Do they come from things you can
see on-screen, or do they give you information about things that are
off-screen? Do you think they were recorded live, or added later as
sound effects?
What kind of music is used? Does it seem appropriate to the mood
and tone of the scenes? Does it help the pacing of the scene? Does it
match the pace of the scene or provide a contrast?

Is it an original score or existing music? Rock, country, classical? Try to understand why
that particular piece of music was chosen for that scene.

Is the music loud over the scene, or very subtle underneath the dialog; does this change
during the course of the scene?

Resources
There is a wealth of material available to help you learn and grow as a
filmmaker. Here are some noteworthy sources of information.

BOOKS

The Director’s Team. Alain Silver and Elizabeth Ward

Cinematography: Theory and Practice — For Directors and
Cinematographers. Blain Brown Making Movies. Sidney Lumet
On Screen Directing. Edward Dymytryk
Rebel Without a Crew. Robert Rodriguez
 Adventures in the Screen Trade. William Goldman
In the Blink of an Eye. Walter Murch
Screenplay: The Foundations of Screenwriting. Syd Fields
Motion Picture and Video Lighting. Blain Brown
The Filmmaker’s Guide To Digital Imaging — For Cinematographers,
DITs and Camera Assistants. Blain Brown

MOVIES ABOUT MOVIE MAKING

Ed Wood
Day For Night
The Player
Sullivan’s Travels
State and Main

Before I go off and direct a movie, I always look at four films. They
tend to be The Seven Samurai, Lawrence Of Arabia, It’s A Wonderful
Life, and The Searchers.

Steven Spielberg (Saving Private Ryan, ET, Indiana Jones, Empire of the Sun)

GREAT MOVIES MADE ON ABSURDLY SMALL BUDGETS

El Mariachi ($7,000) Robert Rodriguez

Following ($10,000) Christopher Nolan’s first movie
Eraserhead ($10,000) David Lynch
Pi ($60,000) Darren Aronofsky
Killer’s Kiss ($75,000) Stanley Kubrick’s second feature.
Assault On Precinct 13 ($100,000) John Carpenter
 Halloween ($325,000) John Carpenter

SHORT FILMS WORTH SEEING

Electronic Labyrinth: THX 1138 4EB (George Lucas’ student film)

The Red Balloon
The Phone Call
Session Man
Hotel Chevalier
Small Deaths
Glory At Sea
Eight
Crossroads
A Dog’s Life
Six Shooter
The Music Box
It’s Always Sunny On TV
Thunder Road
I’m Here
Trip To The Moon
Kung Fury

Movies To Watch To Learn About Filmmaking

Every film teacher in the world has a list of 100 moves you’ve got to watch.
This is just mine. It’s not necessarily the 100 greatest movies ever made, just
films that I think will help you learn what makes a good movie work. If you
don’t watch classic movies, your chances of being a good filmmaker are
greatly reduced. The symbol * means you absolutely, positively must watch
this classic. Not kidding. Just do it.
12 Angry Men*
12 Years a Slave
2001: A Space Odyssey
400 Blows, The*
8 1/2
A Clockwork Orange
A Walk Through H
Alien*
Aliens
Amélie
The Apartment
Apocalypse Now
Apu Trilogy, The
Assault On Precinct 13
Bicycle Thief, The*
Big Combo, The
Big Lebowski, The
Birds, The
Blow Up
Brazil
Breathless
Casablanca*
Cat People (1942)
Chinatown
Children of Men
Chungking Express
Citizen Kane*
Conversation, The*
Day For Night
Dial M for Murder
Do the Right Thing
Double Indemnity*
Dracula (the Spanish version)
Drive
Duel in the Sun
Empire of the Sun
Exorcist, The
Faces
Fight Club
Get Out
Gladiator
Godfather Part II, The*
Godfather, The*
Good, the Bad and the Ugly, The
Goodfellas*
Grand Illusion*
Gun Crazy
Halloween
Hearts of Darkness
High Noon*
Hot Fuzz
How Green Was My Valley
The Hustler
In the Mood For Love
It Happened One Night
It’s A Wonderful Life
Jaws*
Ju Dou
Julius Caesar
Jurassic Park
Kansas City
The Killing
Kiss Me Deadly
LA Confidential
Lady Eve, The*
Lady From Shanghai, The
Lawrence of Arabia*
Malcolm X
McCabe and Mrs. Miller
Memento
Midnight In Paris
The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek
Mirror, The
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington
North by Northwest*
Oldboy (2003)
On The Waterfront
Paths of Glory
Player, The
Psycho*
Pulp Fiction
Raging Bull
Rashomon
Rear Window*
Red Shoes, The
Rocky
Rules of the Game, The
Saving Private Ryan
Schindler’s List
Searchers, The
Se7en
Seven Samurai*
Shadows
Shaun of the Dead
Shawshank Redemption, The
Shining, The
Shop Around the Corner, The
Some Like It Hot
Spotlight
 Stagecoach
State and Main
Sullivan’s Travels
Sunset Blvd.
T-Men
Taxi Driver
Terminator, The
To Be or Not to Be
Favourite, The
There Will Be Blood
Thing From Another World, The
Third Man, The*
To Live and Die In LA
Tokyo Story
Touch of Evil
Trial, The
Unfaithfully Yours (1948)
Usual Suspects, The
Yojimbo
Vertical Features Remake
Vertigo*

Websites for Filmmakers

Of course, the usual caution: don’t believe everything you read on the
internet — that’s how World War I got started!

