9 - NSF Digital Library

The Role of the Buffalo 

in Rural Development in Asia 

SAREC/NARESA Buffalo ~esearch 

and Development Programme 

Perzdeniya, Sri Lanka

ROLE OF THE BUFFALO IN 

RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA 

Proceedings of a Regional Symposium 

Organized by the Buffalo ~ese&ch Programme 

of the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with 

Developing Countries (SAREC) and the Natural Resources, 

Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka (NARESA) 

held 10-15 December 1995 in Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 

Edited by 

B.M.A.O. Perera 

J.A. de S. Siriwardene 

N.U . Horadagoda 

M.N.M. Ibrahun 

NARESA Press, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

SARECNARESA Regional Symposium on the 

Role of the Buffalo in Rural Development on Asia 

1995, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 

Incudes bibiliographical references and index. 

ISBN 955-590-007-8 

1 .Buffalo- Regional Symposium. 2.Rural Development - Asia 

3. Buffalo - Rural Development I. Perera, B.M.A.O. 

II. Siriwardene, J.A. de S. Ill. Horadagoda, N.U. 

IV. Ibrahim, M.N.M. 

Proceedings of the SARECNARESA Regional Symposium on the 

Role of the Buffalo in Rural Development in Asia, held 1 1-15 

December 1995 Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 

O 1996 NARESA Press 

47/5 Maitland Place 

Colombo 7 

Sri Lanka 

ISBN 955-590-007-8 

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or 

transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, 

photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written 

permission fiom the Publisher. 

Printed in Sri Lanka

Preface 

Despite the importance afthe buffalo in the rural economy of Sri 

Lanka, serious scientific attention was directed towards improving the 

productivity of this animal only after 1980, as a sequel to a national 

workshop organized under the sponsorship of the Swedish Agency for 

Research Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC). This 

workshop identiiied gaps in knowledge which hampered better utilization 

of this animal's potential. Subsequently, SAREC provided hnding 

through the Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority 

(NARESA) for a five year research programme from 1983. During this 

first phase, 19 research projects were undertaken on hdarnental aspects 

of nutrition, reproduction, diseases and soci+econornics. The results 

were presented at a symposium held in Kandy in 1989. Subsequently, 

SAREC provided funds for a second phase comprising 34 projects 

covering a wide range of topics, including applied studies to develop new 

technologies to improve the productivity of buffaloes under rural farming 

conditions. This programme also contributed significantly towards the 

building up of it&astructure in the participating institutions and provided 

opportunities for postgraduate training of young researchers. 

Supplementary support was also provided to this programme by other 

donor agencies, chiefly the International Atomic Energy Agency 

(Vienna), the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, 

the Overseas Development Administration of the UK and the 

Government of the Netherlands. 

In order to disseminate the knowledge gained and to transfer the 

technologies developed to the end-users (the village farmers), SAREC is 

now supporting a third phase of two years, during 1995 and 1996. The 

main objective of Phase 3 is to demonstrate the applicability and 

effectiveness of the new technologies and thereby popularize buffalo 

rearing through intensification of management practices. All activities of 

this phase are being conducted in close collaboration with the various 

institutions in the country dealing with research, education, training, 

extension and development relating to animal production and health.

This publication contains the r&earch papers presented by Sri 

Lankan scientists at a Regional Symposium on the Role of the Buffalo in 

Rural Development in Asia held in December 1995. Also included are 

keynote lectures delivered by seven eminent foreign scientists &om the 

Asian region and abstracts of some of the theses presented by 

postgraduate students who participated in the programme. The 

symposium provided an opportunity to review the work done under the 

second phase dthe SAREUNARESA buMo research and development 

pmgramme and to share experiences with leading scientists from Asian 

countries. It provided a f- far discussion of strateyges for 

dissemination of technical knowledge to rural farmers. A summary of the 

discussions together with conclusions and recommendations are also 

included in these proceedings. 

The project management team wishes to thank SAREC and 

NARESA for their excellent support, the scientists and collaborating 

institutes for their contribution to the programme, the innovative farmers 

who agreed to test the new technologies, and all those who helped to 

make this Symposium possible.

Preface 

OPENING SESSION 

CONTENTS 

Page 

Address by Project Representative - B.M. AO. Perera ix 

Address by Director General, NARESA 

- Priyani E. Soysa 

Address by SAREC Representative - AfhI Sher 

xii 

xiv 

Address by Hon. Minister of Science, ~ekhnolo~~ and 

Human Resources Development - Bernard Soysa 

xvi 

Vote of Thanks - H. Abeygunawardena xix 

GENERAL SESSION 

Buffalo production systems in South East Asia and possibilities I 

for transfer of appropriate teihnologies to improve 

productivity: an overview 

V. G. Momongan (Philippines) 

SARECJNARESA Project on Dissemination of information 19 

on improved buffalo production systems to small farmers 

JA. de S. Siriwardene 

SESSION I - PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND USES 

Relevance and importance of crop-animal systems 

in Asia 

C. Devendra (ILRI, Kenya) 

The use of female buffaloes for on-farm work 

P. Bunyavejchewin, C. Chantalakhana 

(Thailand) 

1

Transfer of technology in smallholder intensive buffalo 

farming: Results &om a pilot study in Mahaweli 

System "H". 

H. Abeygunawardena, D.H.A. Subasinghe, 

A.h?l? Perera, S.S.E. Ranawana, 

M KA.P. Jayatilake, BM.A.0. Perera 

Supply response of milk and management dciency of 95 

cattle and buffalo production in Sri Lanka: A cross section 

study in wet zone and dry zone districts 

C. Bogahawatte 

A field survey and microbiological studies on Ruhunu curd 

K.K. Pathirana, C.P. Kodikara, 

D.KM.P. Dassanayake, S. Widanapathirana 

Preliminary analytrcal observations on persistence of milk 

yield in buffalo in Sri Lanka 

I.D. Sihra, A. Dangolla, K.F.S.T. Silva 

Factors affecting carcass and meat quality of indigenous 

buffaloes in Sri Lanka. 

H. JK Cyril, A. Jayaweera 

Panel Discussion 

SESSION I1 - GENOTYPES AND ENVIRONMENT 

Breeding strawes for optimum utilization of available 

resources in rural buffalo production systems 

C. Chantalakhana, P. Bunyavejchewin (Thailand) 

Physiological responses of Lankan buffaloes to stress 

at work 

A.A.J. Rajaratne, S.S.E. Ranawana 

Effectiveness of different cooling ireatments in alleviating 

heat load on water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): A suitable 

cooling method 

E. R. K. Perera, A.N. F. Perera

Physiological responses of Lankan buffaloes to 

dehydration (Abstract) 

A.A.J. Rajaratne, S.S.E. Ranawana 


New concepts and strategies in the utilization of 

fibrous crop residues (FICR) and agmindustrial by products 

(ABP) in buflFalo feeding 

N. V. Thu (Vietnam) 

Development of systems of supplementary feeding for 


S. Premarafne, P. Sivaram 

Composition of natural herbage and improvement of 

quality of some alternate feed sources for buffalo 

feeding 

A.N. F. Perera, E.R. K. Perera 

Serum concentrations of progesterone and its precursor 

cholesterol in buffaloes 

R. SivaRanesan, J.G.S. Ranasinghe, 

C. Mariathusan, H. Abeygunawardena 

Changes in growth, rumen characteristics and blood 

metabolites of indigenous buffalo heifers in response to 

supplementary feeding of urea treated versus untreated rice 

straw 

E.R.K. Perera. A.N.F. Perera 

Appropriate nutritional packages for smallholder buffalo 

production systems in Asia 

S.K. Ranjhan (India) 

Study of the grazing behaviour and forage utilization of 

fiee range buffalo herds 

H. Peiris. A. Perera 

273

The nutritional status ofindigenous buffaloes with 28 1 

respect to selected micronutrients (Abstract) 

SXE. Ranawana, J. Dhamardana, 

A. WAS. Abeysekara, A.A.J. Rajarame, 

G.D.J.K. Gunaratne, E.M.C. Ekanayake 

Panel Discussion ' 283 

SESSION IV - REPRODUCTION 

The importance of reproductive efficiency in successful 289 

buffalo dairy farming 

S. N. H. Shah (Pakistan) 

A comparative study of reproduction and productive 297 

characteristics of indigenous swamp and exotic river 


H. Abeygunawardensz, WD. Abayawansa, 

BM.A.0. Perera 

Seasonal variations in seminal and testicular 309 

characteristics in buffalo bulls 

D. Gunarajaingham, H. Abeygunawardena, 

K Y. Kuruwita, E.R.K. Perera, BM.A.0. Perera 

Effects of different suckling regimes on postpartum fertility 321 

of buffalo cows and growth and mortality of buffalo calves 

H. Abeygunawardena, V. Y. Kuruwita, BM.A.0. Perera 

Effects of exogenous hormones on fertility of postpartum 337 

anoestrous buffaloes 

H. Abeygunawardena, V. Y. Kuruwita, BMA.0, Perera 

Panel Discussion . ',' 351 

SESSION V - HEALTH AND DISEASES 

Disease preventioh and recent innovations in the control 355 

of bacterial and viral diseases of buffaloes 

D.K Singh (india) 

. .

Further studies on the epidemiology and immunology of 371 

haemorrhagic septicaemia in buffaloes 

M. C.L. de Ahvis, N. U. Horadagoda, T. G. Wijewardana, 

P. Abeynaike, A.A. Vipulmiri, S.A. Thalagoda 

Characterization of strains of buffalo calf rotavirus by 393 

polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis 

U. Ariyaratne, S. Mahalingam 

Markers of idammation in buffalo milk 

I. D. Silva, K.F.S.T. Silva, A.P.N. Ambagala; 

R. Cooray 

Prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in buffaloes 

in Sri Lanka 

T. G. Wijewardana, B. D.R. Wijewardana, 

W.N.D. G.S. Appuhamy, K.R. KPM. Premaratne 

Observations on Schistosoma nmale RAO, 1993 427 

infections in the vertebrate and snail hosts 

D.J. Wezlgama 

Haematologcal and biochemical profiles of adult female 43 9 

Lanka buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) 

N. U. Horadagoda, I.S. Gunawardena, 

A.P.N. Ambagala, DM.S. Munminghe 

"Domosedan" as a sedative analgesic in indigenous 

buffalo 

D.D.N. de Silva 

Functional efficiency of buffalo neutrophils 

I.D. Szlva 

Studies of Explanaturn (Gzgantocotyle) explanaturn 473 

infection: prevalence in cattle and buffaloes in Sri Lanka 

and pathology in natural infection 

I.S. Abeygunawardena, D.J. Veilgum4 

N. U Horadagoda, H.M.H.L. Jayapadma 


vii

SESSION VI - CONCLUSIONS AND 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

APPENDICES 

Abstracts of TIreses 

Immunological response of buffalo cows to 

Toxocara vitulorum - antigenic analysis 

P. H. Amarasinghe 

Production systems and reproductive performance 

of indigenous buffaloes in Sri Lanka 

L.N.A. de Silva 

Studies on the composition of indigenous buffalo 

milk in Sri Lanka 

A. Horadagoda 

Immunopathological studies of Toxocara vitulorum 

in buffalo calves and rodents 

M.A. Masoodi 

Clinical and endocrinological studies on postpartum 509 

ovarian activity in Lanka buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) 

V. Mohan 

Immunological response of bdalo cows and calves 51 1 

to Toxocara vintlonrm ,' 

R.P. KJ. Rajapahe 

Immunological responses of mice, rabbits and buffalo 513 

calves to Toxocara (neoascaris) vitulorum infection 

B.T. Samarasinghe 

Studies on rotavirus infedion of buffalo calves in Sri Lanka 515 

N.P. Sunil Chandra 

List of Participants 517 

Authors I nk 521

Welcome Address by Dr. Oswin Perera 

(Project Representative) 

Honourable Mr. Bernard Soysa, Minister of Science, Technology 

and Human Resources Development; His Excellency Mr. T. Akesson, 

Charge d AGkes for Sweden; Prafessor Priyani Soysa, Director General 

of the Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka 

(NARESA); Dr. Afzal Sher, representative of the Swedish Agency for 

Research Cooperation with Developing Countries (SARECISida); 

distinguished keynote speakers, foreign and Sri Lankan guests, 

participants, ladies and gentlemen. 

On behalf of the Project Staff of the SARECMARESA Buffalo 

Research and Development Programme in Sri Lanka, it is indeed a great 

privilege and pleasure to welcome you most cordially to the opening of 

this Regional Symposium on "The Role of the Buflalo in Rural 

Development in Asia". 

The starting point of this programme was the holding of a 

National Workshop, in 1980, to review all aspects of buffalo research 

conducted up to that time, and to identify gaps in knowledge which 

impeded better utilization of this animal's potential by nual fanners. 

Based on the recommendations of the workshop, SAREC provided 

funding through NARESA for a five year research programme &om 1983. 

This fmt phase focused on fundamental aspects of nutrition, 

reproduction, diseases and socieeconornics. A large scale field survey 

was conducted to gather base-line information on the management and 

productivity of indigenous buffaloes, and a monograph, now recognized 

as the standard reference work, was published. Two buffalo research 

farms were also established. 

The results of these studies were presented at a symposium held 

in Kandy in 1989, and lead to a second phase in which SAREC provided 

funds for a further five year programme. This second phase included 

more applied studies to develop technologies which can be used at the 

field level to improve productivity under rural farming conditions.

In order to dissentinate the knowledge gained, and to transfer the 

technologies developed to the end-users (i.e. the village farmers), SAREC 

is now supporting a third phase of two years, during 1995 and 1 996. The 

activities being undertaken are five-fold. The first is establishment of 

Field Projects in villages, to demonstrate the applicability and 

effectiveness of the new technologies. Selected farmers in three regions 

are provided assistance and technical advice to upgrade their holdings to 

serve as "Model-farms". These farms will in turn serve as demonstration 

sites and training locations for other farmers. Secondly, a Buffalo 

Information Centre is being established, to serve as a repository and 

resource base for fbture research and development. Thirdly, a series of. 

Publications is under preparation, including a book for scientists and 

students, and a handbook for extension workers, to document and 

disseminate the scientSc, technical and practical knowledge that has been 

gained. Fourthly, a Public Awareness programme is being launched, 

through linkages with on-going agricultural programmes on television 

and radio, to broadcast the potential of the buffalo and to popularize 

buffalo farming based on sound principles. Finally, a programme of 

Continuing Education is being implemented, to update the knowledge 

and skills of farmers, extension workers, field officers and administrators 

in appropriate technologies which can maximize the utilization of this 

valuable livestock resource in rural development. 

AU these activities are conducted in close collaboration with the 

main governmental and non-governmental insbtutions responsible for 

livestock development in Sri Lanka. These include the Department of 

Animal Production and Health (DAPH), the Veterinary Research 

Institute 0, the Provincial Directorates of Livestock in the project 

locations, the National Livestock Development Board (NLDB), the 

Livestock Development Division of the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka 

(MASL), the Coconut Triangle Milk Producers' Cooperative Union 

(CTMU), and the Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training 

Institute (KARTI). The project draws heady on the expertise of research 

workers at the University of Peradeniya and is coordinated by a small 

Secretariat. 

I also wish to gratefully acknowledge the supplementary support 

provided to the overall programme by other international and bilateral

donor agencies. Chief among these are the International Atomic Energy 

Agency (IAEA) in ~ienna, the Australian Centre for International 

Agr~cultural Research (ACIAR), the Overseas Development 

Administration (ODA) of the UK and the Government of the 

Netherlands. 

The Reg~oaal Symposium which we are here to inaugurate today 

has several objectives. It will critically review the work done under the 

second phase afthe SARECINARESA buffalo research and development 

programme, and share these experiences with eminent scientists in other 

Asian countries. It will also draw on their experiences in the application 

and dissermnation of technical knowledge to rural farmers in their own 

countries, and discuss strategies for wider application of selected 

technologies. Finally, it will identify potential areas for further study and 

technology transfer. Clearly, an important challenge for dI of us in the 

future is to develop innovative management packages, utilizing locally 

available resources, which will be sustainable under the more intensive 

land use systems that are evolving in most parts of the Asian continent. 

Ladies and Gentlemen, Thank you for your attention.

Address by Prof. Priyani E. Soysa 

(Director General, NARESA) 

Honourable Minister, Charge d Maires for Sweden, Dr. fial 

Sher, Dr. Abeygunawardena, Dr. Oswin Perera, researchers, guests and 

visitors. This seminar marks the termination of phase II of the SAREC 

Buffalo Research Programme and experts from the Asian region have 

been invited to review the research results and share their experiences. 

Research on the water b&do has been generously supported by SAREC 

since 1983. This aid which was channelled through NARESA, has 

amounted to nearly 75 million rupees over the past 12 years. SAREC has 

also provided assistance to the National Aquatic Resources Authority 

(NARA) and the Ruhunu University; the grand total being nearly a 

hundred million rupees. Sri Lanka is indeed grateful to Sweden for its 

interest in research in this country. The research programme had the 

support of a group of senior scientists from the University, the 

Department of Animal Production and Health and other agencies. 

Honourable Minister Bernard Soysa on assumption of duties questioned 

me on the progress of this research programme and also expressed his 

wish to share the results of research and the implications to the farmer 

with his colleague, the, Honourable Mr. Thondaman, Minister of 

Livestock Development and Rural Industries. The latter in turn was 

excited about the need of buffaloes for draught and now, in the 

development of milk production. Sri Lanka imports millions of rupees 

worth of milk food and I myself am concerned about this vast 

expenditure. How could the buffaloes help in this situation? Work has 

been done to improve the potential of the local buffalo breed by better 

efforts in reproduction, nutrition, reducing calf mortality and also 

morbidity among the adults of thls species. 

The research has produced a better understanding of viral, 

parasitic and other disease conditions that can be prevented and treated. 

Two research farms in Peradeniya and Narangalla have been developed 

to support research. These activities must now be taken over by either 

the W or the Department of Ammal Production and Health. Several 

young scientists have visited collaborating research institutes in Sweden 

thus helping Sri Lanka to build research capabilities and develop human

esources. The Project supported research training and the output fiom 

this exchange training programme was 8 PhD's and 17 Master's qualified 

scientists. The funding for research has now ceased and final reports 

were expected by end of September. SAREC is now funding Phase III of 

the project which amplifies the us~ess ofthe research and the need for 

dissemination of the research results. A buffalo infiation centre has 

been established for this putpose and recently we engaged the services of 

a consultant fiom Thailand to advice on setting up of tlus centre. The 

duration of third phase is two years. NARESA hopes that the 

Department of Animal Production & Health will maintain this centre 

thereafk. The exercise ofproducing information in the form of books for 

scientists and the handbooks and ledets for fatmer is in progress. The 

proceedings of thls workshop should be available in a few months, 

perhaps also incorporating the proceedings of a previous workshop held 

in 1988189. The farmers have to be appraised of useful scientific 

progress, brealang some ineffective traditional practices. The urea 

molasses mineral brick has been made available in the project areas, its 

usefulness has been demonstrated along with other intensive farming 

strategies to increase lactation. We have to learn lessons fiom India 

where milk is cheap and consumption is popular. In Sri Lanka milk is 

expensive and is becoming more and more expensive. 

We need to commercialize the production of the urea molasses 

nutrient brick. However, I understand that farmers outside the project 

area are also enthusiastically purchasing this brick. NARESA is now 

working with the National E n ~ Research ~ g Division (NERD) 

hopefilly to stimulate the commercial production of this brick. 

At this seminar participants should discuss whether the research 

has sigdicance for wider practical application and planned intervention 

for the greater good of our rural people. Perhaps the gaps in the local 

scientXc knowledge and research wil be filled by the exchange of ideas 

at this regional seminar. You have my best wishes for a lively exchange 

of views and I thank you for your patient hearing.

Address by Dr. Aha1 Sher 

(Representative, SAREC1Sida) 

Honourable Minister, Bernard Soysa, Director General 

NARESA, Professor Priyani Soysa, Charge d' Maires for Sweden, Dr. 