No Film School
An excellent website for all aspects of filmmaking. They also have an email
newsletter that is worth the time.

Art of the Title

Often we take title sequences for granted or ignore them completely as we

finish adding more salt to our popcorn. But this website — through video,
images, and interviews — deconstructs the titles of well-known films and TV
shows to reveal what they really are: masterpieces of short form storytelling.

CineVenger

Evaluations of modern cinematography are indispensable to furthering your

own career and understanding of how lighting influences film.

Frugal Filmmaker

The Frugal Filmmaker sums up his mission quite succinctly on his site:
“Make Movies! Don’t Go Broke!” What Scott does is teach you how to make
the movies you want to make without spending all your money keeping up
with endless amounts of gear.

Crews Control Blog Central

Besides providing extensive film and video services, Crews Control has a
busy blog and social media presence. They are perpetually sharing helpful
tips and advice on filmmaking that often cater to filmmakers who work with
clients.
Cinematography.com

Covers all aspects of cinematography and its use in filmmaking. A wide

range of articles, tutorials and resources.

The Black and Blue

Excellent website about the life and work of the camera assistant. Humorous
and down-to-earth look at the real world of working on the set.

How to Film School

Covers wide range of topics in filmmaking.

F-Stoppers

A photography website, but useful to anyone who is shooting with a DSLR.

Creative Cow

Tons of tutorials about every area of filmmaking, from lighting and

cinematography to editing, Adobe After Effects, Motion and any type of
software used in filmmaking.

IndieWire

For both filmmakers and film fans. Reviews, film festivals and topics such as
production, distribution and festival strategies.
Negative Spaces

Ben Cain’s blog about working as a DIT. Talks about workflows, color
spaces, and all things related to working with video on the set.

Vimeo Video School

The video sharing site shares videos about making videos that will be good
to share.

Film School Rejects

Casting news, box office figures, and script purchases. But they also sneak in
a featured article every now and then worth checking out — such as a series
of film directing tips.

VIDEOMAKER

The magazine is now online, so you can browse through decades of back
issues.

JOB SEARCH

Creative Cow Jobs

From how-to videos, to a strong community, to podcasts. Creative Cow also

has a jobs board which is very active. And because it’s been around for a
while, it’s a name familiar to many professionals.
Film and TV Pro

Film and TV Pro has a clean design that makes it easy to navigate, plus
crew/talent can register for free (and see job listings for free). Though most
of the listings I come across are LA and New York based, it’s worth keeping
an eye on these job boards as they potentially grow larger.

Film Crew Gigs

What Film Crew Gigs might lack in features it makes up for in a variety of
listings. One thing I always check on job boards is if they are even listing for
camera assistants, grips, electricians — all those below the line gigs. Sure
enough, Film Crew Gigs does.

Film Sourcing

Film Sourcing promises to help connect filmmakers with everything they

might need — crew, costumes, gear, funding, etc. The only problem is, it’s
still in beta testing. But applying for an invite is easy and looks to be worth
the wait for this ambitious project to fully launch.

Mandys

Job listings, search for crew. A well-established site.

ONLINE CLASSES IN FILMMAKING

Yale Film Studies Film Analysis

Classes in how to analyze and think about films.

MIT’s Free Online Film Courses

Classes in various aspects of filmmaking.

University of Reddit: Introduction to Filmmaking

Crowd sourced and oriented to the practical, built from experience, by

working professionals who are willing to share their knowledge.

Filmmaker’s Master Class with Milos Forman

From Columbia University Film School where Forman used to teach. The
emphasis is on script writing and casting.

Digital Film School by The Open University

A seventeen part audio podcast about digital filmmaking. At a beginner

level, but you can pick and choose areas to study (i.e. editing or producing).

Indy Mogul

An excellent YouTube channel for filmmakers, focused on DIY effects,

filmmaking tips, and showcasing creative work.

NextWaveDV
A YouTube channel covering topics from lighting tutorials to what to wear
on set.

Quick FX

Filmmaking tutorials, DIY builds, props, DSLRs, short films and a lot more.

DEDICATION

This book is dedicated to Ada, Kelly, Yellow, and Blue.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Blain Brown has been in the film business for over 30 years, working as a
director of photography, director, screenwriter, producer, and editor. Before
becoming a DP/Director, he worked as a lighting technician, gaffer, and grip.
He has written, directed, and photographed feature films, commercials,
music videos, and corporate videos.
He has taught at several film schools in the Los Angeles area, including
Columbia College, Los Angeles Film School, and AFI. He was educated at
C.W. Post College, MIT, and the Harvard Graduate School of Design. His
other books include:

Cinematography: Theory and Practice — For Cinematographers and

Directors. Third Edition. Available in 12 languages. Focal Press.
Motion Picture and Video Lighting. Available in 4 languages. Focal
Press.
 The Filmmaker’s Guide to Digital Imaging: For DITs, Camera
Assistants and Cinematographers. Focal Press.

CONTACT

The author can be reached through is website: www.blainbrown.com.

Comments and suggestions are welcome.

THE WEBSITE

The website that accompanies this book has video examples of scene
directing methods, continuity and coverage, working with the camera,
lighting, audio, color balance, exposure, and editing. There are also
downloadable production forms you can fill out and use for your projects:
www.routledge.com/cw/brown.
index
Page numbers in italics refer to figures.

act one 10, 11, 15

act three 10, 13, 15
act two 12, 12, 14, 15
action 17, 71, 74
action edits (movement edits) 145
activity 71
actors: action verbs, use of 71; blocking 72; “hitting their marks” 98; rehearsals 72; working with 71
ADs see assistant directors (ADs)
additional second second ADs 46, 54–55
ADR (automatic dialog replacement) 134, 135
aerial shots 95
Alien 3, 6, 11
Altman, Robert 7, 20
ambient light 105, 106, 112
Amélie 14
American shot 91
amps 109, 112
angles of view 82, 83
answering shot 90, 91, 144
antagonists 3, 4
aperture 82, 82
Apocalypse Now 6, 17, 145, 147
apparent focus 83
arc move 96
Aristotle 6
armorers 116
art departments 114–114; armorer and pyro 116; art director 114; building sets 119, 114; costume
designer 117; location breakdown list; look of the film, finding 116–119; makeup and hair 119;
production designer 114; prop master 116; set decorator 115; team 114; wardrobe 117–119
art directors 114
aspect ratios 81, 81
assistant directors (ADs) 23, 29, 44, 66; additional second second 46, 48–49; blocking rehearsal 72;
creating the schedule 48; duties 47; organizing the scenes 48; production assistant 46, 49–50;
running the show 46; second AD 46, 48; second second AD 46, 48–49; strip boards 48, 48, 49, 50;
team 46–50; see also first assistant directors
associate producers 22
atmosphere inserts 92
attitude 71
audio basics 132–134; boom operator 133, 135, 135; dialog overlapping 132; fundamental principles
134–136; getting clean dialog 132; headphones 135; mixing audio 136–137; sound (double system
vs. single system) 132; sound recordist 132–133, 136; syncing 138; timecode slate 138–139, 139; see

also microphones; recording audio

audio utility 133
authority 40
auto volume control, problems 136
available light 105
 
Baby (1000 watt light) 109, 112
back-cross keys 106, 107, 112
back light 105
background plates 100, 100, 130
backlight technique 108
backstory 7
backups 97
barndoors 108
Bates connectors 110, 112
Bay, Michael 96
bead board 104
The Bicycle Thief 14
big head CU shot 90, 91
Birdman 103, 147
bird’s eye view 95
bite/body/tail story structure 14, 14
blimps 135, 136
blocking: for camera 72; meaning of 72, 73; notes on 69; rehearsal 51, 72, 98
blown takes (false takes) 127
boom mics 81, 132–133, 134, 135, 136
boom operators 133, 135, 135
bounce boards 104, 108, 112
box rentals 24, 26
branchaloris 120
breakdown pages 28, 28, 48
Bridesmaids 13
Brown, Blain 86, 102, 109
budgets: categories 24; details 26; expendables 24; forms 24, 26; kit fees 24, 38; making 24; rentals 24;
script marking 27, 27; top sheet summary 25
 
C-47 110, 110
C-stands (grip stands) 109
cable pullers 133
call-backs 68
call sheets x, 46, 52–53
camera departments: clapper/loader 80; digital imaging technician (DIT) 80; digital management
technician (DMT) 80; DP (director of photography) 80; first AC 80, 98; operators 80; second AC 80;
second unit 80
cameras: angles 95, 95; blocking for 72; digital 97; DSLR 133, 139; eye level placement for 95; first
assistant 80, 98; handheld 94; high-end pro 97; movements 95–96; second assistant 80; speed of 84;
support 94, 94
Campion, Jane 71
card stock covers 20
Cardellini clamps 112
cards 8, 9
caricatures 7
casting directors 68
catchlights 105, 108
catering 36, 42
causation 2
CB radio codes 43
CF (compact flash) cards 80, 97
changes in direction: midpoint 12; plot point one 5; for story 5
characters: backstory 7; creating 7; main 4; need 4, 7; point-of-view 7; shots 89; typical shots 91
Chinatown 14