Perera, Dr. Abeygunawardena, distinguished scientists, ladies and 

gentlemen. I feel very honoured to be invited to address such a 

distinguished gathering at the opening ceremony of the regional 

Symposium on "the Role of Buffalo in Rural Development in Asia" a 

topic on which, I must confess, I am no expert. The Symposium 

programme reveals that some of the most eminent foreign scientists on 

the water buffalo will be sharing their experiences with the Sri Lankan 

counterparts. 

In the history of mankind, civilization has risen and fallen, 

cultures of great sophisbcation have developed in all continents. 

Societies offering great promise at one time have failed to sustain 

progress and turned into decay leaving behind only fragments of past 

glories. We marvel at the intricacy and the precision of the asterisk 

calendar and the wisdom of confucion. They represent cultural 

achievements of a society once at the forefront but now long since left 

behmd. Man has always been striving towards a better life but progress 

has been uneven to say the least. In many instances, changes for the 

better come to a halt or even regress. What are the driving forces behind 

progress and why some cultures are unable to sustain forces of progress 

remains to be a question. There are many theories. Some authors 

associate strong religious and ideological influences associated with 

stagnation and decay, while others would rather interpret the fall of 

mighty powers as a consequence of expressive exploitation of scarce 

resources, human or material as the case may be. I would like to argue 

that science in general and basic sciences in particular have been and 

must c&dy continue be the decisive factor for achieving development. 

This is in no way an original idea but it has often been forgotten in the 

context of aid for developing countries. Before proceeding on to matters 

of th~s Symposium, let me say a few words regarding this SIDA-SAREC 

confusion. SAREC was an independent research financing agency of 

Sweden created in 1975 under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. As of 1 st

July 1995, the Swedish government decided to merge all the five Swedish 

aid agencies into one agency. SIDA that is familiar to you is written in 

capital letters, but the new agency is also called Sida, with only the first 

letter in capital. More importantly, it represents a completely different 

agency. The earlier SIDA was the Swedish International Development 

Authority, but the new agency created by merging all aid agencies is 

referred to as the Swedish International Development Cooperation 

Agency. 

Most of you are aware that SAREC has supported the buffalo 

research programme since 1982. In 1994, when I participated in a 

discussion with the water buffalo research and advisory committee, it was 

mentioned that dumg the 10 years of research, some 90 research projects 

on different aspects of the water buffalo were approved. Apart from 

creating a conducive research environment and establishing the necessary 

inikastructure the project has trained a good number of researchers. There 

has been 8 PhD and 17 MSc programmes completed and some 100 

scientific papers published. Thus it was suggested that the programme 

should now enter into a phase of dissetllination of information. The water 

bufMo research committee thus proposed to SAREC that a final two year 

grant be awarded to the programme with the main aim of (a) halising 

the ongoing research projects, and (b) translating the results and 

knowledge gained into practical recommendations and guidelines which 

shall be transferred to implementing agencies and fanners through 

workshops, publications and comprehensive programme reports. This 

Symposium is a link in the chain of activities to achieve the aim, I just 

mentioned. I hope the result of this programme can be implemented for 

the development and prosperity of the Sri Lankan people. I would also 

take this opportunity to congratulate the Water Buffalo Research Team, 

NARESA, Mr. Asoka de Silva, the former Deputy Director General of 

NARESA who was attached to this programme right from its inception, 

my predecessor Carl Guvtsson Thormstorm and all those people who 

have worked very hard to make this programme a success. As I am 

aware that you have a tough schedule ahead of you, I would not like to 

take more of your valuable time. I wish you all the best in your 

Symposium and may God bless you.

Address by Mr. Bernard Soysa 

(Hon. Minister for Science, Technology and Human 

Resources Development) 

Madam chairperson, professors, research workers distinguished 

visitors, ladies and gentlemen, as mentioned by the Director General of 

NARESA, this particular project with regard to the buffalo was one that 

was pointed out to me as of great importance when I assumed duties as 

minister one year ago. It is true that the importance of the buffalo in the 

rural economy of this country has not been appreciated over the years. 

Even farmers fail to appreciate the role of this animal in their own lives 

in sdlicient measure. The replacement of the buffalo with the tractor was 

resisted by the farmer not due to any set of causes but due to the normal 

conservatism of the rural people. I remember when the late Mr. Philip 

Gunawardena was Minister of Agriculture, in his attempts to reorganise 

paddy cultivation in this country, he brought forward the paddy lands bill 

that required the participation of the cultivating peasants in managing 

rural committees. There was some dificulty in getting fanners to a 

operate and accept this new structure. As you are aware, this was an 

attempt to cut across the semi-feudal relationships which existed with 

regard to land holdings and cultivation under the "Ande' System". It was 

difficult to persuade the cultivators. I remember a very enthusiastic fiend 

of mine and I attempted to convert the rural people in Tissamaharama to 

accept this new structure and participate in the committees. We told 

them that they could pool their resources to buy a tractor, but the 

response was "why do we need a tractor, we have the buffalo". My fiend 

argued for half an hour to try to prove to them the superiority ofthe 

tractor. The peasants were unconvinced and one of them said he would 

think about it and come back the next day with h~s answer. When we 

met him the next day his face was alight and he said he had the answer 

to all the arguments, which was that the tractor cannot be bred, and 

therefore the buffalo was superior. While rice fanners were prepared to 

defend the bdMo not much has been done to preserve the buffalo in the 

economy. The use ofthe buflFalo is known to them but not the care of the 

buffalo in the same way. I was discussing this matter with a person fiom 

the AMUL Project in India which has been so very successful in 

increasing milk production. He admitted that the availability of

traditional grazing land for the .buffalo in India too is diminishing. 

~rtificid feeding and other innovations had to be devised. He said that 

if that is the problem facing India, it is bound to be a prpblem in Sri 

Lanka too. If we are to face such a problem then what are the answers? 

A research output of the SAREC/NARESA Project is the use of the urea 

molasses mineral brick. We have been trpg to persuade the Minister of 

Livestock Development to by to sponsor its commercial production 

through involvement of the private sector. There are many other aspects 

for which the biotechnologist must find solutions. The whole question 

of upgrading the local buffalo with imported buffalo breeds have been 

tried several times. I do not know how far the experiments have 

succeeded. I am told that in order to increase the productivity of the 

buffalo, attempts have been made to use artificial insemination and that 

so far it has not proved to be successful. Therefore the whole question of 

how to save the buffalo is still a bang problem. We need to share our 

experiences in Asia because Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, Burma, India 

and Palastan have the buffalo as a very important element in the economy 

of those countries, particularly to the agricultural economy and therefore 

if we pool the research done in all these countries, I am sure we can 

benefit by one another's experiences. 

- ~ 

The problems may not be the same in each country but while 

variations exists, these can be understood and appropriate measures 

adopted. The important work that you have t do is to share the 

experiences during the course of this Symposium. % do.not want to say 

much more because my bowledge on the buffdo is ext&mely limited. 

My acquaintance with the buffalo has not always been a very pleasant 

one. When I have attempted to cross fields and go up mountain sides, 

even up Piduruthalagala, I have had most hostile encounters with the 

buffalo. However, I do not bear a grudge against the animal on that 

account but the fact remains that I am not competent to speak about its 

welfare or what is required for the development of the buffalo here. I 

leave that to the scientists who have been working in +e field; I wish 

your cooperative efforts in sharing knowledge will prove beneficial not 

only to Sri Lanka and the rural population of this country but also to 

neighbowing countries as well. I am happy that as a minister I was asked 

to come to the inauguration of deliberations today, to see what can be 

done at the Ministerial level' to help you to get the necessary collaboration

with other people and to see that where there is any lack of resources that 

might be rectified. On that score as far as the ministry is concerned, I am 

very happy to see that organisations such as NERD and NARESA which 

are under my ministry have stepped into the programme and are prepared 

and anxious to ceoperate in getting this project going. I wish your 

deliberations every success and tmst that at the end of the deliberations 

we will have a situation where everydung has not gone up in hot air and 

discussion, but implementation may be possible through some 

collaborative mechanism which can bring the cultivating peasants into 

the programme, without whom all such discussions would be futile. 

The dichotomy between research and implementation is a very 

dangerous one; we can have a lot of valuable research whlch remains 

barren because it is not implemented. Therefore the question of how to 

translate the valuable results of research into practical implementahon 

mechanisms at the grass roots level is a problem. However, I think it is 

necessary for SAREC and NARESA to give their minds along with 

scientists to the problem of bridging this gap and allowing the peasant to 

come on to the information highway of today. This is all I have to say to 

you, I wish your deliberations all success and I want to thank NARESA 

and SAREC for inviting me to come here today and may your 

deliberations bring fnutful results for all countries concerned. Thank you 

very much.

Vote of Thanks by Dr. H. Abeygunawardena. 

Distinguished guests, ladies and gentlemen, it is my pleasure to' 

propose a vote of thanks on behalf of the Organizing Committee of this 

Regional Symposium. Mr. Bernard Soysa, the Honourable Minister for 

Science, Technology and Human Resources Development, we are most 

gratefid to you Sir, for accepting our invitation to grace this occasion, 

amidst a very busy schedule. Your Excellency, Charge dl Maires for 

Sweden, thank you very much for being with us at the opening of this 

Regional Symposium. Professor Priyani E. Soysa, the Director General 

of NARESA, we wish to thank you madam, for the constant 

encouragement and stimulation extended towards the staEof the buffalo 

research programme in organizing this symposium. 

I wish to thank you all for accepting our invitation and being 

present with us this morning. Your presence is indeed a great source of 

encouragement and inspiration. Despite the importance of the water 

buffalo in rural farming communities, this species had not received 

indepth scientific investigations in Sri Lanka until SAREC sponsored a 

comprehensive research programme which commenced in the early 

1980's. We wish to acknowledge the generous contribution of SAREC 

and it is a pleasure to have with us today, Dr. A hl Sher and Dr. Ronnie 

Duel, the representatives of SAREC. We are also pleased to have in our 

midst Professor Ingemar Settergren from Sweden who has been 

associated with this programme as a reviewer and promoter from its 

inception. 

On behalf of the organizing committee, I wish to express our 

gratitude to all the eminent scientists from the Region and the 

representatives of international agencies for accepting our invitation and 

being present here with us. We are certain that you will inspire our 

researchers by sharing your experiences and play an important role 

during the discussio& and in the formulation of future research 

drections. 

I wish to acknowledge the cooperation extended by the 

Department of Animal Production & Health, National Livestock

Development Board, the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, University of 

Peradeniya, Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian Research and Training 

Institute and the Coconut Triangle Milk Producers Union, to the buffalo 

research programme and in organizing this symposium. I also wish to 

express our gratitude to the commercial organizations who have 

contributed in various ways towards the symposium. A special word of 

thanks to the Difector of the Plant Genetic Resources Centre (PGRC) and 

his stsfor providing this excellent facility for the symposium. 

The current phase of the BuflFalo Research Programme, as 

mentioned earlier is pnmanly aimed at disseminating information and we 

are indebted to the participating scientists, fanners, extension workers, 

research and technical assistants for their cooperation. We are optimistic 

that our untiring efforts will succeed in delivering the new knowledge to 

the end-user, the rural fanner.

BUFFALO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN SOUTH EAST 

ASIA AND POSSIBILITIES FOR TRANSFER OF 

APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES TO IMPROVE 

PRODUCTIVITY: AN OVERVIEW 

V.. G. Momongan 

Institute of Animal Science, College of Agriculture 

University of the Philippines at Los Bailos 

College Laguna 4031 

THE PHILIPPINES 

Abstract: Swamp buffaloes which are predominant in Southeast (SE) Asia are 

raised by smallholder farmers primarily for draught. Buffalo production in SE 

Asia has always been an integral component of crop production. While 96.5% 

of the world buffalo population are in Asia, only 12% are in SE Asia. 

Decreasing trends in buffalo populations are occurring in Brunei, Malaysia, 

Philippines and Thailand. Increasing trends in the use of tractors to replace or 

combine with buffalo draught power are occurring throughout SE Asia. 

Thailand and Indonesia had 337% and 279% increase in the number of tractors, 

respectively, in 1993 compared to that in 1979-8 1. Inspite ofthe increasing use 

of the tractor for tillage, buffalo is predicted to remain with smallholder farmers 

in SE Asia because of distinct advantages appreciated by farmers. 

The different buffdo produdion systems are briefly discussed. Buffalo 

beef production had increased substantially in 1994 compared to that during 

1979-81, contributing 26% of the total beef production in Asia and SE Asia. 

However, the contribution of buffalo beef to total meat production was very 

small, indicating a tremendous potential for the buffalo meat to take a greater 

share of the market for meat products. The contribution of buffalo milk to total 

milk production was 40% in Asia and only 11% in SE Asia, supporting the 

observation that swamp buffaloes are not primarily used for millcing. 

Appropriate technologies to improve the productivity of swamp buffaloes are 

also discussed. 

Keywords: Buffalo, production systems, SE Asia, appropriate techuologies, 

productivity.

Buffalo production systems in South East Asia 

The predominant water buffalo in Southeast Asia is the swamp type, 

of which 95 to 99% are raised by smallholder farmers as an integral part 

of their farming system. In Thailand, the smallholder farmer usually has 

1 - 3 b&oes per household (Konanta and Intaramongkol, 1994); in Lao 

PDR, 2 - 4 buffaloes (Bouahom, 1994); in the Philippines, 1 - 2 

carabaos; and in Indonesia, it ranges fiom 2 (Central Java) to 14 (South 

Sulawesi), with a mean of 6 buffaloes per family (Toelihere, 1980). In 

Vietnam, 1 - 2 buffaloes are kept per family in the delta areas and 5 - 7 in 

the central highlands (Cuong and Hien, 1989). Farmers regard the 

baa as a fm of security which can be sold when there is a dire need 

for cash. 

Most of the swamp buffaloes are raised primarily for draught, and 

secondly, for meat and milk. In the Philippines, 99% are raised by 

smallholder farmers mainly for draught purposes. In Vietnam, 97% are 

kept by smallholder farmers (Nguyen et al., 1994), and 65 to 68% of the 

total buffalo population are draught animals (Cuong and Hien, 1 989). In 

Lao PDR, about 95% of the traction power for land preparation in rice 

cultivation comes from bdhlo (Ebuahom, 1994). Buffaloes are also used 

for transport in pulling carts, sledges, bamboos or logs; for riding or as 

pack animals; aad in extracting juice fiom sugar cane, or in lifting watef 

for irrigation. 

Ofthe 148.8 million buffaloes in the world, 96.5% a 143.6 million 

are in Asia. However, only about 12% a 17.9 million are in Southeast 

(SE) Asia (Table 1). The buffalo populations in Bmei, Malaysia, 

Philippines and Thailand have decreased compared to their respective 

populatians in 1979-81. Those in the rest of the SE Asian countries 

showed an increase, with Cambodia and Lao PDR registering 120% and 

57% increases respectively, over the last 15 years. Also, the least number

V. G. Momongan 

of people sharing a b&alo is in Lao PDR, Cambodia and Thailand with 

about 4, 12 and 14 peoplehuffalo, respectively. Although the buffalo 

population in Indonesia had increased by 42.8% in 1994 and ranks 

second in SE Asia, yet the number of people sharing per buffalo 

(55.4huffalo) is even greater than that in Brunei (28huffalo). Malaysia 

had the greatest number of people per buffalo, at 106 personslb&alo. 

Table 1. World, Asian and Southeast Asian human and buffalo 

populations. 

Geographical 1994 Popln. No. of % Change in 

locations (x 1,000) people per buffalo popln. 

buffalo 1994 over '79-'8 1 

Human Buffalo 

World 5,630,240 

Asia 3,333,188 

SE Asia 474,978 

Brunei 280 

Cambodia 9,868 

Indonesia 194,6 15 

Lao PDR 4,742 

Malaysia 19,695 

Myanmar 45,555 

Philippines 66,188 

Singapore 2,821 

Thailand 58,183 

Vietnam 72,93 1 3,009 24.2 +30.20 

Adapted from: 1994 Production Yearbook (FAO, 1995) 

BUFFALO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 

In general, buffalo raising in SE Asian countries is not 

considered a distinct enterprise, but has always been an integral part of 

the crop production system in smallholder farms. Buffaloes provide 

&au&t power and manure for maintaining soil fertility and utilize crop

Buffalo production systems in South Emt Asia 

residues and farm by-products as feeds. Only in few areas can you find 

buffdoes being raised for milk or meat production as the primary 

concern. In most cases, buffalo meat is considered a by-product of the 

draught or milking animal. Milk is obtained mainly for consumption in 

the locality. 

Draught Buffalo Production 

Production of draught buffalo is mostly associated with rice 

farming systems, especially in rain-fed rice paddies, although they are 

utilized also in other types of farming systems, such as sugar cane, 

coconut, cnl palm and other upland crops or a combination thereof. In the 

Philippines, a carabao is used for 84 working days annually, although in 

rice-based farming systems carabaos work for 98 days yearly (Alviar, 

1986). Thai buffaloes work 20 - 146 days yearly (Chantalakhana and 

Bunyavejchewin, 1989). In Vietnam, buffaloes work for 3 - 4 months 

yearly in mountainous areas and 5 - 6 months in the delta region (Cuong 

and Hien, 1989). 

In recent years in SE Asia, there has been a slow increase in farm 

mechariization replacing the draught buffalo. There was an increase of 

138% in the number of tractors in 1993 .compared to that in the 1979-81 

period, although, the increase in areas cultivated with rice was only about 

12% over the same period oftime (Table 2). hdonesia and Myanmar had 

the highest increase in land area under rice while Philippines, Lao PDR 

and ~ala~sia showed a decrease in land area under rice in 1993 

compared to that in 1 979-81. 

Thailand had the highest increase in the number of tractors 

(336.7%) in 1993, followed by Indonesia (278.7%), compared to those 

in the 1979-81 period. Bunyavejchewin et al. (1 994) reported that some 

of the farmer's primary reasons for purchasing tractors to replace or 

combine with buffalo draught power were: (1) speed in tillage, (2) 

suitability for pl-g clay sod, (3) shortage of family labour due to the 

migration of working age members of the family to industrial cities, and

Table 2. Changes in the hectarage planted with rice in relation to the changes in the number of tractors and buffalo 

population in the World, Asia and Southeast Asia. 

Geographioal Changes in area planted with Changes in the number of tractors and buffaloes in 1993 

locations rice in 1993 over 1979-81 over 1979-81 

Tractor Buffalo 

Area (1 000ha) % No. % (1 000 head) % 

World 

Asia 

SE Asia 

Brunei 

Cambodia 

Indonesia 

Lao PDR 

Malaysia 

Myanmar 

Philippines 

Singapore 

Thailand 

Vietnam +92 1 +16.5 +14,172 +62.1 +646 +28.0 

Adapted from: 1994 Production Yearbook (FAO, 1995) 

U 

f 

P

Buffah production systems in South East Asia 

(4) as a means for quick transportation. However, buEalo raising will 

still remain an integral part of the farming systems of the smallholder 

fmers because of some of the advantages the farmer derives in keeping 

buflFaloes. A mature buffalo may void 5-7 MT of fresh manure per annum 

which could fkhlize the soil. Raising buffaloes will not entail extra 

expense to the fanner but may even help to utihze excess family labour 

and farm waste products more efficiently. Moreover, even with the use 

of a hand tractor for tillage, the buffalo is still used to plough the rice 

paddy close to the dike. Management of buffaloes under rice-based 

fkmhg systems is considered a very simple, less strenuous task and it is 

usually assigned t o w members like children, women or old folks who 

cannot do hard work. The buffaloes are tethered and allowed to graze 

along roadsides, vacant lots or communal grazing lands and in paddy 

fields after the harvest of primary or secondary crops, to utilize rice straw, 

corn stover, groundnut hay, soybean hay and other fodder or grasses as 

feed. 