chokers 90, 91
cinematographers see director of photography (DP)
cinematography 80–88; camera angles 95, 95; camera department 80; camera movements 95–96;
camera support 88, 88; color balance 85; composition 86, 86; connecting shots 86, 86; exposure 84,
84–85; focal length 82, 82; focus and depth-of-field 83, 83; focus practices 81; framing people 81, 81;

inserts 86, 86; iris/aperture 82, 82; marking 92, 92; media management 97, 97; point-of-view 81, 81;

prime directive 97; resolution 81, 81; rule of thirds 86, 86; shooting greenscreen 88, 88; shots, types
88–86; terms (camera) 81; transitional shots 86
Cinematography: Theory and Practice (Brown) 85
circle move 96
Citizen Kane 10, 83, 83
clapboards 128
clapper slates 80, 130, 138, 138
classic editing 143
clean frames 75
clean shots 90
close-up (CU) shots 90, 91, 92, 97, 142, 144, 146
clothes lining cables 109
Coates, Ann 142
color balance 85
color codes, for script pages 30, 122, 123, 125
Colpitts, Cissi 5, 11
combination edits 145
company moves 116
composites, shooting 100
composition 86, 86
concept edits 145
condenser mics 134
conflicts: as roadblocks 5; in stories 3, 3, 71; and tension 4, 4
confrontations 3, 12, 14
connecting shots 92, 92
contact lists 35, 35
continuity: 20% rule 60, 63; 30 degree rule 60, 63; changing two lens sizes 60; cheating angles 58; and
coverage 58–58; cuttability 58; door and window match 62; editing 58, 143–44, 145; ellipsis 62;
jump cuts 60, 62, 63; “the line” 58; location stitching 63; matching and 62, 132; on-screen movement
across the line 59–60; on other side of the line 59, 60; point-of-view 60; redressing 63–58; screen
direction 58; true reverse 60; types of 58; wardrobe 58, 118, 118
continuity supervisors see script supervisors (scripty)
contracts 38, 40
The Conversation 6
Coppola, Francis Ford 6, 144
costume designers 117
cover sets 48
coverage 74–75, 75; and continuity 58–64; slate numbers for 127
crab move 96
craft services 24, 36, 42
cranes 94, 94, 150
crisis climaxes 10, 13
critical focus 83
Cronenberg, David 19
cross-cutting 148
CTB (color temperature blue) 112
CTO (color temperature orange) 112
cuttability 58, 76
cutaways 90
cuts 127, 142–143; on action 146; motivations for 145; see also specific entries
cutting points (edit points) 146
 
dailies 74
daily production reports 37, 37, 128, 126
Dancyger, Ken 145
The Dark Knight Rises 7
data wranglers see digital management technicians (DMTs)
Day Out of Days report 35, 35
day players 29
daylight 85
deal memos 38–39, 38, 39
deep focus 83
department production assistants 46
departments: makeup and hair 119; wardrobe 117–118; see also art departments; camera departments
depth, and separation 108
depth-of-field (DOF) 83, 83
developing masters 76, 77
dialog: ADR (automatic dialog replacement) 134, 135; clean 132; “on the nose” examples 16;
overlapping 132; pass 78; scenes 61, 74; writing 16
DiCaprio, Leonardo 12
Die Hard 11
diffusion 104, 112
digital cameras 97
digital imaging technicians (DITs) 80
digital management technicians (DMTs) 80
direction of travel, in screen 58
directional mics 133
directors 23, 51; action, cut, circle that 68, 68; block, light, rehearse, shoot 67, 67; blocking the actors 66;
casting 68; collaborations with team 66, 68; editor collaboration 142; freeform method 78, 78;

getting started 67; headphones for 135; in-one method 70, 71; invisible technique 78; location
scouts 68; master scene method 68–69, 68; overheads/storyboards, preparing 70; overlapping
method 69–70, 69; in phases of filmmaking process 66; preparing for shooting 69; preproduction 68;
and producer 66; responsibilities 66, 69; script, importance of 67; setups, measuring 69; shooting
methods 68–78, 69–78; shot list preparation 69; sketches, adding 69–70; walk-and-talk method 70,
70; work of 66–78; working with actors 71
directors of photography (DPs) 23, 29, 30, 31, 51, 60, 72, 80, 116, 129, 143
“dirty single” shots see over-the-shoulder (OTS) shots
dissolves 144
distro (distribution) boxes 109
Django Unchained 19
documentaries: as non-narrative fiction 2; style 24
dollies 81, 94, 94
dolly marks 98
door flats 119, 120
double scrims 108
double system sound 132, 133
DP see director of photography (DP)
drones 95, 95
drops 120
DSLR (digital single lens reflex) cameras 133, 139
Dutch tilts 81, 81, 95
Duvall, Robert 152
dynamic mics 134
 