In coconut, oil palm or sugar canebased farming systems, 

buffaloes are used to transport coconuts, bunches of fiesh hit, oil palm 

nuts or sugar cane stalks to loading areas. Castrated bulls are usually 

preferred for such tasks because of their size, strength and docility. In 

Thailand, buffalo bulls are usually castrated at the age of 2.5 to 3.0 years 

(Chantalakhana and Bunyavejchewin, 1989); and in the Philippines, at 

amean age of 3.3 years with a range of 1.8 - 4.8 years (De Guzman and 

Pereq 1981 cited by Momongan, 1992). When not used for work, 

buffaloes are tethered or allowed to graze under coconut or oil palm trees. 

Under sugar cane-based farming systems, buffaloes are tethered under 

trees or under shelter and fed with sugar cane tops or young sugar cane 

plants or other crop residues. 

Mating occurs in communal grazing areas, usually after the crop 

harvest. As a result the farmer may not know which buffalo bull mated 

the cow. With the onset of the rainy season when the paddy fields are 

prepared and planted for the next cropping season, the buffaloes are tied 

near or under the house of the farmer and fed rice straw or freshly-cut 

grasses. Concentrate supplements are not normally given, except table

V.G. Momongan 

or mineral salts. Occasionally, rice bran or other farm by-product 

concentrates may be given especially to the nursing or milking dam. 

The health care for buffaloes is minimal. Farmers do not buy 

vaccine to vaccinate their buffaloes, especially against haemorrhagic 

septicemia and foot and mouth disease. They depend on the free 

vaccination program of the government which is not conducted regularly. 

Dew&g of bufFalaes is not normally performed by farmers, resulting 

in high calf mortality which may range from 10 to 40%. Weaning of 

calves is not usually done and it is not uncommon to see a one year old 

calf by the side of its dam. 

Buffalo Meat Production 

Traditionally, when the buffalo is no longer fit for draught or for 

milk production, the animal is slaughtered for meat. The meat fiom such 

carcasses is tough and fibrous, and the dressing percentage varies fiom 

40 - 50%. This is the reason why some consumers consider buffalo beef 

inferior to bovine beef However, if the buffalo is slaughtered at a young 

age similar to that of cattle, the quality of buffalo meat is just as good as 

beef (Calub et al., 1971; Joshi, 1988; Ibarra, 1988; Zava, 1991; Oliveira 

et al., 1991). 

In general, the total buffalo beef production increased 

substantially in 1994 compared to that during the 1979-81 period by 

67.2% in Asia and 22.4% in SE Asia. However, in terms of buffalo beef 

per caput, the figure in SE Asia decreased (-7.5%), while that in Asia 

increased by 3 1.5% (Table 3). Ifwe examine the trend in consumption 

in various SE Asian countries, buffalo beef per caput in 1994 increased 

in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Philippines and Vietnam; and decreased in 

Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand as compared to their 

respective figures in 1979-81. 

Table 4 shows the percentage of buffalo'beef production to the 

total beef production in 1 994.

Table 3. World, Asia and Southeast Asia buffalo beef production and human population in 1994 in relation to 

production and human population in 1979-81. 

Geographical Human popln. Total buffalo Buffalo beef Human poph. Total buffalo beef Buffalo 

looations in 1980 beef prodn. in availability in 1994 prodn. in 1994 beef 

(x 1000) 79-81 per caput (x 1000) (x 10OOMT) 

per caput 

World 

Asia 

SE Ash 

Bmei 

Cambodia 

Indonesia 

Lao PDR 

Malaysia 

Myanmar 

Philippines 

Singapore 

Thailand 

Vietnam 

Adapted from: 1994 Production Yearbook (FAO, 1995)

Table 4. World, Asia and Southeast Asia buffalo beef and bovine beef 

production in 1994. 

Geographicai . Beef production 

looations 

Buffalo Cattle Total beef Percentage of 

( l0fJOM-p --------------- 

----------- X buffalo beef 

World 

Asia 

SE Asia 

Brunei 

Cambodia 

Indonesia 

Lao PDR 

Malaysia 

Myanmar 

Philippines 

Singapore 

Thailand 

Vietnam 94 79. 173 54.3 

Adapted ftom: 1994 Produotion Yearbook (FAO, 1995) 

WMe buffao beefacmmted fix only 4.8% ofthe total beef production in the 

world, in Asia and SE Asia, the figure was 26%. Tn Lao PDR and Vietnam, 

buffalo meat accounted for more than 50% of the total beef production in 

1994 and about one-third of the beef production in the Philippines and 

Cambodia However, the percentage of buffalo beef to the total meat 

production is very small (Table 5), indicating a tremendous potential for the 

buffalo meat to increase its share of the market fix meat products. With 

increasing use of tra&ns in place of draught buffaloes, more animals may be 

available for buffalo meat production. 

In SE Asian countries, there are isolated cases where buffaloes are 

raised pnrmmly for meat. In Indonesia, this occurs mainly in the marshland 

of Kalimantan where. they multiply naturally. The animals are caught only

~ 

Table 5. World, Asia and Southeast Asia buffalo beef production in relation to total meat production and human 

population in 1994. 9 F 

Geographical Human popln. Total meat pro& Total buff. beef prodn. Total meat per caput % buffalo beef b 

locations (x 1000) (x 1000 h4T) (X 1mM'n ('kg) to total meat 8 4 

s 

World 

Asia 

SE Asia 

Brunei 

Cambodia 

Indonesia 

Lao PDR 

Malaysia 

Myanmar 

Mppines 

Singapore 

Thailand 

Vietnam 72,93 1 1,256 94 17.22 7.49 

Adapted fiom: 1994 Production Yearbook (FAO, 1995)

V.G. Momongan 

when they are ready to be marketed for meat. Also, in Tana Toraja, Central 

South Sulawesi, the piebald or black and white buffalo is kept only for meat 

production and slaughtered at traditional burial ceremonies (Satari et al., 

1994). Tn Brunei, the swamp buffalo is mainly used for meat and in limited , 

cases, for work (Cho, 1981). The average liveweight of the mature Brunei 

buffalo is 401.2 2 49.9 kg (range: 259-450 kg). Most of these buffaloes are 

to be found in the districts of BruneiMuara (62%) and Tutong (30%) . 

Buffalo Milk Production 

More than 40% ofthe miJk in Asia comes fiom water buffalo (Table 

6). However, in SE Asia, buffalo contributes only about 11% to the total 

milk production, supporting the observation that swamp buffalo is not 

normally milked but primarily raised as a draught animal. Most of the milk 

obtained in SE Asia comes fiom river type buffaloes. In Malaysia, the entire 

river type buffalo population is dned to Perak and Selangor, the animals 

are mostly owned by Indian fanners and the, average herd size being 5-25 

animals (Jainudeen, 1989). In the Philippines, buffalo milk production is 

mainly hm Murrah and river-swamp crossbreds which are dned in the 

provinces of Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Rizal, Pampanga and Laguna, and 

contributed about 52% ufthe 29,000 MT of milk produced in 1994. Buffalo 

milk contributed more than 40% to the total milk production in Vietnam 

while Cambodia, Indonesia and Lao PDR do not produce substantial 

amounts of buffalo milk. 

Studies showed that Murrah-swamp crossbreds produce 

significantly more milk than the swamp type buffalo (Yongzuo and 

Weiming, 1991 ; Momongan et al., 1994; Ly, 1994; Shrestha and Parker, 

1 994). 

TECHNOLOGIES TO IMPROVE PRODUCI'IWIY 

It has been the common observation that the swamp type buffalo has 

low productivity, particularly in its reproductive efficiency. It is known to

Buflalo production systems in South East Asia


be late maturing, with a low pregnancy rate and calf crop, long service 

period and calving interval, and low milk production. Many of these 

productivity traits are iduenced by the management systems. Research 

has shown that proper selection of breeding animals, nutrition, and care 

and management can improve rate of growth, attainment of sexual 

maturity, conception rate, postpartum ovarian activity and milk 

production. 

Nutrition 

Pt'iany of the buffaloes under the care of smallholder farmers are 

fed with low quality roughages and farm by-products (rice straw, corn 

stover, sugarcane tcrps, etc.) without supplementation except table andlor 

mineral salts in some instances. With thls kind of feeding system, 

animals cannot be expected to perform well. However, many studies 

have shown that supplementation of feed with concentrates, andlor even 

urea-molasses-mineral block (UMMB) can improve the productivity of 

the buffalo (Leng, 1984; Leng, 1994; Neric et al., 1984; Abelilla and 

Oliveros, 1995). 

Genetic Improvement 

It has been demonstrated in Thailand that strict selection of 

breeding swamp buffalo bulls through performance testing greatly 

irnprwed their reproductive jmibmmce at the Surin Livestock Breeding 

Station. Konanta and Intaramongkol(1 W4) reported that the age of first 

calving of Thai bu&loes was reduced fim 5.26 + 0.94 years in 1976-77 

to 3.61 + 0.26 years in 1991, and calving interval, from 587.6 + 108.9 

days in 1981 to 493.7 + 100.1 days in 1991. Conception rate was 

inaeased fim 67.5% in 1 976-81 to 72.7% in 1 984-89, and calving rate 

from 66.6% in 1976 to 69.2% in 1989. 

Studies on crossbreeding of Murrah and swamp buffaloes 

showed sigdicant improvement in body weight and milk production as


well as the reproductive performance of the I?, crossbreds over those of 

the swamp buffalo (Jainudeen, 1989; Yongzuo and Weirning, 1991 ; 

Sitamorang and Sitepu, 1991 ; Ly, 1994; Momongan et al., 1994). The 

use of oestrus synchronization as a tool for the application of artificial 

insemination (AI) under village conditions has made possible the rapid 

production of Murrah-swamp crossbreds in the Philippines. 

The development ufbiotechnology is a potential tool for the rapid 

genetic improvement in water buffalo. Superovulation of genetically 

superior heifersldams and transferring the recovered embryos to 

synchronized recipients may hasten genetic improvement through 

efficient progeny testing and shorten the generation interval. In vitro 

oocyte maturation (IVMJ and fertilization (TVF) could be utilized to 

mprimize the genetic potential of a high-prized female buffalo. After the 

anunal has passed its usefulness and has been slaughtered, its ovaries can 

be recovered and the oocytes collected for IVM, NF and in vitro culture 

(NC) until ready far transfer to recipients or can be cryopreserved for 

fhture transfers. Cloning of fertilized cells would fiuther increase beyond 

imagination, the multiplication of genetic materials. 

Care and Management 

The majority ofsmallholder fanners allow the calf to be with the 

dam until milk secretion has dried up, thus prolonging the recurrence of 

postpartum oestrus, resulting in extended service periods. Studies have 

shown that early weaaing or restricted suckling induced the dam to return 

to early postpartum oestrus (Jainudeen and Shdddin, 1984; 

Wongsrikeao et al., 1990; Nordln and Jainudeen, 1991). Data at the 

Philippine Carabao Research and Development Center (PCRDC, 

1981-92) indicated that calfmortality under village conditions was about 

25% in areas where regular deworming of calves was not practised and 

only 10% in areas where PCRDC administered regular deworming of 

calves every three months. El-Garhy et a1. (1991) observed that calf 

mortality is an indicator afthe level of management under which the herd 

is reared.


Very often, the low conception rate and poor calf crop could be 

traced to the lack of breeding bulls andlor AT services in the community. 

The situation is fiuther aggravated by the common practice of castrating 

the big and strong bulls used for draught purposes. A responsive 

extension network which may include education of the farmers on 

appropriate buffalo management practices and extensive health care and 

bull dispersaVAI services which should be anchored to farmers' organized 

groups or cooperatives have been shown to be effective in advanced 

countties. 

Acknowledgments 

The author extends his profound gratitude to Dr. Annabelle S. 

Sarabia for the assistance in the preparation of this manuscript and to the 

Organizing Committee for the invitation given to him to participate in the 

1995 SARECMARESA Regional Symposium. 

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of nutrition and sudhg patterns on the postpartum cyclic activity of swamp 

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SAREC/NARESA PROJECT ON DISSEMINATION OF 

INFORMATION ON IMPROVED B~WF'ALO 

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS TO SMALL FARMERS 

J. A de S. Siriwardene 

Project Coordinator 

SARECNARESA BufJaIo Information Dissemination Project 

Getambe, Peradeniya 

SRI LANK4 

The SARECJNARESA Buffalo Research and Development 

Programme initiated in 1983 was originally conceived as a research 

oriented project, based on the recommendations of the National 

Workshop held in 1980. However, at the end of the first two phases, the 

emphasis was changed fiom research to information dissemination. 

SAREC funding was provided initially for a period of five years fiom 

1 983 to 1989. The objectives of Phase I were to generate the baseline 

information on production systems and uses, and to identify the 

constraints to buffalo production in Sri Lanka. A Symposium was held 

at the end of 1989 to review the outcome of the research studies, and 

SAREC agreed to fund the research programme for a further 5 year 

period. During Phase I[, an interdisciplinary approach was introduced 

and studies were carried out on a wide range of subjects which included 

physiology and biochemistry, management and production, disease, 

reproduction and nutrition. In addition, it was also expected that the 

researchers would identify the major constraints that limited buffalo 

production and work towards the development of measures to overcome 

some of these constraints. It was also evident &om the surveys conducted 

that the buffalo still remained an important source of f m 

power 

associated with rice cultivation and that the animal was increasingly 

being used as a source of milk and meat. It was also evident that despite 

its low productivity, the animal will continue to play a vital role in the 

rural agricultural economy in the future. 

The research programme made outstanding contributions to 

knowledge, bringing about a greater understanding of the physiology, 

biochemistry and reproduction in the buffalo. Information on utilization 

of feed resources and methods for improving the quality and digestibility 

of these resources have been made available. Studies carried out on feed

Project on dhsemination of information 

resources and methods for improving the N ty and digestibility of these 

resources have been made available. Studies carried out on disease 

conditions have thrown more light on the epidemiology of diseases and 

were useful in the development of improved prophylactic measures to 

control some diseases of economic importance. New innovations for 

utilization of crop residues and supplementary feeds have been developed. 

Through the project, SAREC also provided funds for 

postgraduate training of several researchers and for the development of 

field research stations at Narangalla and Mawala and a field laboratory at 

Narangalla. 

This Symposium, the second in the series, will review the 

research studies wbch were completed during Phase It. A number of 

important and useful findings wil be reported in the next few days. The 

information generated will have a three fdd application. Firstly, it will 

contribute to knowledge among the scientific community. Secondly, it 

with provide useful information for updating material for training of 

professionals and extension personnel. Thirdly, the information will find 

application in the development of management innovations for field 

application. Some of this information has already been incorporated into 

the management packages currently being extended to the field. 

Towards the end of 1994, after a review of the research work 

completed up to that time, SAREC concluded that adequate research 

iddon had been generated during phases I and XI. Appreciating the 

value ofthe findings for field application, SAREC agreed to fund a third 

phase for transferring the research findings to the end users. 

Phase I commenced activities in January, 1995 and its main 

objectives are: 

(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

to set up a Buffalo Information Centre for Sri Lanka 

to disseminate the research information generated in 

Phases I & I1 

to popularize intensive buffalo farming for draught and 

milk production with emphasis on dairying 

It was evident that the realization of the third objective depended 

on' the success of the extension effort in removing the constraints that


cause production losses. The earlier two phases had identified these 

constraints as 

(1) the low genetic potential of the local buffalo 

(2) the dwindling land availability 

(3) the seasonal fluctuation in feed availability 

(4) the high incidence of disease 

(5) the lack of knowledge and inability of farmers to change 

their management practices to cope with the changing 

social environment 

The project taking into consideration these constraints, developed 

a plan of activities designed to make available the current knowledge on 

buffalo production and to develop management packages to cater to the 

need for a gradual move towards intensification of management. These 

were: 

(1) setting up of the BdEdo Information Centre 

(2) dissemination of information to end users 

(3) demonstration of the concept and feasibility of 

intensification of management practices 

(4) improvement of the genetic potential of the local buffalo 

for milk and other production traits 

(5) facilitating the production of urea-molasses-mineral 

supplements 

(6) popularization of consumption of buffalo products 

The project has initiated the implementation of many of these 

activities.during the course of this year. 

Buffalo Information Centre 

The available information on buffalo production in Sri Lanka is 

not easily accessible, particularly to extension personnel. The need to 

collect and lodge all documented material in one location was keenly felt. 

Since extension and training is a hnction of the Department &Animal 

Production and Health (DAPH), the Project with the collaboration of the 

DAPH took steps to establish this Centre at the Central Library of the 

DAPH, which is appropriately located at the Institute of Continuing 

Education in Animal Husbandry (ICEAH). The Project obtained the 

services of a Consultant, the Director of the International Buffalo

Project on dissemination of information 

Iddon Centre PIC) in Bangkok, to assist in the setting up of this 

Centre. A section of the Library has been partitioned off for this purpose. 

Books, journals and audievisual &a1 will be provided by the Project. 

The Centre will work closely with the publication unit of DAPH in the 

task of disseminating extension information. 

The Centre will be the repository of information on buffalo 

prcductian. A computerid infibmatian starage and retrieval system will 

be put in place. It is expected that this Centre will also maintain close 

liaison with the IBIC and other Centres and have access to the Agrinet 

information system. 

Dissemination of Information 

Several approaches have been initiated under this activity. A 

Compendium of Research Publications relating to work on buffalo 

production carried out in Sri Lanka, is under preparation. This will 

contain titles of papers, the bibiliographic information and an abstract of 

each publication. Much of the preparatory work has been completed. 

1 The Compendium is expected to be published in late 1996. 

A book on Buffalo Production designed for use by scientists, 

professionals, trainers and extension staff is also under preparation. It 

will provide iddon relevant to Asia but with special reference to Sri 

Lanka. The book wil cover four major areas, namely, production 

systems and uses, nutrition, reproduction and health. A number of 

scientists are assisting in this task. 

A Handbook on Buffalo Husbandry Practices for use by 

extension staffis also under preparation. This will serve as a practical 

guide for dissemination of information to farmers. In addition, training 

material and extension leatlets are being produced to meet the extension 

needs. 

In the area of training, the project is collaborating closely with 

the ICEAH of the DAPH. A Workshop with farmer participation was 

held at Kuliyapitiya in August this year to assess the training needs of 

farmers. It was encouraging to note that farmers who attended the


workshop gave high priority to the need for training on maximizing 

production on limited land. Training material is being developed in line 

with the priority training needs identified by farmers. A number of 

training programmes for farmers have been conducted at Kuliyapitiya and 

Thambuttegama. The Project also conducted a training course on 

nutrition for extension staff at the ICEAH in August this year. The 

services of an expatriate Consultant were obtained to assist with this 

course. 

A programme for creating public awareness on buffalo 

production has been launched in collaboration with the University of 

Peradeniya, DAPH and the Department of Agriculture. The Project has 

plans to carry programmes on television and radio during the next year. 

A schools radio quiz programme is scheduled to be held next year. 

Training videos will also be produced for use in farmer training 

programmes. 

1 Demonstration of Intensive Management of Buffaloes 

Rural farmers particularly in the dry zone, who have depended 

to a large extent on communal grazing lands for maintenance of their 

stock, are finding it increasingly dtfficult to maintain their buffaloes and 

cattle in the face of dirninishlng availability of grazing land. 

Traditionally, these animals were reared in large herds to ensure the social 

security of farmers. Animals are generally sold for meat in times of 

financial need. With increasing alienation of land for agricultural 

purposes, farmers are compelled to reduce the size of herds, which will 

mean a decline in their potential source of income. Moreover, there is a 

trend towards migration of children of farmers away from their homes, in 

search of more lucrative and prestigious occupations. Parents are findtng 

it increasingly di£Ecult to manage large herds of animals, due to a gradual 

reduction in famdy labour. The tendency is for farmers to opt for smaller 

' herds of dual purpose stock. 