Edison plugs 109–110
edit points, finding 145–146
editing 58, 78; continuity cutting 143–144; meaning of 143; postproduction 143; process 143; reasons for
142; six elements of 144–142; six steps of 142–143; types of 145
editors 142
electric department expendables 110
electricity 109
Electronic Labyrinth: THX 1138-4EB 152
elevator pitches 20
elliptical cutting 62, 148
emotion, in story 147
emotionally satisfying endings 14
empathy 4, 14
emphasis inserts 92
end of day reports see daily production reports
Ephron, Nora 11
equipment transportation 36
erasable markers 128
establishing shots 88–89, 89, 144
establishing the geography 89, 146
executive producers 22
existing light 106
expendables 24, 110, 119
exposition 17
exposure and focus, in cinematography 83–84, 83–85, 102
external conflicts 3, 3
extreme close-ups (ECUs) 90, 91
eye level placement, for camera 95
eye marks 99
eye traces 147
eyelight 105, 106, 108
eyeline match 144
 
fade out/fade in 144
false takes 127
Fellini, Federico 117
field mixers 136
Fields, Syd 10; diagram of The Shawshank Redemption 10
50-50 shots 90, 91
fill lights 105
film design 116
film schools 152
filmmaking: audio recording in 74; challenges in 27; ellipsis in 142; invisible technique in 72; joys of
114; point-of-view (POV) in 7, 60, 27, 27, 142; reshoots xi; rules in xi; stages of 66; telling stories
with pictures 2–4; three act structure in 4; tool for 42; see also stories/storytelling
final cuts 143
final rehearsals 51
Finding Nemo 4
fine cuts 143
fire extinguishers 150
fires 150
first aid kits 150
first assembly 142
first assistant cameras 80, 98
first assistant directors 46; blocking rehearsal 51; calls for “last looks” 51, 118; creating schedule 48;
final rehearsal 51; lighting stand-ins 51; responsibilities in preproduction 47; rough in 51; running
the set 51
first cuts 143
fixed shots 96
flags 108, 112
flash pans 96
flashbacks 6
flat front lighting, avoiding 102, 106, 107, 112
flat lighting 108
flat spaces 72, 76, 93
flats 119, 120
flood/spot control, of light 108
fluorescent lights 85, 103, 112
fly pages 20
foam covers 133, 136
foamcore 104, 108
focal length 82, 82, 83
focus, and depth-of-field 83, 83
focus, in cinematography see exposure and focus, in cinematography
focus pullers 80, 98
foley (sound effects) 135
footage: recording 40; rights to 40
foreground plates 100, 100, 130
form edits 145
Forman, Milos 142
forty-footers 36
4K 81
frame lines 135
frames per second (FPS) 81
framing shots 88
framing up people: headroom 93, 93; nose room 93, 93
free run timecodes 138
freeform methods 78, 78
Fresnels 103, 103, 112, 112
f/stops 82, 83
Full Metal Jacket 17
full shots 89, 91
function shots 88
fuzzy covers 133, 136
 
gaffers 23, 24, 29, 72, 129
gimbals 94, 95
Gladiator 4, 14
Glazebrook, Andrew 117
Goddard, Jean-Luc 62
The Godfather 6, 108, 148
God’s Eye shots 95
gofers see production assistants (PAs)
Goldfinger 12
Goodfellas 76
greenscreen shots 100, 100, 130
grip stands 109
grip trucks 36
Groundhog Day 3, 6, 14
guide tracks 134, 139
 
hair department 119
hair light 105
handheld cameras 94
The Hangover 19
hard light 104, 104, 106, 108
Harron, Mary 152
Harry Potter 13
Hawks, Howard 132
head-to-toe/five T’s 89, 91
headphones 135
headroom 93, 93
heroes 4
hidden cuts 146–147
high angles 95
high def (HD) 81
high-end pro cameras 97
high ISO 84
hip level shots 95
histograms 84, 84
Hitchcock, Alfred 4, 69–70, 146
hog troughs 119, 120
honey wagons 36
 
In the Blink of an Eye (Murch) 147
Iñárritu, Alejandro 147
inciting incidents see plot points
informational inserts 92, 92
inserts 92, 92
insurance 40
internal conflicts 3, 3
invisible cuts 146–147
invisible editing 143
invisible marks 98
invisible technique 78, 146
irises see aperture
ISO (speed) 84
 
J and L cuts 146
jamming 128, 138
jib arms 150
jibs 94, 94
jump cuts 60, 62, 63, 146
Junior (2000 watt light) 109, 112
 
Kelvin scale 112
key grips 23, 29, 31, 55
key light 105
key set PAs 46
kickers 105
Kino Flo lights 103, 109
kit fees 24, 38
Kubrick, Stanley 71, 147
 
La La Land 8: The Revenge 137
lav mics 133–134, 136
LED (light emitting diode) lights 102, 103, 109
lens(es): critical focus 83; focal length 82, 82, 83; personality of 82; speed 84; use for shot 135; zoom 81
Leone, Sergio 90
lighting 73, 73; avoiding flat front 102, 100; basic 102, 105; categories on productions 24; controlling
102–103; creating mood 102; definitions 106; direct attention 102; equipment 103; expendables 104;
getting (electricity) power 103–104; for greenscreen 100; and grip 102–106; hard vs. soft 104, 104,

100, 107, 102; methods 100–102; need 102; order 104–105; practicals 103; principals 100; process 102;
rough in 51; setting 103; shadows and 100; stand-ins 51; terms 105; through the windows 100; types
of light 103–104; units 103; from upstage side 100, 100; wall plugging 103
“The Line” 58–60, 59
line-level signals 134
line producers 22
lined scripts 122; coloring 125; during editing process 123; sample 123, 123
Linklater, Richard 2
Lion, Gang 7
loaders 80
location: checklist 33, 34; establishing 140; manager 68; release 40, 40; scouting 23, 33, 68; stitching 63
locked scripts 30
logging 142
loglines 19
long focal length lenses 82, 83
long shotgun mics 133
long shots see establishing shots
look books 116
look of the film 116–119
looking room 93, 93
looping see ADR (automatic dialog replacement)
low angles 95
low ISO 84
Lt. Ripley (character) 4
Lucas, George 152
Lumet, Sidney 142
lunchboxes 112
 
mafer clamps 112
main characters 4; needs 4, 5; obstacles 5, 5, 10
makeup and hair departments 119
The Maltese Falcon 86

marked up scripts (MUS) see lined scripts

marking/marks: during blocking rehearsal 98; dolly 98; focusing on dial 98; invisible 98; scripts 27; tape
98, 98
master scene methods 74–75, 74
match cuts 145
match-on-action 144, 145
matching, and continuity 62, 132
The Matrix 3, 6
matte colors 100
McKee, Robert 6, 10
McLaren, Brian 56
media management 97, 97
medium close-ups (three T’s) 90, 91
medium shots 90, 91, 146
Memento 10
microphones 133–136; directional 133; foam cover for 136; getting into best position 135; vs. line input
134; mounts 133, 133, 134, 135; phantom power 134; pointing in right direction 136; shotgun 133,
133; types of 132, 133; wireless 133–134
Midnight in Paris 78, 145
midpoint 10, 12
mistakes: avoiding -1; coverage 00, 04; on production side 0
mixers see sound recordists
montages 78, 145
mood 102
mood boards 116
MOS (mit out sound) scene 134
Motion Picture and Video Lighting (Brown) 102, 109
motivations, for cut 145
mouse 128
move in 81
movement edits see action edits (movement edits)
Movie*Slate 8
app 138
moving plates 100
Murch, Walter 142, 144, 146–148
Murray, Bill 3
music videos, playback timecodes on 128
muslin 104
My Cousin Vinny 3
 
narrative stories 2
natural light, and windows 107
ND (nondescript) cars 52
needs, of characters 4, 4, 7, 11, 14
nets/flags 108, 112
neutral axes 59
neutral density filters (ND) 84
neutral gray cards 85
nose room 93, 93
 
objective POV 87, 87
obstacles, overcoming 5, 5, 10, 14
office production assistants 46
omnidirectional microphones 133
180 degree rule 144, 147
on-line casting services 68
on-set dressers 115, 118
“on the nose” dialog 16
opal (light diffusion) 104
open face lights 103, 112
operators, in camera department 80
outlines, cards and 8–9
over-the-shoulder (OTS) shots 62, 64, 69, 74, 78, 87, 87, 90, 90, 91
overheads 70, 95
overlapping method 75–76, 75
 
page turn 47, 67
pan (panoramic) 81, 96
Paper Amps 112
parallel editing 148
PAs see production assistants (PAs)
permits, shooting 32
personal assistants 152
phantom power 134
phonetic alphabet 43
pickup days 32, 127
picture cars 36
Picture Composition for Film and Television (Ward) 86
pictures, telling stories with 2–4
pigeon plates 112
pitching projects 20
place, creating sense of 116
plane-of-focus 99
playback 137; audio 128
The Player 7, 20
plot 2, 7
plot points 5, 9; one 10, 11, 11, 14; two 10, 13
Plural Eyes software 138
Poetics (Aristotle) 6
point of no return see midpoint
point-of-view (POV) 7, 60, 87, 87, 142
post-production 66, 122, 143; supervisors 143
practical lamps 103
premises 6
pre-production 23, 47, 66, 68, 114
presentation, script 20
primary colors, in lighting 112
prime directives 97, 150
principal photography 23
producers 22, 66
production: assistant director 23, 23, 32; basic law of 24; breakdown pages 22, 22; budget, making 24–
27; contact lists 29, 29; craft services 24, 30, 36; executive producer 22; key documents 24; line
producer 22; location release 34, 34; locations 23, 27–34; mistakes xi; office 23; permits 32; pickup
days 32; preproduction 23; putting a crew together 31; receipts 32; releases and deal memos 32, 32;