In order to encourage farmers to adopt more intensive 

management practices through demonstration of intensive management 

methods, the Project has established 8 demonstration farms at 

Thambuttegama and 15 more in the Kuliyapitiya, Bingiriya and Pannala 

Veterinary ranges in the Kurunegala District. At Thambuttegama, the

Project on dbsemination of information 

Project selected both experienced and inexperienced farmers for the 

purpose of using their farms as demonstration centres. Farmers new to 

daqmg were less receptive to new interventions than traditional h ers. 

Leaming ficnn this experience, only those currently engaged or who have 

had experience in dmymg were selected as demonstration farmers in the 

Kurunegala District. The project provided crossbred milking buffaloes to 

these farmers and assistance to introduce intensive management packages 

in these farms. These farms will in turn serve as demonstration sites and 

training locations for other fanners who wish to learn fiom the 

experiences of their colleagues. 

Breed Improvement 

This activity is scheduled for next year and will be limited to 

selected areas in the Kurunegata District. Since A1 in buffaloes is not 

widely practised in this country the Project will provide assistance to 

Provincial DAPH to popularize Artificial Insemination in buffaloes. A 

sizeable proportion of the buffalo population are of the indigenous type. 

Cross breeding to exotic milking breeds will be introduced in keeping 

with Government's breeding policy. 

Production of Feed Supplements 

Research studies have identified undernutrition and imbalances 

in the diet as the primary cause of low productivity in ruminants in this 

county The Project has given priority to training farmers on measures 

to correct these deficiencies. It has launched a programme to popularize 

the feeding of a urea-molasses-mineral block (UMMB) supplement. 

Assistance has been provided to the Livestock Development Division of 

the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka to improve the UMMB production 

facility at the Livestock Farm at C;lrandurukotte. A concrete mixer and 

a set of moulds have been provided. Assistance for construction of a 

molasses storage tank and improvement of a building to house the 

production facility has been provided. The unit is now providing the 

requirements of the Roject and in addition has commenced marketing the 

supplements to the Coconut Triangle Milk Union (CTMU) and Milk 

Industries of Lanka Company Limited (MILCO). Reports fiom CTMU 

are encouraging. During the first month of introduction of the UMMB,

J.k de S. Siriwardene 

the CTMU had sold nearly 500 blocks to members of the Union. The 

Project plans to set up a second production facility in Kuliyapitiya in the 

near future. 

Information on the value of UMMB as a feed supplement, 

provided to the Ministry of Livestock Development and Rural Industries 

has evoked much interest. The Ministry is currently studying the 

feasibility of promoting the setting up of a large scale production plant. 

The Project scientists and staff have worked hard to acheve the 

objectives of the programme. However, as the duration of the current 

phase is only two years, the time constraint will be a serious limitation. 

As those involved in extension are fully aware, extending new 

innovations to trdtional rural farmers is a very difficult and time 

consuming task. Although two years is a very short time in which to 

make an impact in the field, the project is determined to transfer the new 

technologies to at least a core group of innovative farmers in selected 

areas. 

The project staflFare looking forward to listen to the presentations 

of the researchers during the next few days. We have with us very 

eminent fmeign scientists who are speciahsts in their own fields and also 

a galaxy of eminent local scientists participating in thls Symposium. The 

Symposium provides an excellent forum for Sri Lankan scientists to share 

experiences with scientists fiom other Asian countries on the application 

and dissemination of technical knowledge to rural farmers. It provides an 

opportunity to discuss and develop guidelines for wider application of 

selected technologies and to identi@ potential areas for further study and 

technology transfer. Clearly, an important challenge for the future will be 

to develop innovative management packages, utilizing locally available 

resources, which will be sustainable under the intensive land use systems 

that are evolving in most countries in Asia. I hope there will be active 

participation of all who are here and that discussions will be fiui$ul.

DISCUSSION 

Q: C. Devendra - Thank you Dr. Siriwardene for a very enlightening 

presentation gving the background to Phase IU of the Buffalo Research 

Programme. I want to pose a quick question on the information centre, 

I am a little bit concerned and need a little clarification. Do I understand 

that the infiation centre to be set up is a national one because we have 

the International Buffalo Information Centre PIC) in Bangkok which 

was set up some 10-12 years ago. I am not sure whether you are 

focusing on Sri Lanka or on the region, and on the other side we also 

have the PCC, the Philippine Carabao Centre whlch might one day want 

to do the same. Therefore we need to be sure of the boundaries and 

hopemy mutually reinforcing, but nevertheless focusing on the buffalo. 

I think it is important that we define our boundaries. 

A: J. A. de S. Siriwardene - You are right. This will be a local centre 

which will cater to the local scientists and extension staff and also be a 

source of information for training at the Institute of Continuing 

Education. This wil therefore be a national endeavour. 

Q: S.K. Ranjhan - I wonder whether in preparing the research and 

development programme for Phase III you have kept in mind the farmers 

perceptions about research and development with regard to this species. 

You mentioned that the buffalo population in Sri Lanka is going down, 

that means in the eyes of the farmer, this animal is not as important as 

cattle. Ifit is important, naturally the population will increase. So whlle 

preparing the research and development project for the next two years I 

think it would be relevant to know what the farmer perception is with 

regard to the transfer of technologies that are generated by the 

institutions, be it crossbreeding or the use of the urea molasses block. 

A: J.A.de S. Siriwardene - In some areas, particularly in the North 

Central Province, where very large herds of may be 300 to 400 animals 

have been maintained, the availability of grazing land has been 

diminishing. Maintenance of large herds would not be possible in the 

context of the changing scenario. Due to the unavailability. of land for 

grazing, the population has dwindled to some extent in some areas. I 

think I am not wrong when I say that there has been a decrease in the 

population. There is however, a great deal of interest among farmers to 

keep buffaloes for two reasons (1) because the higher fat content in 

buffalo milk brings more income and (2) buffalo curd is a very popular 

delicacy in this country and fetches a very high price compared to liquid 

milk. The phase IU programme has taken into consideration these factors 

as well as the need to provide information to suit the changng socie 

economic conditions of farmers.

Q: N. H. Shah - The swamp buffalo is generally used for draught 

purposes and I would like to know whether both male and female animals 

are used for draught purposes. 

A: V.G. Momongan - Yes, both male and female animals are used for 

draught. 

Q: N. H. Shah - Have you made any study to evaluate the working 

capacity of the male and the female buffaloes. 

A: V.G. Momongan - This study has focused on the male and not on 

the female animal. In other countries such as Indonesia they have studied 

the worktng capacity of the female. 

Q: S.K. Ranjhan - With increased mechanization of agriculture which 

is bound to come in 20 years, what do you think will be the role of the 

swamp buffalo in South East Asia. To give you an example fiom Indta, \, 

twenty years back draught animal power accounted for around 70 per 

cent, but today it has come down to 26 percent. The rest are going for 

mechanized agriculture. Ifwe restrict the functions of the swamp buffalo 

for draught purposes alone the data from many countries like Malaysia 

and Philippines will indtcate a decrease in the animal population. What 

would be the W re scenario in the South East Asian countries with 

increased mechanization if the swamp buffalo is not developed as a milk 

and meat animal? 

A: V.G. Momongan - With increased mechanization I would predict 

that more buffaloes would be utilised for milk production and beefd 

production. It is for this reason that we in the Philippines have started 

a crossbreeding programme with Murrah, and the F1 has been shown to 

produce much more milk than the native animal. However, we have a 

difficulty in the inter se mating of the F1 because the F2 would have a 

very variable result and it could discourage the farmer. For example, a 

farmer having -a good female would breed it to a crossbred male and get 

a smd F2 calf which is very discoauagng and the farmer may not readily 

understand why it is so. Therefore to prevent the misconception that this 

crossbreeding programme is not good we would only maintain the F1 

crossbreds and backcross these either to native animals if the fanner 

wants it for draught or to the Murrah if the farmer is more inclined for 

milk production. We would also go for castration of all F1 bulls to 

prevent inter se mating under village conditions.

General session 

Q: D.K. Singh - If the female buffalo is used for draught poker 

naturally this will have adverse effects on milk production, In my 

opinion, the female should be used for milk and finally meat when the 

animal is old. Is there any adverse effects on the breeding efficiency of 

the crossbred between swamp and riverine buffaloes? 

A: V.G. Momongan - I have already mentioned that inter se bree&ng 

has an adverse effect and that is why it is &scouraged in the Philippines. 

Comment: D.K. Singh - We have data that the chromosome numbers 

are different in the two types of buffaloes and the crossbred of the F1 

generation will have bree&ng defects whch should be explained before 

conducting a crossbreeding programme. 

Comment: V.G. Momongan - Yes, we have some data on testicular 

abberation in F1 bulls, particularly in the sertoli cells but whether this is 

sd5cient to make the F1 bulls sterile or infertile is not really proven. 

Anyway we do not use F1 bulls for breedng. 

Comment: D.K. Singh - My comment is that breeding the swamp 

buffalo with Murrah will not give the future breeding stock in your 

country. There are chromosome abberations. 

Comment: S.K. Ranjhan - In most of the workshops this question 

arises about crossing swamp with Murrah. I think there is sufficient 

evidence with the PCRDC in the Philippines. Virtually, there is no 

reproductive effect of course in F1 where the chromosome number is 49, 

because riverine has 50 and swamp 48. When gametogenesis takes 

place the chromosome number comes to 24 and 25 therefore, in the F2 

generation when there is inter se mating you get a population segregation 

as mentioned by Dr. Momongan, there is a variation in' the chromosome 

number in the population. You get 48,49 or 50. Thls has been proved 

in the PCRDC and the information has been published . By and large 

there is no reproductive problem with the F1 population. The national 

policy in a country is a matter for each country to decide -on. In the 

Philippines, they discouraged inter se mating and that is a policy they 

have adopted and Prof. Mornongan has given justification for that policy.

REIXVANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF CROP-ANIMAL 

SYSTEMS IN ASIA 

C. Devendra 

Senior Associate, International Livestock Research Institute 

P. 0. Box: 30709, Nairobi, 

KENYA 

Abstract: The relevance and importance of crop-animal systems in Asia is 

discussed in the context of considerable opportunities to increase the role and 

contribution of animals in these systems in target agroecological zones (AEZ). 

Maximizing this contribution is especially important at the present time in order 

to respond to the twin challenges of rapidly increasing human populations and 

the demand for more food of animal origin, and scarcity of land. The genesis of 

mixed hmq systems and types and characteristics of crop-animal systems in 

different AEZ in Asia is described. Attention is drawn to the contribution of 

animals in these systems. The justification for the development of raided 

lowland and upland areas is discussed with reference to the presence of 

relatively large concentrations of 96.8% cattle and of 83.0% goats and sheep 

as percentages of the total individual populations in Asia. The impact of cropanimal 

systems in terms of demonstrable evidence to the contribution of 

sustainable agriculture and environmental integrity is considerable. The benefits 

of the adoption of technological options are summarized. The final part of the 

paper discusses opportunities for research and development with spec& 

reference to priority AEZ, production systems, commodity (animal species) 

emphasis, and the need for a concerted systems approach that can focus on the 

totality of farming systems involving interdisciplinarity to address complex 

problems. 

Keywords: Crop-animal systems, types, characteristics, impact 

INTRODUCTION 

Crop-animal systems are trachtional farming systems throughout 

Asia. They are characteristic of activities in the preponderance of small 

farm systems, specific features of which include small size of holdngs, 

low input use, low level ofeBciency, diversification of agriculture and the

Relevance and importance of crop-animal systems in Asia 

involvement of several millions of resource-poor farmers. In these smd 

farms, both ruminants (buffaloes, cattle, goats and sheep) and non- 

ruminants (chickens, ducks and pigs) are found, and combinations are 

reared, depending on the fanners' objectives and prevailing marketing 

opportunities (Devendra, 1983). 

Maximizing the contribution fiom animals in the crop-animal 

systems represents a pdcularly compelling challenge at the present time 

because ofthe twin reasons of rapidly increasing human population and 

therefore demand for more animal products, and land scarcity. ADB 

(1991) projections for example, based on past trends, suggest that for an 

annual growth rate and growth in real incomes of 1.9% and 2.0% 

respecttvely, total meat supplies will have to double and milk production 

increased by 2.5 times in the year 2006. Likewise the demand for egg 

consumption is also projected to increase by 2.9 times. The prospects for 

interregional and open market-oriented trade thus appears to be good 

especially for low cost producers with a strong and cost-effective 

production base. Thailand and Indonesia are good examples of this 

situation and are already forgng ahead with expanding productivity. 

In terms af agraecological zone, agticultural development in the 

past has tended to concentrate its efforts in the mainly lowland imgated 

areas with outstanding success, especially through the "Green 

Revolution". Similar success with livestock development has been 

unfmately very limited, with the exception of "Operation Flood" and 

dauy development in India, and intensive pig and chicken production in 

pen-urban areas. 

This paper discusses the relevance and importace of crop- 

animal systems, describes their genesis and characteristics in the context 

of opportunities for increasing the contribution from animals in these 

systems in Asia

CROP-ANIMAL SYSTEMS 

C. Devendra 

Crop-animal systems or more commonly mixed farming systems 

are varied. They are especially relevant and extremely impartant in Asian 

agriculture. The term mixed farming is more commonly used, however, 

it is too generic, and the reference to crop-animal systems is more 

appropriate. The latter is also consistent with the approach to integrated 

natural resource use and management. Emphasis on these systems has 

attracted global attention recently, and this is reflected also in the mission 

goals of the newly created International Livestock Research Institute 

(ILRI), based in Nairobi, Kenya:- 

i) Animal perfiance through research and conservation of 

animal genetic resources. 

ii) Sustainable productivity of major livestock and crop-livestock 

systems. 

iii) Technical and economic performance of the livestock sector, and 

iv) ' The development, transfer and utilization of research-based 

technology to national programmes and client farmers. 

Relevance 

The relevance and potential importance of integrated systems is 

associated with the complementarity of the crop and animal subsystems 

resulting in increased total productivity. In this context there are eight 

major advantages of integrated systems: 

- Diverse and efficient resource use; 

- Reduced risk; 

- Better use o f h labour for higher productivity and increased 

income; 

- Efficient use of biological and chemical energy in the system 

and less dependence on external inputs; 

- Development of sustainable systems that use recycling, involve 

no pollution and are consistent with environmental protection;


Importance 

- Increased economic output; and 

- Development of stable farm households. 

Crop-animal systems are particularly important production 

systems and especially challenging in agriculture. They involve a variety 

af both aops and animals owned by farmers invariably within the same 

location and agrdolgical mes. In Asia, they form the main pattern of 

firming systems in the preponderance of small farms. These systems are 

likely to be increasingly more important in the future in the context of 

their contribution to the following: 

- Increasing food production and food security; 

- Contribution to the development of sustainable agriculture 

through efficient and integrated use of biodiversity and 

ecosystems, and 

- Positive effects on the environment. 

The projected population increase Asia of 4.9 billions by the 

year 2025 (World Resources Institute, 1992) is of overriding concern. Of 

this, South-East Asia will account for about 716 million people, an 

increase of approximately 74% over the 1993 population data. 

Continuing poverty will be apparent; if food production is going to rely 

only on the use of existing lands, which are already overstretched, 

environmental degradation is inevitable. The pressure on land use is also 

compounded by existing and projected increases of large animal 

populations, whch further justify efficiency in natural resource use to 

maximize productivity and enhance the environment (Devendra, 1993). 

Systems are also very important in their potential contribution 

tothe development of sustainable agriculture, and positive effects on the 

environment. Thls development is associated with the following 

beneficial effects: 

- Improved efficiency in the integrated management and use of 

natural resources (land, crops, animals and water).

Priority 

C. Devendra 

- Demonstration of environmentally sound, low-input 

integrated systems. 

- Meviation of rural poverty. 

- Nutrient recycling, and 

- Positive environmental effects that have economic, ecologcal 

and sociological benefits. 

These considerations lead to the conclusion that the importance 

of crop-animal systems is therefore far reaching, and justify increased 

research and development attention in the future. In terms of the 

production resources available for integrated and sustainable use across 

ecosystems, development opportunities for increasing productivity and 

the contribution by animals, and positive effects on the environment, 

these systems merit higher priority compared to other livestock 

production systems. 

GENESIS OF MIXED FARMING SYSTEMS 

Mixed farming systems, essentially crop-animal systems have 

evolved and developed over many centuries. The principal determinants 

of the type of crop and animal system in a particular location are the 

agroecological conhtions (Duckharn and Masefield, 1970; Spedding, 

1975; Ruthernberg, 1980; Sere and Steinfeld, 1994). 

Climate and to a lesser extent, soil affect natural vegetation and 

determine what crops can be grown. These in turn determine the feed 

base and its quantity, quality and distribution. The feed base, together 

with the disease challenge, governs the development of potential animal 

production systems. Feed resources provide a direct link between crops 

and animals and the interaction of the two largely dictates the 

development of such systems (Figure 1).


9- 

di 

arable cropp'i 

cropping 

systems 

T m 

C o d & stubble graziug 

Cro 

Stall feedmg 

dispersion 

of 

. .. 

Animal 

I 

intergated with 

I b@w.Pk 

Tree cmpdsmal nrminants Roadside 

Tree cropshge nmninants Mar@ grazing 

Fared grazing 

Figure 1. Genesis and types of animal production systems in Asia. 

Mixed farming systems in the Asian region are varied. Farming 

practices have developed as a response to environmental dictates, 

especially temperature, rainfall, altitude, type and intensity of animal 

production and human intervention. Diversification of resource use 

spreads risk and provide stability. Farmers consciously diversifjr the use

C. Devendra 

of the resources to produce a mix of activities that are economically 

rewarding. Within this broad variety of agricultural activities, 

opportunities are created that enable switching of practices within and 

between crops and animals. Diversification rather than specialization is 

the primary consideration. The inclusion of animals is based on the 

consideration that they provide power, food, a supplementary income, 

insurance and a safe investment. Seldom are more than two species of 

ruminants reared together. Among the agroecosystems, feed supplies 

are most abundant in the humid areas and here ruminants are valuable in 

converting feed to animal products that include meat, milk, fibre and 

power. 

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CROP-ANIMAL 

SYSTEMS 

Sere and Steinfeld (1994) have recently described the world 

livestock production systems. These include mixed farming systems in 

whlch more than 10% of the dry matter fed to animals comes fiom crop 

by-products and stubble, or more than 10% of the total value of 

production comes from non-livestock farming activities. Within these, 

they have subdivided the systems into rainfed and imgated ones, and 

Mer Into temperate, humid and arid subsystems. One system that they 

failed to address and describe concerns the uplands whlch are very 

important in Asia. This system is discussed in detail in this paper to 

expand and add clarity to what has been reported, with specific reference 

to mixed farm systems in Asia. 

Crop-animal systems and their intensification has recently been 

discussed Qvendra, 1995a). Two broad types of systems are 

identified:- 

- Systems combining animals and annual cropping in which 

there are two further subtypes: 

- systems involving non-ruminants, ponds and fish 

- systems involving ruminants


- Systems combining animals and perennial cropping in which 

there are again two subtypes: 

- systems involving ruminants 

- systems involving non-ruminants 

These systems are the backbone of Asian agriculture mvendra, 

1983). These systems have many distinctive features including: 

- Dversification in the use of production resources 

- Reduction in, and spread of risk 

- Small size of most farms 

- Large populations of ruminants (buffalo, cattle, goats and sheep) and 

non-ruminants (chicken, ducks and pigs) 

- Integration of crops and animals 

- Multipurpose roles of crops and animals 

- Low use of inputs and traditional systems 

- Location in the three main agroecosystems (highlands, arid and semi- 

arid tropics, and humid/subhumid tropics). 

Six distinct types ufrnixed farming systems are found in Asia in 

the various agroecological zones. Table 1 gives a broad description of 

these. An important element of mixed farming systems, and especially 

the contribution of animals to viability and stability, is the use of draught 

power. In the Philippines and Thailand, of particular sigdcance is the 

fkt that for farm sizes of up to 2 ha both manure and animal power were 

important, but the role of the latter was more significant than the former. 