report 37, 37; reshoots 32; script marking 27, 27; script pages and scene numbers 30; on the set 23;
sides 41, 41; stealing scenes 32; talent releases 33, 33; team 23; tech scout 23, 27; transportation
coordinator 23, 30; unit production manager 22; walkie-talkies 43
production assistants (PAs) 23, 46; department PAs 46, 146; duties 55; office PAs 46; second second AD
work with 55; set PAs 46, 55; surviving as extra 56; ways to get fired 56; working as 146
production designers 68, 114
production office coordinators 23
production sound mixers see sound recordists
prop masters 62, 64, 116
protagonists 4
pulling focus 99
pyrotechnicians (pyro) 116, 150
 
rack focus 83
radio phonetic alphabet 43
Raiders of the Lost Ark 9, 19

reaction passes 78
reaction shots 78, 90, 92, 146
receipts 44
reconnaissance 29
record runs 138
recording audio: ADR 135; connections for 137; foley 135; levels of 132–133; outside problem 136; room
tone 135; rules in 134; scratch track 134; wild track 135
redressing 63–64
reels 152
Reeves, Keanu 11
reference notes 122
reflectors, bounce and 108
rehearsals 67; blocking 51, 72, 73, 73; final 51
Reichardt, Kelly 16
releases, and deal memos 38–39, 38, 39
rentals, wardrobe 119
reports, production 37
reshoots/reshooting 32, 04, 130
resolution 13, 14, 81
reverse/true reverse 60, 75
rhythm 147
right hand rule 109, 109
roadblocks, overcoming 5, 5
rolling shot 96
Romero, George A. 30
room tone 130, 135
Rope 147
rough cuts 142
Rule of Six 147
rule of thirds, in composition 86, 86
runners see production assistants (PAs)
 
safety, on set 150
Saving Private Ryan 11
Scarface 14
scene(s) 144; building blocks of 88–91; framing up people in 93; intentions of 71; lighting 106; numbers
30, 128–129; organizing 48; overhead plan for 70; sides and 41; stealing 32; strips 48; type of 48
scenic artists 114
schedules 23, 24, 46, 47; creating 48; from strip board 50
Schoonmaker, Thelma 60, 143
science fiction films, concept designs for 115
Scorsese, Martin 86, 142
Scott, Ridley 17
scratch tracks 134, 139
screen direction: cross-cutting 148; in dialog scenes 61; types of 58
screen position edits 145
screenplays 8, 23
scrims 108, 112
script supervisors (scripty) 37, 64, 118, 122; end of day report 126; headphones for 135; key 125
scripts: adding sketches to 69; breakdown 114; color code for pages 18, 116, 117, 125; for director 67; end
of day report 120; formatting 17, 18, 20; importance of 67; intentions of 71; as key document 18, 48;
lined/lining 46, 116; locked 18; marking 27, 27; notes 116, 118; notes key 125; outline (Raiders of the

Lost Ark) 9; pages 18; during preproduction 23; presentation 20; revisions 18; sample notes 118;
sample page 18; standard pages 27; undercooked 16; understanding 67
SD (secure digital) cards 80, 97, 97
second assistant cameras 80
second assistant directors 46, 54
second second assistant directors 46, 54–55
second unit shoots 80
secondary colors, in lighting 112
Sedgwick, Icy 7
Seidelman, Susan 67, 68
separation 92, 108
sequences 144
“Sergio Leone” shots 90, 91
series, takes and 127
set braces 119, 120
set decorators 115
set dressers 115, 118
sets: building 119, 114; construction 114; “lock up,” reasons for 132; production 23; safety on 150
setups, measuring 69
Se7en 14
Sgt. Riggs (character) 3
shadows 106
shallow focus technique 83
Sharpies 128
The Shawshank Redemption 10, 14