Only 2.3 % of farms use mechanical power (Table 2). 

CONTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS within CROP-ANIMAL 

SYSTEMS 

Animals are primarily important far food production, but they 

also serve a variety of other useful functions. They also provide an 

important entry point for rural development, but demonstrable success 

stories about this role are few and far between. This is especially the 

situation with ruminants, the reasons for which are linked to over

Table 1. Agroecological zones and types of mixed farming systems in Asia 

Agroecological me Growing period Crops Animals Mixed farming benefits 

(davs) 

Rainfed temperate and < 110 Barley, millet, mustard, Yak, cattle, sheep Traction, transport, manure (fuel 

highlands potatoss,fiuits and soil fertility), reduced risk, survival 

(fwd 

Rainfed humid and sub- 180-270 Maize, rice, wheat, root CatBe, pigs, Traction, branspoIfmcome, m um 

humid uplands crops, plantatim crops chickens aud soil fediity), crop residues 

. . 

Rainfed humid and mb 1 80-300 Maize, rice, wheat, BuEalo, cattle, pig, Traction, trcpspasmcome, mapme (fbel 

humid lowlands root crops, qar cane, chickens, ducks and sod fsrtility), crop residues 

mungbea 

8 

Imgated humid/snMumid 180-365 m, lice, cassava, BuEalo, cattle, pigs, Tracticm,lnm~mcome,mapan (fnel 

lowhds weetpotatoes 

- 

chickens, ducks and soil fcdty), cmp residues 

Med arid and semiaid 60-120 Sorghum, millet, Camels, donkeys, Tdon, tnnqmt,income, manma (fnel 

lowlands, dgatedl groundnut, soya bean, de, goats, sheep, and sdfertility), reduced risk, nnrvival 

Pg- pea, chickens 

higated ddlsemi-arid 75-180 Millet7 gronndnat, cattle, Pi@, hm, mum (fuel md &l few), 

lowlands &-pea, Cotton chickens reduced xi&, survival P 

I 

F


Table 2. Estimates of farm power sources for different size farms in the 

Philippines and Thailand (RAPMAO, 1989). 

Farm Farmswith Farms with 

size ~nanual animal power mechanical mechanical and 

@a) power power animal power 

Total 961 18 3857 72 113 2 445 8 

emphasis on mainly dairy development with variable success, failure to 

look at the totality and use of the available animal resources and 

promotion of balanced development, and a systems-oriented thrust that 

can provide for increased food production and sustainable development. 

In this context, it is especially imperative to keep in perspective the broad 

functions of animals (Devendra, 1993). 

(a) Diversilication of resources and reduction of socio-economic risks 

(b) Promotion of linkages between system resource components (land, 

water and crops) 

(c) Generation of value-added products (e.g. utilization of fibrous crop 

residues to produce meat and milk), and 

(d) ~on&bution to sustainability in integrated systems. 

Although animals are widely recognized as a valuable component 

of the natural resources, serious doubts exist about the efficiency of 

existing production systems and the utilization of resources to support 

them. The overriding issue is inadequate productivity, and in some 

countries the increasing cost of food imports. Questions are therefore 

being raised about the availability and application of technological 

options, and the capacity of the available resources to meet future food 

needs of humans.

C. Devendra 

The situation is serious and is being exacerbated by the following 

facts: rapid human population increase; economic growth and rising 

incomes; increased demand for food; resource degradation; inadequate 

technology application; failure of livestock. projects (ADB, 1991); and 

inadequate demonstrable evidence of the role of livestock in sustainable 

development. Resource degradation is reflected in overgrazing in the 

semi-arid tropics of South Asia, and in South East Asia in the 

overcultivation of crop lands, especially in lowland imgated systems. 

Rice yields for example, have been declining and the decrease in growth 

yields is associated with declining factor-productivity and further 

exploitation ofthe yield gap is considered uneconomical (plngali, 1 992). 

Maximizing the contribution fiom animal production systems represents 

therefore a particularly compelling challenge at the present time. 

JUSTIFICATION FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF 

RAINF'ED LOWLAND AND UPLAND AREAS 

Agricultural development in the past has overemphasized the use 

ofthe lowland irrigated area with considerable success. However, these 

have been associated with resource degradation: overgrazing in the semi- 

arid areas of South Asia and also of Mongolia, deforestation, shifiing 

agriculture and salinisation in South East Asia. 

Since arable land for expanded agricultural development is scarce, 

attention now needs to shift to the rainfed, lowland and upland areas. 

Concerning the development and contribution of animals, there is an even 

greater justijication for concerted research and development in the rainfed 

lowland and upland areas. Table 3 provides data on the magnitude and 

relative concentrations of cattle and small ruminants (goats and sheep) in 

the rainfed lowland and upland areas. These populations are large and 

account for as much as 96.8% and 83.0% of the total populations of cattle 

and smd ruminants in Asia In the rainfed lowland areas, cattle for beef, 

milk and draught power, and also goats and sheep are considerable. 

These sizeable populations depend exclusively on the available feed 

resources whtch result fiom mainly crop production. In the more humd


and high rainfall areas of South East Asia, both forage availabihty and 

crop residues are generally more abundant and adequate to meet dietary 

needs. The problem however, is the seasonahty of production and 

drought periods of variable lengths which seriously hamper productivity. 

In many situations therefore, strategic supplementation to ensure 

productivity from animals is essential. 

Table 3. Relative size of cattle and small rurilinant (goat and sheep) 

populations in the lowland and upland areas of Asia (TAC, 

Ecoregon Cattle Small ruminants 

(goats and sheep) 

Rainfed: arid and semi-arid tropics 179 22 1 

and subtropics 

Rainfed humid,sub-humid 186 265 

tropics and sub-tropics 

Total 365 486 

As % of total population in Asia 96.8 83.0 

Ruminants in these areas provide a variety of important products, 

mainly beef, milk, goat meat and mutton. Sluns and hdes are very 

valuable by-products. Sustained and high production from these animals 

necessitate high managerial efficiency ofthe production systems in which 

the strategy is to ensure all year round feeding. 

Rainfed Humid/ Sub-humid Lowlands 

The rainfed humid and sub-humid lowlands are contiguous with the 

lowland irrigated systems, and continue into the uplands. Rainfall is 

unreliable and the soils are poor. Crop production is mainly dependent 

on the extent of rainfall. With rapid population increase, ctops such as 

rice and wheat are generally grown on land with high productive

C. Devendra 

potential, but with export potential, have moved somewhat into lowland 

areas. By contrast, the production of roots, tubers and pulses which are 

mostly grown on land with low potential have stagnated or deched. 

Crop production is not as intensive as in the lowland irrigated 

areas, but rice with a variety of cash crops are grown. Usually one rice 

crop and occasionally two crops of rice are gown and the cash crops 

include maize, groundnuts, sugarcane, roots, tubers, pulses, hits, 

chillies and pepper. These crops produce a variety of crop residues 

which together with available wayside grazing provide the main feeds for 

the animal production. With pigs, they depend to a large extent on feeds 

fiom root crops with very little use of purchased concentrates. 

Depending on the access to water from rivers, streams or ponds, a 

common production system involves the integration of pigs, fish and 

vegetables. The synergistic Interactions of these components have a 

greater total effect than the sum of the individual effects (Edwards et al., 

1988), in which ecological and economic sustainability is achieved. In 

these circumstances, ducks and to a lesser extent chickens also play a 

valuable part in the integrated systems. Research experience in Thailand 

indicates that the use of low inputs for poultry-fish integration for small 

farmers is more feasible for such systems and intensification has many 

difliculties. By comparison, ruminant-fish integrated systems appears to 

have more potential because of less reliance on purchased feeds (Edwards 

and Little, 1995). 

Throughout the rainfed lowlands and to a lesser extend in the 

uplands, native poultry production for meat and eggs is very important, 

and is an underestimated animal production activity. At the village level, 

there is organized production mainly by women and children in which 

there is significant income generation. This is associated of-ten, with 

relatively higher prices fm these birds for the reason that they taste better 

and the lean cantent is higher. The income generated makes an important 

contribution to the stability as well as the nutrition of farm households. 

Unfortunately there has been very little research and development effort 

to improve the system and considerable opportunities exist for improving

Relevance and importance ofcrop-animal systems in Asia 

and increasing productivity &om native chickens. Specific areas which 

warrant. such effort include genetic improvemefit, animal health, improved 

feeding and nutrition, socio-economics and marketing. 

Rainfed Humidsub-humid Uplands 

The uplands like the lowlands, include unimgated areas with 

unreliable rainfall and areas with steep slopes or poor soils up to about 

llOOm above sea level. The area is generally very £?agile and 

environmental degradation is greater than in the lowland areas. 

Both the rainfed lowland and upland areas are generally low 

producing areas, and house several millions of poor people who prefer 

these areas and even perceive healthier living. These people are poorer 

than those in the irrigated areas who live close to forest areas. These 

areas are increkingly being used for crop production and are also 

associated with increased human and livestock populatidn pressure. One 

crop of rice is grown together with root crops like cassava and sweet 

potatoes as well as cash crops like mung bean (Devendra, 1995b). 

Farming activities in this area involve some f m of shifting 

cultivation. This is mainly due to the unavailability of, and lack of access 

to, agricultural inputs, credit and markets. Thus the farmer has little 

choice but to move on as the fertility of the land cultivated becomes 

depleted. Shifting cultivation is a major survival strategy of communities 

of poor farmers, who cultivate root crops or grain as their major source 

of subsistence. It involves modiMng the forest by clearing, burning, 

selective cultivating and weeding, and also some hunting and gathering. 

Most lands that are cleared fail to remain productive because the nutrients 

are held in the biomass and not in the soil, leading to infertile land. The 

land cultivated is neither permanent or continuous and is usually followed 

by a fallow. Often herds of cattle are maintained which are grazed on the 

forest margins and then shifted such as is done in Laos and Cambodia.

IMPACT OF CROP-ANIMAL SYSTEMS 

C. Devendra 

Demonstrable evidence: Although demonstrable evidence of the benefits 

ofcropanimal systems concerning especially the contribution of animals 

is limited, the avdable evidence clearly indicates that these systems have 

considerable merit. It is not proposed to discuss the available information 

as this has already been reviewed (Devendra, 1993; 1995a). 

By way of example however, one case study is identified 

appropriate to Sri Lanka. In the upland areas of the mid country in Sri 

Lanka, crop production involves tree crops (coconuts and hits), root 

crops and herbs in stratified layers. Animals are integrated into about 

20% of these farms, mainly cattle for dairying, goat and poultry 

production. 

Economic performance for the period 1985 - 1992 for three sizes of 

farmer-managed farms (0.5, 10 and 2 acres) showed that dairying 

contributed to most of the total gross profits of 3 1,63 and 69% for the 

three types of farms respectively. This was followed by crops (29,37 and 

19%), poultry (22, 0 and 9%) and goats (18,O and 3%) respectively. 

Among the animals, dairy cattle and goats gave the greatest income 

returns (Table 4). Animals also significantly contributed to the 

improvement of soil fertility through manure and biogas production tb 

replace domestic fuel needs (de Jong et al., 1994). 

Environmental impacts: The positive environmental impacts resulting 

fiom crop-animal interactions are numerous. These include inter alia: 

- Improved tillage and soil conservation through use of animal 

draught power compared to mechanical power. 

- The supply of dung and urine to improve soil fertility.

Table 4. Average economic performance p.er year, per acre and per person of the farm activities of the three MLDC ki 

Farms - 1 985 - 1 992 (de Jong et d., 1994). f 

Item Half acre One acre Two acre 9 

s 

Total revenue 

Total direct cost 

Total gross margin 

As % of 0.5 acre farm 

Gross margin/LV 

Gross margin/(person) 

As % of 0.5 acre farm 

Gross margin per Rs 1,000 

investment 

' Livestock Unit

C. Devendra 

- Development of food-feed systems results in increased feeds for animals 

for longer periods, increased crop yields and soil fertility, and 

- Demonstrable sustainable systems that integrate the management and 

use of natural resources and environmental protection. 

Major conclusionsfrom case studies: A number of major cunclusions 

can be made fiom the results of the 10 case studies cited: 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

In all cases, without exception, mixed farming systems involving 

crops (annual and perennial) and animals (ruminants and non- 

ruminants) and their interactions were positive and beneficial. 

The benefits resulting from posi live crop-animal interactions 

were directly associated with increased productivity fiom the 

integration, increased income and demonstration of sustainable 

systems involving ecological and environmental attributes. 

The main parameters used as indicators of sustainability were 

yield and net returns, simply because these are the main ones 

used by farmers and others in farming system performance. In 

one case, soil f dty and soil erosion indicators were also used. 

Future projects wll need to include in the methodologies, more 

vigorous indicators of sustainability such as total factor 

productivity as well as assessment of environmental impacts. 

The latter include both environmental (e.g. soil status) and 

economic (eg. food security and farm income) impacts. 

Exciting opportunities exist for extending wider use of a variety 

of technology development initiatives in both the rainfed, 

lowland and upland agroecologcal zones. Priorities need to be 

established to focus on the development of these agroecological 

zones in tandem with national goals, appropriate use of animal 

species and available natural resources.

Relevance and importance ofcrop-animal systems in Asia 

(e) 

Q 

An overriding constraint in the rainfed lowlands and uplands 

concerns feed resources. The problems involved are firstly 

increased feed production to alleviate existing deficits, and 

secondly, improved efficiency in feed utilization. Animals in 

these systems subsist on very low planes of nutrition and 

droughts. Meeting their nutrient needs through the development 

6r '& year rouridrkcling is a most important strategy. 

Application of the potentially important technologies and the 

development of others has the distinct possibility of expanding 

the use of underutdised rainfed lowlands and uplands, increase 

food production @om more efficient use of the natural resources, 

and also con-tly demonstrate the important role of animals 

in sustainable agriculture. 

(g) A major shift of development activities to the more complex 

raided lowland and upland systems will need strong policy and 

. institutional support to deal with issues such as land tenure, 

common property rights and marketing. 

Summary oyfBeneJits: In cognisance of the case studies presented and 

the data tkerein, Table 5 presents a summary of the positive impacts 

resulting fiom the available technologies that are associated with 

sustainable agriculture. These relate to both socia-economic and 

environmental benefits.

Table 5. Benefits of some technological options in crop-animal systems and demonstrable sustainable agriculture in 

Asia. 

Technology Soil Soil Increased Increased Increased Increased 

conw~ation f- animal prformauce crop yields food security income/honsehold 

9 

1) Supplementation 

2) Dnmght animal 

power 

3) Legames (feed, grsea 

manure, hedges in rice 

bmds) + 

4) Food-feed sysbms + 

5) Tree strata forage 

system + 

6) Alley cropping + 

7) S1oping agricultural 

land technology 

(SALT) + 

8) hlrmure availability + 

9) Rice-fish integration + 

10) Ruminan- crop 

integration + + + + + +


OPPORTUNITIES FOR RESEARCH AND 

DEVELOPMENT 

Considerable opportunities exist for research and development on 

animals in crop-animal systems. In this context the priority 

agmedogical zones, production systems, and commodity emphasis are 

as follows:- 

Priority Agro-ecological Zones 

South East Asia 

(a) Rainfed humidsub humid lowlands 

(b) Rainfed humidJSub humid uplands 

(c) Rainfed semi-arid humid lowlands (Thailand and 

Indonesia) 

South Asia 

(a) Unirrigated aridsemi-arid lowlands 

(b) Irrigated aridsemi-arid lowlands 

(c) Temperate and tropical highlands 

-du-Kush Himalayan region) 

Priority Production Systems 

South ~as't Asia . 

A. Rainfed humidsub-humid lowlands 

(a) Rice~livestocU~ntegration 

(b) Rice/buffdoes/cattle 

(c) Ricelducks 

(4 Cropd P O~W

B. Rainfed humidlsub-humid uplana 

(a) Tree crops1 small ruminants systems 

(b) Tree cropslcattle systems 

South Asia 

A. Unirrigated ranfed aridtsemi-arid lowlands 

(a) Goat and sheep production, including landless systems 

B. Irrigated rainfed aridlsemi-arid lowlands 

(a) Rce-wheathuffdo 

(b) Rice-wheatlcattle 

C. Tropical h~ghlands 

(a) Mai ze-barleylcattle 

(b) Goatlsheep production 

Commodity Emphasis 

C. Devendra . 

In relation to the priority AEZ and production systems, the commodity 

emphasis to increase productivity, often through the use of multipurpose animals 

is as follows: 

South East Asia 

Cattle - Beef, milk and some draught power 

Buffaloes - Beef and draught power 

Goats - Goat meat 

Sheep - Mutton 

Ducks - Meat and eggs 

Pigs (native) - Pig meat 

Chickens (native) - Poultry meat and eggs


South Asia 

Buffaloes - Milk and some draught power 

Cattle - Draught power and some milk 

Goats - Goat meat and some milk 

Sheep - Mutton 

Throughout Asia, large scale poultry and pig production are very well 

advanced, capital - intensive industries in which the private sector is 

heavily involved. On the other hand, there is an ever increasing role 

through policy and regulatory mechanisms, to ensure that increased 

&ciency of production can be enhanced through integrated production 

involving management, improved feeding and nutrition, animal health, 

product handling and use. 

Systems Approach 

Because afthe complexity of research and development in these 

difficult areas, resource management will have to be more holistic. The 

costs are therefie higher, but the pay& for the contribution of livestock 

are likely to be much more in the future. 

An important prerequisite to the systems approach is 

dtment to inter-disciplinarity, integrated natural resource use and 

management and sustainable development. This is especially important 

for research and development of crop-animal systems in specific 

ecosystems. Also, the formulation of research programmes must involve 

both production and post-production components, and community-based 

participation in response to the real needs of farmers. 

The components ofthe systems approach involve five successive stages: 

- Description or diagnosis 

- Design 

- Interventions and testing

References 

C. Devendra 

ADB (1991) Sector paper on livestock. Agric. Dept. Staff Paper No. 4, Manila, 

Philippines, 225 pp 

de Jong, R, Kuruppu, L.G., Jayawardena, Q. W. and Ibrahim, M.N.M. (1994) 

Perfiance of small livestock crop demonstration cum training farms in Sri Lanka. 

Aszan-Australian J. Anim. Sci. 7,571-582. 

Devendra, C. (1983) Small farm systems combining crops and animals. Proc. V World 

Con$ Anim. Prod. 1,173-191. 

Devendra, C. (1991) The potential for integration of small ruminants and tree cropping 

systems in South and South East Asia. World Anim. Rev. (FAO) 66,13-22. 

Devendra, C. (1993) Sustainable animal production from small farm systems in South 

East Asia. FA0 Anzm. Prod. and Health Paper No, 106, Rome, Italy. 

Devendra, C. (1995a) Mixed farming and inkmdication of animal of production in Asia. 

Proc. ILRI/FAO Roundtable Livestock Development in Low Income Countries, 

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 133-144. 

Devendra, C. (1995b) Environmental charactmisation of crop-animal systems in rain-fed 

lowland and upland areas. In: Proc. of Internatzonal Workshop on Crop-animal 

Interactiom. Devendra, C. and Sevilla, C.C. (Eds). International Rioe Research 

Institute, Los Banos, Philippines, p. 43-64. 

Duckham, AM. and Meld, O.D. (1970) Farming Systems of the World. Chatto and 

Windus: London, UK. 

Edwards, P., Pullin, RS.V. and Gartner, J .k (1988) Research and education for the 

development of crop-livestock-fish farming systems in the tropics. International 

Centre for Land Use and Resource Management Studies and Reviews No: 16, 

Manila, Philippines, 53 pp. 

Edwards, P. and Little, D.C. (1995) Integrated crop-fish-livestock improvements in 

South East Asia. Proc. Consultation for the South East Asia Region. (Eds. C. 

Devendra and P. Gardiner), ILFU, Nairobi, Kenya. p. 65-75. 