The Shining (Kubrick) 147

shooting: director involvement in 66, 73, 73; documentary style 78; with freeform method 78, 78;
greenscreen 100, 100, 130; with in-one method 76, 77; issues in 58; with master scene method 74–
69, 74; methods 74–78, 69–78; with overlapping method 69–76, 69; permits 32; to playback 137;
preparing for 69; procedures 74; trailer 152; with walk-and-talk method 76, 76; see also scene(s)
short films 2, 152
short focal length 82
shot lists 69, 69
shot-reverse shot 144
shotgun mics 133, 133, 134, 135
Shotput Pro software 97
shots 88–92, 144
shoulder light 105
sides 41, 41
single scrims 108
single system sound 132
singles/stingers 109, 112
sketches 69–70
slate/slating: anatomy of 127, 127; bad 129; bumping 130; clapper 80, 130, 138, 138; numbers 127; rules
129–130; tail 130, 130; takes and series 127; timecode 127, 128, 128, 137, 138–139, 138, 139; VFX plate
130
Sleepless In Seattle 12, 13
sliders 94, 94
slug lines 27, 144
smart slates 127, 128, 128
smilex 120
snoots 108
soft light 104, 104, 107; overhead 108
solids 108, 112
Sorkin, Aaron 4
sound: double system vs. single system 132; effects 135; report 137, 139–140
sound recordists 132–133, 136–137
specular light see hard light
Speed 11
speed, camera 84
Spielberg, Steven 66
spot/flood control, of light 108
stage directions 88
standard def (SD) 81
standby wardrobe see on-set dressers
static/fixed shots 81, 96
Steadicam 81, 94, 95
stealing scenes 32
step outline 8, 9
sticks 94, 94
stingers/singles 109, 112
Stoppard, Tom 8, 13, 14, 16
stories/storytelling: act one 4, 5, 9; act two 6, 6, 9; act three 4, 7, 9; based on conflicts 3, 3; basic
elements of 9; bite/body/tail (structure) 2, 2–9; cards and outline 2–9, 9; changing direction 5;
characters, creating 7; composition and 32, 32; dialog, writing 4; editing 93; emotion of 93;
exposition 5; with focus 11; general idea of 7; intentions of 71; logline 13; main character 4;
midpoint 4, 6; needs (main character) 4, 4; obstacles/roadblocks, (character) 5, 5; with pictures 2–4;
pitching 2; plot point one 4, 5, 5; plot point two 4, 7, 7; premise 6; presentation 2; protagonist vs.
antagonist 4; rising action 2; script, formatting 5, 12; step outline 2, 9; story points 5, 2, 5; structure
2, 2–9; synopsis 2, 13; themes 6; three act structure 4; timeline 62; in traditional order 4; treatment
13; writing 2–2
story days reports 118
storyboards 70
straight cuts 144
strip boards (production boards) 48; colors for 48; on computer 50, 50; other schedule considerations
50; sample page 49
strongbacks 119, 120
subjective POV shots 60, 87, 87
subtext 16
swing gangs see on-set dressers
swing trucks 36
swish pans 96
synchronization, audio and video 138
synopses 8, 19
 
table reads 67
tail-lights 33
tail slates 130, 130
takes 127, 144
talent releases 38, 39, 39
talkies 138
Tarantino, Quentin 143
Tascam DR60D 139
teamster captains 36
tech scouts 29, 33; checking access 29; checking power supply 29; walk through 29
telephotos 82, 83
telling stories, with pictures 2–4
Tentacle Sync timecodes 138–139, 139
Thelma and Louise 4
themes, of stories 6
The Third Man 81, 81
30 degree rule 60, 63
Thompson, Jim 12
three act structure 10
three A’s, of acting 71
three-dimensional spaces 147
tight close-up shots 90, 91
tilts 81, 96
timecode slates 127, 128, 128, 137, 138–139, 138–139
Titanic 12, 14, 19
title pages 20
top sheets 25
Touch of Evil 76
Towne, Robert 8
track left/track right 81
tracking marks 100, 100
tracking moves 96
tragedy 14
trailers, shooting 152
transitional shots 92
transitions 144
transportation, cast and crew 36
transpo (transportation coordinator) 29, 36, 53
traveling shots 32
treatments 19
trial and error method xi
triple-take method 75–76, 75
tripods (sticks) 94, 94
true reverse 60
true subjective POVs 60, 87, 87
tungsten lights 85, 112
turnaround (reverse) 60, 75
12/3 cables 109
20% rule 60, 63
two-dimensional place on screen 147
two shots 89–90, 90, 91
2001: A Space Odyssey 16, 145
 
ultra high def (UHD) 81
unit production manager (UPM) 22
unity(ies) 6; of action 6; of place 6; of time 6
upstage side, lighting from 106, 106, 107
The Usual Suspects 10
 
VFX plate 130
video white balance 85
voice over (V.O.) 17, 135
Vonnegut, Kurt 7
 
walk and talk method 76, 76
walk throughs 29
walkie-talkies 43, 55
Wall-E 4
Ward, Peter 86
wardrobe: assistants 118; continuity 58, 118, 118; department 117–118; designer 53; makeup and 50, 51,
54, 67, 72, 117–118; making decisions about 68; mistakes in 64; on-set dresser 115, 118;
rentals/purchases 119; supervisor 118
whip pans 96
white balance (color neutral balance) 85
wide focal length lenses 82, 83
wide shots 88, 97
wiggly lines 122
wild tracks 135
wild walls 120
Willis, Gordon 108
wind noises 136
window flats 119, 120
windows, in film lighting 107–108, 108
Winslet, Kate 12
wireless lavs 133–134
Wise, Robert 76
Wizard of Oz 19
wooden clothes pins, for lighting 110, 110
writing: dialog 16; story 2–20; treatment 19; see also stories/storytelling
 
XLR connectors 132, 132, 134, 138
 
zebras 84, 85
Zoom F4
recorder 137, 138
Zoom H4n recorder 138
zooms 81, 96
 
If you want to go deeper into filmmaking techniques, you might want
to look at these books by the same author:

Cinematography: Theory & Practice for Cinematographers

& Directors — Focal Press
 Motion Picture and Video Lighting for Cinematographers,
Gaffers & Lighting Technicians — Focal Press
The Filmmaker’s Guide to Digital Imaging for
Cinematographers, Digital Imaging Technicans and Camera
Assistants — Focal Press

https://www.amazon.com/s?k=blain+brown&ref=nb_sb_noss_1