FAOIRAPA (1989) Livestock Development in Asia-Pacific Region. Publ. 1891/1, 

Food and Agriculture Organisation, Bangkok, Thailand, 55 pp. 

Ruthenberg, H. (1980) Farming Systems m the Tropics (2nd Ed.). Clarendon Press: 

Oxford, UK, 424 pp. 

Sere, C, and Steinfeld, H. (1994) World livestock production system: Current studies, 

issues and trends. FA0 Anim. Prod. and Health paper (In press). 

Spedding, C.RW. (1975) The Biology of Agricultural Systems. Academic Press: 

London, UK. 

TAC/CGV\R (1992) Review of CGIAR Priorities and Strategies. Part 1. TAC 

Secretariat, Food and Agriculture Orgdon: Rome, Italy (Mimeograph, 250 pp.)


FAOIRAPA (1989) Livestock Development in Asia-Paclj?c Region. Publ. 

189 111, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Bangkok, Thailand, 5 5 

PP. - 

Ruthenberg, H (1980) Farming Systems in the Tropics (2nd Ed.). Clarendon 

Press: Oxford, UK, 424 pp. 

Sere, C. and Steinfeld, H. (1994) World livestock production system: Current 

studies, issues and trends. FA0 Anim. Prod. and Health paper (In 

press). 

Spedding, C.RW. (1975) The Biology of Agricultural Systems. Academic 

Press: London, UK. 

TACICGIAR (1992) Review of CGL4R Priorities and Strategies. Part 1. TAC 

' Secretariat, Food and Agriculture Organization: Rome, Italy 

(Muneograph, 250 pp.) 

Pigali, P.L. (1992) Diverseing Asian rice farming systems: a determiistic 

paradigm. In trends in Agricultural Diversification: Regional 

Perspective. World Bank Technical Paper 180, Washington D.C., 

USA, pp 107-126 

World Resources Institute (1992) Towarh Sustainable Development. World 

Resources Institute, Washington, D.C., USA. xiv + 3035 pp.

TEE USE OF FEMALE B'CTFFALOES FOR ON-FARM 

WORK 

P. Bunyavejchewin and C. Chantalakhana 

BufSalo and Beef Production Research and Development Center 

(BPRADEC) Suwanvajokhiht Animal Research and Development 

Institute (SARDI) Kmetsart University, Bangkok 

THAILAND 

Abstract: In Thailand, draught animals remain an important source of fann 

power for crop production in most rural rain-fed areas. The distribution of 

draught animals varies in different locations relating directly to rain-fed rice 

growing areas where draught animal power (DAP) plays a sipficant role. 

With more use of small tractors, the purpose for keeping of buffaloes on-farm 

is not only for draught but also for sale, for manure and as the famdy's financial 

asset Thereby, farmers tend to keep more female buffaloes than male animals 

because females can produce ofTspring which can be sold for additional income. 

Inevitably, cows including pregnant ones are also used for work during the 

cultivation season. 

Pregnant buffaloes are used for work at various stages of pregnancy, 

ranging from 2-3 months to 6-8 months of pregnancy. For intense work 

during the regular rainy season, some pregnant cows work drom 45-90 days 

or 225-450 hours mainly in first tillage. No incidence of health problems or 

abortion was observed Far litst tillage performed by buffalo cows with average 

weight of 405-41 1 kg, the area that could be ploughed was approximately 405- 

420 mzih. For second tillage cows with average weight of 404-410 kg could 

plough 708-807 m2/h. 

It is foreseeable that buffalo cows will continue to play a sigdicant 

role in the future in the supply of animal power for rural rain-fed farming. 

Although an increase in mechanization is evident, some lunds of work in soil 

preparation has to be done by animals. Thereby, more combined use of 

mechanical power and draught cows will be practical and economical under 

small farm systems in Northeast Thailand. 

Keywords: Animal power, buffalo, female performance

The use of female buflaloei for on-farm work 

Agriculture is an important sector in Thailand in which 

appr-ly 60-65% ofthe total Thai population (almost 60 d ons) 

are currently engaged. An estimate of the extent of farm land in I991 

was 21.3 rnilliw hectares or 41.5% of total land (OAE, 1994). The 

extent of agriculture (about 85%) depend on rdd and occupy most 

rural areas where draught animals are m important source of power for 

farming. 

The distribution af ammals used for draught power, mainly 

bdMoes, varies in diffkrent locations depending on the extent of rainfed 

rice growing land, where they play a prominent role. Due to advanced 

technology in mechanical power, the use of draught animal power 1s rated 

low in status and little attentron 1s paid to it, though it is appropriate 

economically and socially tn the circumstances of remote rural areas, 

where farmers depend on rdall for crop production With more use of 

twewheeled tractas small fhmers have come to Iimit the number as well 

as sex of butlFaloes raised 1n their farms. Female buffaloes are more 

preferable to keep on-farq3 than male ones for some spmfic reasons. 

Thereby, buffalo cows are also used fo?. work during the growing season 

(Chmtalakhana et al., 1991). That situation is mdirmed in th~s paper 

which pmemts the results dan cm-farm monitoring study in two villages 

ofNartheast Thailand, con- during the years 1991-1 994. The paper 

is h e d cm time points; 1) the proportion of working female and male 

buffaloes in the studied villages, 2) the use of pregnant cows for work, 

and 3) draught capacity of female buEaloes 

Two villages in Surin province having topographical aerences, 

me lowla~d and the other mixed lowland-upland, were selected to 

represent two typical farming systems prevalent in lower-northemst 

Thailand Farma in these two villages depend only on rainfall for mop 

production. In 1991 and 1992 the annual rainfall was 141 1 and 1040

P. Bunyavejchewin and C. Chmtalakhana 

mm, the average annual temperature was 27. 1' C and 26.9' C, and the 

average annual relative humidity was 70.1% and 70.9%, respectively. 

Normally the rainy season lasts from May to October. 

Lowland Village (2 v: In 1 992, there were 121 households, of which 

78 5% grew crops, mainly nce. Seventy-three per cent of the total 

ber of house41olds rased swamp buftdoes; the average was 2.2 head 

n\ per ho sehdd and the total number was 245. There were approximately 

95 cattle and some pigs and poultry (chickens, ducks and geese) in the 

village. Besides income from crops and Livestock, villagers also earned 

income fiom off-fann employment (Table 1). 

Table 1. Charactmistics of the two villages studied (Bunyavejchewin et 

al., 1994a). 

Characteristics LV W 

Total no. of households (HH) 121 96 

Average members per HH 4.4 4.9 

HHs growtng crops Vo.) 95 76 

(%) 78.5 79.2 

Land holdmg, (rai)' 

Homestead 1.2(0.12-5)' 1.6(0.25-5) 

Cultivated area 19.0(1-120) 16.5(1-65) 

Livestock raised, NO.)^ 

Buffaloes 2.2(72. 7)4 3.q79.2) 

Cattle 1.q48.8) 2.7(72.9) 

Pigs 0.8(24.8) 0. g(46.9) 

Ducks 7.1(25.6) 2. q40.6) 

Chickens 14.q90.9) 18.6(94.8) 

Family income source Woff-farm Mostly on-farm 

Power source for tillage5 

HHs using buffaloes, (No.) 34 5 

(%I (35.8)6 (6.6) 

HHs using small tractors, (Oh) 29(30.5) 37(48.7) 

No.of HH us in^ both. (%) 30(3 1.6) 33(43.4) 

'- 1 rai = 0.16 ha ' - Mean (range) '- Average from total number of households 

- figure in brackets is the percentage of households raising buffaloes ' - Only 

he households which had their own cropping activities - figure in brackets is 

the percentage of total households growing crops

The use offem ale buflaaloes for on-$am work 

M~xed Lmland-Upland Vzllage (UbJ: The number of househdds in this 

dage m 1992 was 96, of whlch 79.2% grew crops the whole year round. 

The major crops which were the man income source of the household 

were me, maize, Chnese rdsh and groundnut Because of 

topographcal vanahon in the culhvated area, farmers grew rice mostly 

in the lowland areas and the other crops in upland areas. Seventy-nine 

per cent of all households rased swamp buffalq the average being 3 head 

per household. The total number of cattle in the village was 198, and 

there were also some plgs, chlckens and ducks (Tablel). 

Comparing the data from the two vlllages in 1992 with those 

collected in the year 1988 (Chantalakhana et al., 1991), some 

charactenskcs had changed There were Increases in the number of 

households by 5 2% and 6 7% in LV and UV respectively, and in the 

number of cattle, especially In UV 

USE OF DRAUGHT BUFFALO COWS 

The intensity of work for draught ammals in Thailand varies 

between locations, seasons and farming systems. Traditionally, male 

animals are preferred for work, while females are kept for producing 

calves in order to gain additional income for fanners. Due to increasing 

shortage of draught animals during the recent decades both male and 

female buffaloes have been used for work including pregnant buffaloes. 

Daily records on the use of indlvldual buffaloes for farm work in 

the two villages, mcludmg ploughmg, harromg and carting, showed that 

the draught buffaloes were used on average of 5 1 to 67 days per year, 

ranjgng &om 8 to 1 15 days (Chantalakhana et al., 1991). Two to three 

draught bufTaloes can take care of farm work on two to three hectares of 

f m area From the same study it has been shown that buffaloes are used 

most intensely during July and August which are the months of most 

intense ploughing and planting.


There has been a trend in smd. farms to raise more female 

animals for work than males; females are preferred because. they can 

produce calves which can be sold. The figures from three-consecutive 

years (Bunyavejchewin et al., 1994b) revealed that both villages used 

more females than males for work able 2), but the range of ratios of 

worlung male to female in the mixed lowland-upland village (1 5-1 : 12) 

was much higher than that of the lowland village (1:2.6-1:3.4). Iq 

practice, most of the bigger males were castrated at the age of 2.5 to 3 

years in order to reduce their aggressiveness and for ease of handling 

during training for work. Only a few intact bulls in the villages studied 

were used for work due to their individual tameness. This gave more 

chance for natural buffalo mating whch mostly occurred during January 

to March when animals were in prime condition due to abundant feed 

supply in the post-harvest period fiom 0ctobLr to ~ecember. Since 

fmers kept more cows than bulls, pregnant cows were eventually used 

for work whenever needed. Calvings occurred mostly during November 

to January, resulting in many 4-6 month pregnant cows being worked 

during the cropping season (June to August). 

Table 2. Numbers of worlung animals in two villages in hortheast 

- 

Thailand dunng 1992-1 994 (Bunyavejchewin et al., 1994b) 

Year LV W 

Male Female Total Male Female Total 

1992 

Total no, of buffaloes 91 158 249 ' 93 192 285 

Working buffaloes 3 7 96 133 9 109 118 

1993 

Total no. of buffaloes 92 183 275 114 172 286 

Workmg buffaloes 25 84 109 7 78. 85 

1994 

Total no, of buffaloes 97 170 267 97 152 249 

Workmg buffaloes 21. 68 89 11 55 66 

The distribution of different classes of buffaloes and the calving 

rates in the two villages are shown in Table 3.

m 

Table 3. Animal numbers and calving rates of buffdoes under village conditions (Bunyavejchewin et al., 1994b). % 

g 

Jbm Calving masan 

E 

1991192 1992193 1993194 0- 

9 

LV W Total LV W Total LV W Total g 

8 

Total no. of buffaloes 249 285 534 27593 28611 561 $ 

- male 91 93 184 18213 41721 206 0 

-female 158 192 350 14932 31422 355 $, 

Mature females 121 120 241 129 131 260 20000 75000 262 3 

Maturebulk - 20 13 33 0 00 91 S 

Cows calving 31 52 83 47 46 93 58 $ 

- non-working pregnant cows 4 6 10 13 13 26 20 

- working pmgnmt cows 27 46 73 34 33 67 38 

Calving rate (%) 25.6 43.3 34.4 34.4 ' 35.1 35.8 22.1 

8


WORKING PREGNANT BUFFALO COWS 

As mentioned it is aften seen in the villages that pregnant females 

are used for work during the growing season. Thirty seven pregnant 

buffaloes were observed, 23 in the 1992193 and 14 in the 1993194 

calving seasons by Bunyavejchewin et al. (1994~). Twelve out of 23 

were used to work in the year 1992 cropping season (around May to 

August), while 6 out of 14 were worked in 1993. Due to different rainfall 

patterns between the two cropping seasons, working intensities were 

different. An unusually short rainy season with the small amount of 

rainfall in 1992 resulted in less intensive use of buffalo power compared 

to that in 1993 when rainfall distribution was normal. Table 4 presents 

the general working prof26 ofpregnant cows calving in different months 

ofthe calving season. It can be seen that pregnant buffaloes in this study 

were used to work at various stages of pregnancy, ranging fiom 2-3 

months to 6-8 months in 1992. However, the number &working days 

were few, ranging &om 2-5 days to 1 1 days during the cropping season, 

or 3 to 17 hours per animal per season. This workload is considered to 

be very light due to the drought conditions whch prevailed during the 

1992 cropping season. 

Many farmers who used buffdoes for tillage turned to hiring a 

two-wheeled tractor. On the other hand, in the 1993 cropping season, 

rainfall was near normal and the buffaloes were used more intensely. 

Working days of six pregnant buffaloes ranged from 45-90 and the 

number of working hours per season were 225 to 450. The females were . 

at different stages of pregnancy ranging fiom 2-3 months to 5-7 months 

of pregnancy. No incidence uf adverse health conditions or abortion was 

recorded, though same were worked five hours a day during 2-3 months 

ofthe cropping season.

3 

3 

9 

Table 4. Use of pngnant buffalo cows for work in two cropping seasons (Bunyavejchewin et al., 1994~). 

No. pregnant Month Avg. age Stages of Period of work Type of work P 0. 

cows observed of (YO pregnancy 

L 

c&g (min-max) (mo) when Days Hours c" 

worked (min-max) (min-max) 2 

1992193 calving season 1992 cropping season 

3 Nov 92 7(4-9) 6-8 2-6 3.5-7.5 1" tillage 3 

6 Dec 92 lO(4-19) 5-7 2-5 3-8 Mostly 1' tillage 3 

1 Feb 93 7 2-3 11 14 - 1" tillage 8 

2 Mar93 14.5(8-21) 2-5 4-1 1 5-17 1" tillage $ 

1993194 calving season 1993 cropping season 

2 NOV 93 8(4-12) 5-7 60-90 360-450 I", .2nd tillage' 

and h~owhg 

2 Dec 93 8(7r9)- 4-6 45-70 270-420 1' tillage 

2 Mar 94 . 7.5(6-9) 2-3 45-60 225-300 1" ah$ 

? Q


WORK OUTPUT F'ROMDRAUGHT COWS 

In an attempt to compare the work output of females with that of 

male buffaloes on-farm, measurements were made in terms of the area 

ploughed. Due to the fact that fanners used more females for work, there 

were only a few observations recorded in males (Table 5). It can be seen 

that the area ploughed on the secund tillage was more than that in the first 

tillage by one and a half to two fold. Since there was a wide variaon in 

the number of observations on draught performance between the two 

sexes as well as bufEdo body weights, the difference between sexes could 

not be clearly determined. However, it appeared that the work output 

was dependent on body weight. 

Table 5. Draught abililty of hale buffaloes and a comparison with that 

of a limited number of males. 

Type ofwork Soil type Sex Body No Area C.V. 

weight - ploughed 

(kg) (m2/h) (??) 

First tillage Sandy loam F 405+34 25 405+143 35.0 

M 537+70 3 5032265 52.7 

Clayloam F 414k60 11 420&173 41.2 

M - 

Second tillage Sandy loam F 410+_47 26 807k501 62.1 

M 448589 3 891+552 61.9 

Clay loam F 404+57 11 708+513 72.4 

M 418+89 3 669+_235 35.1 

FUTURE ROLE OF DRAUGEIT BUFFALO COWS 

In the foreseeable future buffalo cows will continue to play a 

significant role as a source of animal power in small farm systems in 

some areas especially in Northeast Thailand. 

During the past two decades +illage buffalo herds generally 

consisted ,of 50% males and most of them were used for work and 

transpdation. However, & evident in recent years, more female 

b&oes are used for work instead of males in ,order to utilize the female

The use offemale buflaloes for on-farm work 

for calf production and additional income, as well as for other purposes. 

Therefore village buffaloes will continue to serve as multi-purpose 

animals in the future, includmg a source of DAP. Some transition from 

draught buffalo to a small tractor or a hand tractor is increasingly seen 

under village circumstances where crop production depends on rainfall. 

The small tractor is also hhionable among rural farmers and has a faster 

working speed, but its cost-effectiveness is questionable 

(Bunyavejchewin et al., 1994a). A study has found that the break-even 

point of the utilization of a small tractor was at 242.4 hours per year 

(Bunyaprawit, 1985). It is often seen that the small tractor is 

underutilized by some fanners due to many reasons, such as having small 

pieces of land for cultivation, lack of family labour for hiring out the small 

tractor dunng off-growing season period and the lack of knowledge in 

using the small tractor properly whlch impacts directly on user's health, 

etc. In add tion, it is evident that some farmers revert to the use of the 

draught buffalo when the tractor breaks down (Pnebprom and Sirichinda, 

1994). On the other hand, some kinds of work such as hrrowing or 

ploughmg near dikes, are more conveniently done by buffalo. Thereby, 

more combined use of mechanical power and draught buffalo will be 

practical and economical under rural small farm systems in Thailand. 

B unyaprawit, M. (1 985) The economic values of tractors. Appropriare 

Technology Journal 5,: 24-29. (in Thai). 

Bunyavejchewin, P., Sangdid, S. and Chantalakhana, C. (1994a) Socioeconomic 

conditions affecting the use of draught buffalo versus two-wheeled 

tractor in some villages of Surin province. h: Proceedings ofthe First 

Asian Buffalo Association (ABA) Congress, BPRADEC, Bangkok, 

Thailand. pp. 28-41. 

Bunyavejchewin, P., Sangdid, S. and Chantalakhana, C. (1994b) Reproductive 

e6ciency of draught bsalo under village conditions. Paper presented 

at the Sympmium on Improving Draught Capacity of the Multi- 

purpose Buffaloes in Smdl-fann Systems. Kasetsart University, 

Bangkok, Thailand, 6-8 December 1994.


Bunyavejchewin, P., Chantalakhana, C., Sangdid, S. and Poondusit, T. (1994~) 

Factors affecting draught capacity of buffalo in two villages of Surin 

province. Paper presented at the Symposium on Improving Draught 

Capacity of the Multi-purpose Buflaloes in Small-farm Systems. 

Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand, 6-8 December 1994. 

Chantalakhana, C., Bunyavejchewin, P., Chotemetepirom, S. and 

Kaewsomprasong, K. (1991) Household characteristics and 

monitoring of year-round buffalo husbandry and activities in two 

villages in Northeast Thailand. In: Draught Power from Swamp 

Buffaloes in Asia, Bunyavejchewin, P. and C. Chantalakhana (Eds), 

Pmxahgs, BPRADEC, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 

239-268. 

Office of Agricultural Economics (1994) Agricultural Statistics of Thailand 

Crop Year 1993/1994. Center for Agricultural Statistics, MOAC, 

Bangkok, Thailand. 

Priebprom, S. and Sirichinda, k (1994) Economic assessment of role and 

contribution of buffaloes and two-wheel tractors in small-fann 

systems. Paper presented at the Sympmium on Improving Draught 

Capacity of the Multi-purpose Buffaloes in Small-farm Systems. 

Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand, 6-8 December 1994.

TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY IN SMALLHOLDER 

INTENSIVE BUFFALO FARMING: RESULTS FROM A 

PILOT STUDY IN MAHAWELI SYSTEM 'H' 

H. Abeygunawardenal, D.H. A. Subasinghe2, A.N.F. Perera3, 

S. S.E. Ranawana4, M. W. A.P. Jayatilake5 and B.M. A.O. Perera1 

' Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, 

University of Peradeniya Department of Animal Production and 

Health, Peradeniya Department of Animal Science, 

University of Peradeniya Veterinary Research Institute, 

Gannoma, Peradeniya 'Department of Agricultural Economics 

and Extension, University of Peradeniya, 

SRI LANK4 

Abstract: Buffalo and cattle farming has become increasingly difficult and 

uneconomic because of (1) increased pressure on agricultural land (2) seasonal 

fluctuations in feed availability and quality (3) low productive and reproductive 

efficiency and (4) unfavourable ratio between the price of milk and the price of 

feed. The conventional research and extension delivery system has failed to 

disseminate research lnfonnation and to solve the problems faced by resource 

poor farmers. Therefore, this study based on the farming systems research 

approach was aimed at (a) developing a model for smallholder intensively 

managed bulTalo farm units (SIMBU) incorporating technologies fiom research 

and @) demonstrating the feasibility, and the cost and benefits of intensification 

of buffalo farming. The model for SIMBU was designed to maintain 3 adult 

daii buffaloes. A feeding system consisting of native grass, tree fodder and rice 

straw supplemented with 1 kglday of Urea-Molasses-Multinutrient Mixture 

was developed. 

The testing and refinement of the feeding system was conducted in 4 

successive phases, with roughage as the basal diet supplemented with, 3 kg of 

coconut poonac and 3 kg of rice bran (Diet I), 1 kg/day of UMMM gven as a 

lick for 4 months (Diet 2), 1 kglday of UMMM fortified with 50 g of fish meal 

as a by-pass protein for 6 months (Diet 3), and 1 kg/day of UMMM given as a 

block (UMMB) containing 12% urea, 40% molasses, 30% rice bran, 10% 

cement, 5% minerals and 3% fish meal for 12 months (Diet 4). For Diets 2,3 

and 4, the mean (hSD) feed intake on DM basis was 10.&3.5,10.4*3.2 and 

11.4h0.3 kg per day, respectively. During the four phases, the mean body

Technologv transfer in buff0 farming 

weight (based on chest girth) was 441.3-+95.9, 476.34Z40.1, 467245.9 and 

464.14~27.1 kg and mean milk yield was 2.4-+2.6,3. SK 1.1,4.&2.3 and 4.3*1.4 

litres, respectively. The cost of supplementary feed per day declined fiom 

Rs.24.00 for Diet 1 to Rs.5.50 for Diet 4 (US $l=Rs.55.00). The anuual 

calving rate during the first year under SIMBU was 62% and calving interval 

584*80 days. The mean birth weight of calves (30.4B1.9 kg) and growth rates 

during the first 12 months (256-+73 g/day) were similar to those recorded for 

Surti buffaloes on state farms. The costs borne by the farmers were for labour 

(of which the opportunity cost was very low), for maintenance of the sheds, 

collection of straw, cutting native pasture and fodder, milking, care of the 

animals and assisting the project personnel in keeping records of inputs and 

outputs. The benefits to the farmers were the income fiom milk for meeting 

dady cash needs, cwbioningthe lossei from crop failures, availability of manure 

for home gardens as well as for rice fields, use of female buffaloes for draught 

and an increase in total assets with progressive increase in herd size. 

Keywords: Buffalo farming, small holders, fanning systems research, 

technology transfer 

INTRODUCTION, 

Crop-livestock mixed farmtng is a hallmark of agricultural land 

use systems in Sri Lanka. Cultivation of rice in lowlands and vegetables 

and other subsidiary crops in highlands and in home gardens have always 

been considered as the primary occupation of the majority of smallholder 

farmers. It is estimated that nearly one third of smallholders keep cattle 

andlor buffaloes as a secondary activity (de Silva et al., 1985; 

Abeygunawardena et al., 1994). These animals are mostly of the 

indigenous type and are managed as large herds with minimum inputs. 

They are fed on natural pasture and fodder in common lands such as state 

reservations, scrub land around the village, catchment areas of the village 

irrigation tanks and in paddy fields after the harvest. The animals provide 

multiple outputs, mainly draught power for paddy cultivation, meat and 

milk. Although the quantity of milk is small it provides a regular cash 

income. The sale of excess animals, mainly males and old animals also 

brings in a cash income. Bestdes, l~vestock farming cushions the risk 

associated with crop failures and it is also a method of building the asset

H. Abeygunawardena et al. 

base of the rural households (Ozawa et al., 1978; Richards and 

Agalawatta, 1981; de Silva et al., 1985; Abeygunawardena et al., 1991; 

Abayawansa et al., 1993). 

Though cattle and buffalo farming has been an integral 

component of rural agrarian systems, its existence has been threatened 

with increased fiagrnentation of agricultural land by the rapidly 

increasing population and also by the alienation of lands, hitherto 

considered as communal grazing land, for imgated agriculture. 

Consequently, common pasture grounds have dwindled and movement 

of animals had to be restricted. Damage to crops by fiee roaming cattle 

and buffaloes have increased resulting in fiequent conflicts between crop 

hers and animal owners (Abeygunawardena et al., 1991 ; Abayawansa 

et al., 1993). However, the value of livestock farming, particularly cattle 

and buffalo has been increasing, as the need for supplementing the 

meager income fiom on-farm and off-farm activities has never been so 

great. Another constraint has been the seasonal fluctuation of pasture 

and fodder availability, which is closely associated with the distinct 

seasonal bimodal rainfall pattern. Limitations in nutrient supply and 

fluctuations in the quality of forage have been shown to effect the 

productivity and reproduction of both cattle and buffaloes (de Silva et al., 

1985; Perera et al., 1 987; Abeygunawardena et al., 1994). The solution 

to this is to provide concentrates, but at the current farm gate price of 

milk, feeding concentrates is beyond the capability of subsistence 

farmers. 

In the face of vast and rapid changes occurring in the socie 

economic sphere of the country, there is a need to generate appropriate 

technologies and indeed, transfer these to the end users, the rural 

subsistence farmers, to help them to overcome pressing problems. 

During the past few decades, a vast amount of knowledge and 

technologies have been generated by the national and international 

research systems to overcome nutritional constraints. In the use of crop 

residues as ruminant feeds, technologies such as treatment with alkalies 

(Owen and Jayasooriya, 1989), or urea (Nolan and Leng, 1989), 

provision of bypass proteins and manipulation of energy density of

Technology transfer in buflalo farming 

ruminant diets (Nolan and Leng, 1989), use of molasses as a rapidly 

fermentable carbohydrate and as a palatable carrier for essential nutrients 

(e.g. urea and minerals) and as a source of trace minerals (e.g. sulphur, 

calcium, potassium) and the use of urea-molasses multinutrient mixtures 

(UMMM) to enhance the digestibility of coarse forages and crop 

residues, have been introduced. These are particularly useful with forage 

low in nitrogen, to enhance microbial protein synthesis in the rumen 

(Preston and Leng, 1987; Ranjhan, 1992). Unfortunately, most of these 

have not been delivered to end users and attempts made by the 

conventional research and extension system have fallen far below 

expectahons. The exception has been the widespread adoption of 

UMMM formulations in ruminant feeding (Preston and Leng, 1987). 

Other fionber developments were in the fields of reproduction and health. 

A considerable amount of experimentation has been done to explore 

methods for improving the reproductive performance of animals, both 

under large farm and smallholder situations. The value of limited 

suckling by the calf during the postpartum period in improving 

postpartum fertility and the use of exogenous hormones to induce oestrus 

in postpartum anoestrous animals have been well demonstrated in Sri 

Lanka (Abeygunawardena et al., 1995a; 1995b) as well as in other 

countries (Odde, 1980; Randel, 1981 ; Bastidae et al., 1984 ). As regards 

health, work done in Sri Lanka has shown that appropriate 

anthelminthics administered to young buffalo calves once, between 10 

and 16 days significantly reduces the effects of the most pathogenic 

gastrointeshnal nematode, Toxocara vitulorum (Roberts, 1989). 

In general, the conventional research and extension delivery 

systems have failed to disseminate the new information generated by 

research. This led to the emergence of farming systems research where 

the end user becomes an active partner of the entire expenmentation and 

transfer process (Chambers et al., 1983; Starkey, 1989). The objectives 

of th~s study were (a) to adopt the farming systems approach (b) to 

develop smallholder intensively managed model buffalo farm units, by 

incorporating technologies fiom the research, both of national and 

international origin and (c) to demonstrate the feasibility and cost and


benefits of intensification of buffalo farming in smallholder production 

systems. 

MATEW AND- METHODS 

I. Review of current knowledge andperceptions on buflalo farming: At 

the commencement of the study, a workshop on the "Transfer of 

Technology on the Water Buffalo to the End Users" was conducted with 

participation of research scientists, animal production and health officers 

(veterinarians) and extension workers. At this workshop, it was noted 

that the buffalo farming systems in the country ranged &om extensive to 

semi-intensive and to intensive management systems (classified on the 

basis of feeding and management practices). These systems have 

primarily evolved as a result of a multitude of factors such as agroecology, 

availability of grazing lands and the type of cropping systems. 

The extensive system is the most prevalent in the dry m e and in the dryintermediate 

zone, which extends across ndy two thirds of the country. 

The semi-intensive system is found in the wet zone and wet-intermediate 

zone, particularly in the coconut triangle area and some of the dry zone 

irrigated settlement areas. Conversely, the intensive management system 

is rare and has evolved as a result of the limitation of land in peri-urban 

areas. At this workshop it was also highltghted that the sustainability of 

all 3 systems, particularly in the coconut triangle area and in irrigated 

settlement schemes (e.g. Mahaweli Project areas) were doubtfbl owing 

to the increasing pressure on agricultural land. It was further highlighted 

that in most areas, opportunities for underemployed labour in economic 

activities were low. Rearing animals for dairying, particularly buffaloes, 

due to its multipurpose potential such as milk rich in fat, draught and 

possibly for meat, may be of value to supplement the meager farm 

incomes. The ability of the buffalo to utilize coarse forages (Cockrill, 

1974) was also considered as an added advantage. Intensification of 

buffalo (along with cattle) farming was recognized as the only option 

available to farmers in all these areas.

Technology transfer in buffalo fanning 

Based on these considerations; the appropriateness of enhancing 

the sustainability of ruminant production systems through introduction 

of low cost feedmg systems based on crop residues and agreindustrial 

byproducts was agreed upon. Many studies have demonstrated that most 

of the native forages and crop residues are low in nitrogen and minerals 

and of low digestibility. In such situations, the use of urea and molasses 

as a feed supplement has proved useful. Though the ability of various 

chemicals such as alkali,and urea to increase the digestibility of such 

feeds has been demonstrated, and the value of non-protein nitrogen in 

enhancing rumen microbial digestion is also well known, attempts made 

to popularize the use of chemically treated crop residues (e.g. urea-treated 

or ensiled rice straw) among smallholder farmers fell far below 

expectations, not only in Sri Lanka but also in other countries 

(Jayasooriya, 1993). Preston and Leng (1987) have reported that the 

incarporation of urea into molasses, a rapidly fermentable carbohydrate, 

as a source of ruminant feed found greater acceptability among farmers 

than feeding of other forms of nitrogen and mineral supplements because 

of the convenience. In addition to feeding, other practices such as limited 

suckling and the use of exogenous hormones in optimizing postpartum 

reproductive performance, the practice of strategic worm treatment of 

calves between 10 and 16 days of age and the regular prophylactic 

vaccination against endemic dseases in maintaining optimum health 

condticjns iti animals, were also stressed. The Workshop concluded that 

it would be appropriate to develop smallholder intensively managed 

bdalo units (SIMBU) through introduction of aforementioned and other 

new technologtes, with the objective of testing the feasibility, 

acceptability and cost and benefits of such a systems approach. A further 

objective was to popularize the intensive rearing of buffaloes among 

resource poor rural farmers using thls model k a demonstration unit. 

II. Selection of location: A rapid rural appraisal (RRA) was conducted 

in the coconut triangle (intermediate zone) and in Mahaweli Systems B, 

C and H (dry zone) regions, to identify areas where farmers faced 

pressing problems related to (1) limitation of land for grazing, (2) 

seasonal fluctuations in availability of pasture and fodder, (3) availability


of underemployed or surplus labour with low opportunity cost1. On the 

basis of the RRA, two buffalo rearing areas, the North-Western Province 

(Kurunegala Divisional Secretariat area) and Mahaweli System H area 

(Thambuttegama) were selected to conduct a survey to identify farming 

system and farm household constraints. A questionnaire was developed 

to collect information on (a) farm households (land and labour use 

pattern), (b) livestock fanning (species, breed types, herd size, 

management practices, etc.), (c) income from livestock, if any and (d) 

limitations to buffalo and cattle farming. Based on the results of the 

swey and RRA, a cluster of smallholder farmers (n=9) in the village of 

Suddassanagarna at Thambuttegama in Mahaweli System H area was 

selected to locate on-farm trials. 

ID. Bmic criteria for 'small-holder intensively managed buflalo units' 

(SZI4B.CJ and feeding system: The RRA indicated that the animals to be 

included into the SIMBU must be suitable for both milk and draught and, 

for the units to be economically viable, the average daily milk yield per 

unit must be more than 5-6 litres per day at current prices of liquid milk. 

Further, the use of costly concentrate feeds (e.g. coconut poonac and rice 

bran) must be kept to a minimum, while the use of crop residues (e.g. rice 

straw) and locally available tree fodders must be promoted. It was 

therefoe decided that in order to overcome the nutrient deficiencies that 

would result, a feeding system for SIMBU should be formulated based on 

the following guidelines: (1) provision of a source of fermentable 

nitrogen (e.g. urea) to ensure the maintenance of the nitrogen level in 

rumen fluid in the range of 80 to 150 mgA (2) maintain the rumen 

nitrogen concentration at a steady level, by the continuous supply of a 

non-protein nitrogen source (3) supply of a rapidly fermentable 

carbohydrate source (e.g. molasses) to ensure a more efficient rumen 

environment (4) a source of protein (e.g. coconut poonac) and (5) supply 

of minerals as most of the basal feeds are considered deficient in 

minerals. 

Opportunity cost is dejhed as the likely income fiom the best alternative 

opportunity foregone.

Technology trat@er in buffalo farming 

N. Datelopment of the feeding system: Based on previous experiences 

in many tropical developing countries (Preston and Leng, 1987; 

Canbellas, 1991; Habib et al., 1991; Hendratno et al., 1991; Leng et al., 

1991 ; Saadullah, 1991) a urea-molasses-mdtinutrient mixture (UMMM) 

was selected as the catalybc feed supplement. Molasses, although not 

available in the immediate locality, is available at three large sugar 

factolles. Rice straw is available in abundance in all rural areas but only 

a small proportion is currently used as a source of animal feed and 

organic fertilizer. Therefore, initial trials were conducted at the 

SARECLNARESA Buffalo Research Station, Narangalla, to develop a 

feeding system based on these materials. A urea-molasses-multinutrient 

mixture (UMMM) with the composition given in. Table 1, was fed in the 

fonn of a pastellick to four heifers and two lactating cows for 12 weeks. 

The UMMM lick was prepared daily by first mixing the rice bran and 

dicalcium phosphate using the layer method. The urea, molasses, 

magnesium sulphate, common salt and the micro-mineral mixture 

Table 1. Composition of the Urea-Molasses-Multinutrient Mixture 

w. 

Ingredients Weight (g) 

Rice bran (g) 700 

Dicalcium phosphate (g) 

Magnesium sulphate (g) 

Common salt (g) 

Copper sulphate (mg) 

Zinc oxide (mg) 

Cobalt sulphate (mg) 

Sodium selenite (mg) 3


(CuSO,.SH,O, ZnO, CoS0,.7H20 and NqSeO,.lOH,O) were dissolved 

in a minimum quantity of water. The latter was then added to the former 

and mixed thoroughly. The final mixture was transferred to a bucket and 

compacted with a wooden rod. The UMMM was left in the buffalo shed 

for the cows to lick at their own fiee will. Generally, around 1 kg was 

consumed completely within 2-3 hours. Water and rice straw were 

available ad libitum in the shed, and 1-2 kg of green forage (grass or 

Glyricidia) was provided per animal per day. No concentrates were fed. 

Based on the results (Table 2), this diet was selected as the standard for 

the model SIMBUs to be established at Mahaweli System H. 

Table 2. Straw intake of female buffaloes fed on Urea-Molasses- 

Multinutrient Mixture (UMMM) during the on-station pilot 

study. 

Week Straw intake

Technolop tran.$ev in buffalo farming 

V. Establishment of first model SMBU at an institutionaI farm: 

Initially a prototype SIMBU was established on a 0.2 ha plot of land at 

the Nirawiya Livestock Farm of the Mahaweli Authority. A shed with 

essential features to house 3 cows and their follower calves was 

constructed with locally available, low-cost material. The land was 

fenced and a portion was cultivated with pasture and fodder legumes. 

Tree fodder varieties such as Glyricidia and Leucaena were grown on the 

perimeter fence and as hedge-rows. Inter-row spaces were used for 

cultivation of short term cash crops. Compost manure was prepared in 

pits behind the shed and used to fertilize the crops. Shed washings were 

directed to the fodder plots. During each harvesting season, rice straw 

was collected and stacked on wooden stands. Two Surti buffalo cows and 

one heifer were introduced to the unit and fed on grass, tree fodder, straw 

and UMMM. Since no wallowing was allowed, the animals were 

sprinkled with water four times per day at regular intervals during mid- 

day and afternoon, using a simple sprinkler device made with a perforated 

12 mtn PVC pipe fixed above the animals. This model unit was used for 

demonstrating the proposed system to the selected farmers and as a 

location for providing the necessary training. Planting materials of 

improved varieties offodder were also supplied to farmers fiom this unit. 

I.?. Establishment of model SlMBUs in village farms: The nine small- 

holder farm families selected from Suddassanagarna were provided with 

technical advice and material for construction of the model farm units in 

their homesteads using family labour. Each unit was supplied with two 

Surti buffalo cows and one heifer purchased from a state farm. The cows 

gave an average lactation yield of 10 1 8*347 litres over a lactation length 

of 270.9*87.1 days at the farm of origin. Regular training workshops, 

field days and discussions were held with the farmers, to transfer 

knowledge and skills required to implement improved feeding, 

management and disease control practices, as well as to obtain feedback 

on the responses to such improved technologies.


W. Feeding trials: The feeding system was tested and refined during 

four successive phases of study. Initially, the animals were fed for one 

month on a diet similar to that given at the farm of origin. The basal 

roughage consisted of cut grass, tree leaves and rice straw provided ad 

libitum. This was supplemented with 3 kg coconut poonac and 3 kg rice 

bran per day (Table 3, Diet 1). Subsequently, the concentrate supplement 

was replaced with other formulations shown in Table 3. These consisted 

of feeding 1 kglday of UMMM as a lick for four months @let 2), 1 

kg/* of UMMM enriched with 50 grams of good quality fish meal as 

alick for six months (Diet 3) and the UMMM as a solid urea-molasses- 

multinutrient block (UMMB), for 12 months @let 4). 

Table 3. Composition of test diets given during the four phases of on- 

farm trials. 

Ingredients Diets 

Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 

(UMMM*) (UMMM) (UMMBt 

Coconut poonac (g) 3000 - - - 

Rice bran (g) 

Molasses (g) 

Urea (g) 

Dicalcium phosphate (g) 

Magnesium sulphate (g) 

Common salt (g) 

Copper sulphate 0%) 

Zinc oxide (mg) 

Cobalt +hate (mg) 

Sodium selenite (mg) 

Fish meal (g) 

Cement (a) - - - 100 

,-, 

* Urea-molassesmultinutrient mixhue; tUma-molasses-multinubient block.


The feeding systems are summarized in Table 4. The weight of each 

UMMB was 5 kg, which was generally consumed by each buffalo cow 

over a period of 5-6 days. 

Table 4. Feeding systems adopted during the four phases of on-farm 

trials. 

Ingredients Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 

Rice straw ad lib. ad lib. ad lib. ad lib. 

Green fodder (kg) 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 

Rice bran (kg) 3 --- --- --- c 

Cocon~tt 'poonao .(kg) 3 --- --- --- 

TJlvlMM* (kg) --- 1 --- --- 

UMMM with fish meal (kg) --- --- 1 --- 

UMMB' (kg) --- --- --- 0.7-1.0 

* Urea-molasses-multinutrient mixture Urea-molasses multinutrient Block 

VIII. Data recording: Individual milk yields were recorded daily by the 

farmers. Tliis was verified at fortnightly intervals by a technician. who 

also measured feed intake and chest girth. Records on reproductive 

events, health status, expenditure and income were also maintained. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 

Rapid Rural Appraisal and Sample Suwey 

The RRA revealed that the primary income generating activity 

of the settlkr farmers in the Mahaweli System H was paddy cultivation. 

Although cultivation is usually possible during both Maha (North-east 

monsoon, September-December) and Yala (South-west monsoons, April- 

June) seasons, cultivation had been limited to only the Maha season for


many years because of the lack of water. A few farmers resorted to 

vegetable cultwabon during periods when rice cultivation was not 

possible. The income £tom both activities was seasonal and hardly 

sdcient to meet the family cash needs. In most mstances, these settlers 

were compelled to borrow money £tom village lenders to meet thelr cash 

needs and often became entangled in a vicious agncultural debt cycle. A 

few settlers kept livestock, mainly cattle and/or buffaloes and poultry. 

The percentage of settlers keeping cattle andlor buffaloes at this location 

was low when compared to other areas of the country (Abeygunawardena 

et al., 1994). It was observed that many farmers were keeping two herds; 

a buffalo herd for draught and a cattle herd for milk, based on the farmer 

perception that the buffalo was suitable mainly for draught and not for 

m~lk. This practice placed a heavy strain on the limited resources 

available in terms of land, feed and labour. 

The sample survey covered a total of 100 livestock farmers, 

selected randomly fiom the Mahaweli System H area. They were 

interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The average holding was 

0.97*0.12 ha of lowland and 0.22*0.32 ha of highland. The average 

family size was 4.8*1.0 heads and 95% of the chief householders were 

engaged in farming on ah11 time basis. The lowland was primarily used 

for paddy (rice) cultivation under imgation, but when water was not 

available, vegetables were grown. .The highland area was used as a home 

garden with avariety of multipurpose trees such as coconut, jak, banana, 

etc. Ofthe farmers included in the survey, 71% reared buffaloes and 47% 

also kept cattle. As shown in Figure la, the average herd size was 

6.3M.1 for buffaloes and 4.1*2.9 for cattle. The animals were gazed on 

communal grazing 1Ads during the day and paddocked in: the farmers' 

homestead during the night. The extent of utilization of common grazing 

grounds by farmers was; road sides (53%), scrub areas (35%), paddy 

fields after the harvest (68%) and imgation canal banks (9%). In most 

locations animals were tethered to prevent them from trespassing into 

other farm properties. Only 1%. of farmers used pasture and fodder 

resources &om their own land. Buffaloes were used'exclusive~~ for 

draught by '95% of farmers, while 14% also used cattle for draught. 

Cattle were used mainly for mjlk '(72%), while only a few buffalo


- 

10 

0 

Buffaloes Cattle 

(a) Herd Size 

1 2 

1 - Road sides 

2 - Scrub areas 

Extensive 

(b) Management System 

3 4 

3 - Paddy fields 

4 - krigation canal banks 

(c) Types of communal grazing lands and usage 

Figure 1. Average herd size, management systems and communal 

grazing areas of buffaloes and cattle.


owners (20%) milked their animals. The average milk yields for both 

buffaloes and cattle were 2.02 and 1.93 litres per animal, respectively. 

The average lactation length was 3.8&2.0 months for buffaloes and 

5.7*2.3 months for cattle. The average daily milk production per f m 

was 3.28 litres fiom buffaloes and 4.05 litres from cattle. The 

contribution of farm power usage was 44.2% with animals, 30.5% from 

tractors and 23.3% fiom humans. Some farmers (23%) rented out 

/ 

buffaloes for draught to neighbouring farmers. In both buffalo and cattle 

farming, the major management constraints were the scarcity of grazing 

grounds (72%), restrictions on animal movements (17%) and trespassing 

(9%). Although crop residues were available in large quantities, only 

very few used these as animal feed (rice straw- 25%, maize stover- 17% 

and cowpea stover- 21%). 

On-Station Trials 

The results of the on-station pilot study conducted at Narangalla 

Buffalo Research Farm are gtven in Table 2 Rice straw was provided ad 

libitum as the basal diet. The daily intake of straw increased gradually 

fiom around 4 kg to over 7 kg. This may have been due to the influence 

of the UMMM which increased the digestibility of the basal feed. 

Previous studtes (Nolan and Leng, 1986) have shown that the limitations 

of rice straw feeding were (1) low rate of intake, (2) low total 

digestibility, (3) low propionate fermentation pattern in the rumen and (4) 

neghgible content of both fermentable nitrogen and by-pass protein. 

There are a number of ways in which some of these limitations may be 

overcome, and of these the provision of urea with molasses proved to be 

the most convenient and acceptable to farmers (Preston and Leng, 1987). 

Many workers (Preston and Leng, 1987; Habib et al., 199 1 ) have shown 

that UMMM formulations improved the intake, especially of poor 

quality roughages . This improvement in the intake has been shown to 

be due to the maintenance of the rumen ammonia level at optimum levels 

(80 -200 mg Nil), and also at a constant level, which enhanced microbial 

cell wall synthesis and thereby increased the microbial population and 

activity (Preston and Leng, 1987). An additional benefit of the urea and

Technologv transfer in buffaloofam ing 

molasses combination is that it is rich in rapidly fermentable 

carbohydrate and minerals which are readily available for microbial 

metabolism. Both these enhance the rurnen microbial digestion of 

roughages which in turn increases the rate of passage of feed ingested 

resultmg in an increase in feed intake (Preston and Leng,1987; Habib et 

al., 1991). Roughage dry matter intake expressed as a percentage of 

body weight, increased over the experimental period fiom an initial value 

of 1.13M. 19% to 2.93M.22% with a mean value of 2.0%. A similar 

trend in the roughage intake on the basis of metabolic body weight fiom 

48.5i6.9 to 102.4*9.5 glKg W "'' was exhibited. This increase of 11 1% 

occurred within 1 1 weeks, and can be attributed to the effects of UMMM, 

which probably rendered a 'catalflc' effect rather than a 'supplementary' 

effect, as described above. 

On-Farm Trials 

Feeding and management system: Atumals were stall-fed on a basal diet 

consisting of natural green grass, tree fodder and rice straw provided ad 

libitum. The composition of the basal diet varied with the time of year; 

i.e. more green matter was fed during the wet season and more rice straw 

during the dry season. Animals were also gven water ad libitum. As a 

means of alleviating heat stress, a few buckets of water were splashed on 

to the animals at regular intervals (2-4 hrs), during the warmest part of 

the day (1 1 am to 4 pm). Calves were kept separate fiom the cow in a 

calf shed and allowed to suckle for 30 minutes twice a day, fallowing the 

morning and evening milking. This suckling management procedure has 

been shown to optimize both calf growth and postpartum reproduction 

as opposed to unrestricted suckling or early weaning (~be~gunawardena 

et al., 1995b). No additional milk was given to the calves but hay and 

green grass were made available fiom a very early age. Calves were 

treated with pyrantel(250 mg per calf) at about 14 days of age, against 

Toxocara vitulorum which is considered to be the most prevalent and 

pathogenic gastrointestinal parasite (Roberts, 1989; Roberts, 1993). 

Animals were also vaccinated against foot and mouth disease,


haemorrhagic septicaemia and black quarter disease, according to 

recommendations of the Department of Animal Production and Health. 

Composition of ~fomIatiom: The composition of the diets was 

m&ed during successive periods with a view to improving the quality 

of feed, while aiming to maintain the same level of productivity of the 

animal but at a lesser cost. As shown in Table 4, the conventional 

supplement met 1) was replaced by UMMM. The composition of the 

UMMM was modified over time while monitoring the responses. In 

Diet 2, urea was provided at the rate 6.5% in the mixture. In Diet 3, the 

composition of the UMMM was essentially the same except that the 

mixture was enriched with 50 g of fish meal to provide bypass protein. 

When the UMMM was converted into a more convenient brick form 

(UMMB), the urea content was increased to 12% (Diet 4). Another 

change in Diet 4 was the ommision of minerals. Thls was done on the 

assumption that urea and molasses which are rich in minerals would be 

able to meet the requirements of the animals. 

Feed intake: The data on daily feed intake and body weight are depicted 

in Figure 2. The feed intake on fiesh weight basis was lower on Diet 4 

than on Diets 2 and 3, which was due to the high content of straw in the 

roughage diet given with Diet 4 compared to that given during previous 

phases (Figure 2a). This resulted primarily from the increasing 

preference by farmers to use straw, as animals consumed it more readily 

than they had done earlier. When the intake was expressed on the DM 

basis (Figure 2b), the intake increased from 10.4 kg/day on Diet 3 to 1 1.4 

kglday on Diet 4. This increase is similar to that observed in the pilot 

study and also is in agreement with the work of many other workers 

(Preston and Leng, 1987; Habib et al., 1991; Ranjhan, 1992). The 

increase in consumption of feed is attributed to the increased rate of 

passage (Preston and Leng, 1987).

TechnoIogv transfer in buSfalo farming 

0 0 

Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 

(a) Wet basis (b) Dry matter basis 

Figure 2. Feed intake of adult buffaloes in on-farm trials: (a) fresh 

weight basis and (b) dry matter basis. 

Body weight: As shown in Figure 3% there was an increase in body 

weight when the animals were fed UMMM as a Lick, and this was 

maintained even when UMMM was fed as a brick. This increase was 

most likely due to the anabolic effect through an increase in feed intike. 

It is possible that the beneficial effects were brought about by the 

fermentable nitrogen provided as urea which maintained optimum levels 

of ammonia in the rumen resulting in an increase in rate and extent of 

digestion and an increase in mcrobial protein yield relative to volatile 

fatty acid production (Preston and Leng, 1987). The UMMM is also 

expected to provide other factors which enhances microbial cell synthesis 

such as glucose, amino acids, minerals (including S, K and P).


Milk yield: The milk yields ranged from 1.6 to 8.2 litres per animal per 

day (average 2.4e.6 litreslday) before UMMM feeding (Figure 3b). The 

daily individual milk yields on Dets 2,3 and 4 ranged between 1.4 to 

9.9, 1.9 to 1 1.1 and 2.0 to 8.3 litres respectively, with mean values of 

3.9+1.12,4.0+2.32 and 4.3k1.40 liters per day, respectively, as shown 

in Figure 3b. Thus the animals were able to maintain or improve their 

milk yields when switched fiom traditional concentrate to UMMM 

supplementation, gven either as a paste or as brick. The stimulatory 

effect of UMMM on milk yield of animals fed poor quality forages has 

been well demonstrated in many countries (Kunju, 1986; Preston and 

Leng, 1987). Preston and Leng (1987) demonstrated that feeding 

LTMMM as a brick, resulted in an increase in both the feed intake and 

milk yleld. They further demonstrated that animals consuming the 

UMMM provided as a brick had higher rumen ammonia concentrations 

and there was a sigdicant relationship between the milk yield and rumen 

ammonia concentration. 

Reproduction: The reproductive performance of animals after transfer to 

the SIMBUs was comparable to that observed in the farm of origin as 

well as in other state farms. The annual calving rate during the year 

1994195 was 62% and the calving interval was 584zt80 days. The 

farmers were educated on oestrus detection and animals were hand mated 

following observed oestrus. If oestrus was not detected by 120 days 

postpartum, hormonal induction of oestrus was done using progesterone 

ear implants (Crestar, Intervet) for 10 days followed by timed artificial 

insemination or natural mating. This hormonal treatment was shown to 

be the most effective in inducing oestrus in postpartum anoestrous 

buffaloes (Abeygunawardena et al., 1995~). The cost of this treatment 

was approximately Rs. 500 (US$10) and this was within affordable limits 

of the smallholder farmers. It was cost effective considering the increased 

milk yield obtainable during the life time of the cow.

Technology tranifer in buffalo fanning 


(a) Bocty weight , 

0 

0 ,Diet 1 Diet 2 Diet 3 Diet 4 

(b) Milk yields 


(c) Cost of supplementary feeds 

Diet 1 - Coconut poonac (3 kg) + Rice bran (3 kg) 

Diet 2 - UMMM paste (1 kg) 

Diet3 - UMMM paste with 50 g fish meal (1 kg) 

Diet4 - UMMB with 50 g of fish meal ( 1 kg) 

Figure 3. Body weights, milk yields and cost of feeding of adult 

buffaloes in the on-farm trials .


Birth weight of ches andpre-pubertalgrowth rates: The average birth 

weight of calves born on the SIMBUs was 30.42k 1.9 kg. This was 

slightly higher than the average of 27.1*4.0 kg recorded in state f ms by 

Abeygunawardena et al. (1995a). The increase of 8.4% may be 

attributed to the beneficial effects of UMMM on maternal nutrition as 

shown by Lmdsay et al. (1 982). The prepubertal growth rate during the 

first 12 months (256+73 glday) was similar to the mean of 250*130 

glday recorded for Surti buffaloes on state farms (Abeygunawardena et 

al., 1995a). The growing animals, however were not given UMMM 

supplementation. 

Cost of feeding: As shown in Figure 3c, the cost of feeding the UMMM 

either as a paste or a brick was considerably less than that of the standard 

diet given at the farm dorigin. The reduction of cost from Diet 1 to Diet 

2 was 87.5%, but the cost of Diet 3 was slightly higher that Diet 2 due to 

inclusion of fish meal. A fiuther increase in cost occurred with 

conversion of UMMM paste into a brick form, but this was deemed 

acceptable given the convenience and greater acceptability of the brick by 

farmers. 

Costs., Benefits and Farmers' Perceptions 

The approximate total cost of establishing the model SIMBUs 

was Rs. 45,000 (US$ l=Rs. 59, including the cost of the shed and 

animals. The farm families provided labour for the construction of the 

sheds and for maintenance of the units. The enthusiasm and willingness 

dthe farmers to participate in the prqect was very high. The costs borne 

by the farmers were mainly in terms of family labour for maintenance of 

the shed, collection of straw, provision of feed and care of the animals and 

assisting project personnel in keeping records of inputs and outputs. 

Direct financial costs were for farm implements and veterinary care. The 

opportunity cost of labour for other income generatmg activities appeared 

to be low.

Technology transfer in buflalo farming 

The major benefit to the farmers was the regular cash flow fiom 

sale of milk. The average daily milk yield per household was 4.3*1.4 

litres. At the current farm gate price of liquid milk this would yield Rs 

5 1.70 per day. If converted to a value added product such as 'curd', the 

daily earnings would increase to approximately Rs 129.20 per day. 

Assuming that the cost of labour and energy for heating the milk (usually 

fiom ftrewood) is zero, the revenue can be considered as a net income of 

the household. This supplementw income, whether from liquid milk or 

fiom value added products, was considered sufficient to meet the daily 

cash needs thus obviating the need to borrow money from village lenders, 

apractice all too common in the region. It was also observed that during 

long spells of drought, these households were the only ones which had a 

regular cash income, as other agricultural activities such as rice or 

vegetable cultivation were not possible. 

Other benefits observed were (a) use of dung as manure in both 

home garden plots and the paddy fields, (b) use of non-lactating dairy 

buffaloes for draught and (c) the increase in total assets owned by 

farmers through increase in herd size with time. The average herd size at 

the commencement of the trial was 4.2 and afker 2.5 years it had 

increased to 8.1 animals. Given the current market prices of Rs. 10,000- 

16,000 for animals aged 2-3 years, this is a promising method of 

improving the asset base of small holder farmers. One important 

observation was that these model units made heavy demands on family 

labour and on leisure time of the farmers. In two units where family 

labour was limited, the performance was poor and the families have 

conceded their inability to cope with the management demands of the 

intensive system. 

Overall, the project has clearly demonstrated the extent of 

potential resources available to rural small-holders (such as family labour, 

crop residues and tree fodder) which have very low or zero opportunity 

costs when no alternative uses are available. It has also shown the 

benefits of using buffaloes for milk production, which were hltherto 

considered purely as draught animals. Although, these farmers were 

very skeptical of new technology at the inception and hence reluctant to


change their management practices, they have gradually learnt to accept 

the technologies delivered through this project, as positive results were 

forthcoming. In many areas of the dry zone, not only in irrigated new 

settlement areas, but also in 'purana' or traditional villages, extensive 

rearing of cattle and buffaloes has become difficult. Several studies have 

highhghted the need for intensification in order to sustain this valuable 

rural industry (Ozawa et al., 1978; Abayawansa et at., 1993; 

Abeygunawardena et al., 1994). As shown in this study, intensification 

of buffalo and cattle fanning with dairy type animals can be a viable 

option. The model SIMBUs develaped through this study can be adapted 

to suit each local environment and the capital costs can be reduced by 

using low cost housing material. 

This study also demonstrates the value of the farming systems 

research (FSR) approach in sd-holder livestock technology generation 

and transfer, which is novel to livestock research in Sri Lanka. Using 

FSR, this study demonstrated a viable, cost effective solution to 

pressing problems faced by the resource poor smallholder peasant 

farmers. The FSR differs fiom the conventional transfer of technology 

approach (TOT) in many aspects (Ellis, 1992). Firstly, needs of farmers 

were identified through close interaction with them. Secondly, farmers 

became active partners in the experimentation and transfer processes. 

Thirdly, farmers became convinced of the value of new technologies by 

demonstration of positive responses, cost and benefits with their own 

land holdings. Fourthly, the main mode of dissemination of new 

innovations was fiom fmer to farmer with research and extension 

workers acting as facilitators. The TOT which was the popular model in 

1970s and early 1980s proved disappointing when dealing with resource 

poor h ers operating under diverse ecological conditions with complex 

agronomic practices, poor markets and high risk climatic conditions 

(Chambers et al., 1989; Ellis, 1992). FSR emerged subsequently and 

became popular due to the involvement of the farmer as an active 

player in the technology generation and transfer process, rather than a 

passive recipient. It also departs fiom the conventional model which 

implies a hear transfer mechanism, in that the emphasis is given to the 

constant feed-back between researchers and h ers, which ensures

Technology transfer in buffalo farming 

progressive refinement in the process of technology generation and 

transfer. In the present study, the farmers were involved from the 

inception, in constraint and goal identihation, in actual experimentation 

and technology generation, and in the refinement and transfer processes. 

In conclusion, this study demonstrates (1) the appropriateness 

and the applicability of new technology generated by conventional 

research (i.e. use of urea-molasses multinutrient formulations as feed 

supplements for ruminants; limited suckling and use of exogenous 

reproductive hormones for optimizing postpartum reproduction), (2) the 

feasibility of rearing buffaloes intensively on a low cost feeding system 

based on crop residues (rice straw) and ageindustrial byproducts 

(molasses), through the use of idle family labour, in an area where 

grazing land has dwindled and animal movements severely restricted, (3) 

value of intensive buffalo rearing as a regular income generating activity 

which would help farmers to avoid the vicious rural agricultural debt 

cycle and (4) the value of a farming systems approach to technology 

generation and transfer for improved livestock production by resource- 

poor peasants in rural Sn Lanka. 

Acknowledgements 

This study was ccmducted with the financial assistance fiom the 

SARECINARESA Buffalo Research Programme. The cooperation of the 

National Livestock Development Board, Mahaweli Livestock 

Development Division and more importantly of the nine small-holder 

farmers at Sudassanagama tn Mahaweli System H are gratefully 

acknowledged. We are indebted to the research assistants (U.B. Herath, 

P. Nadasiri and D.K. Dayananda) and to the technical assistants (Janaka 

Herath, Abeykoon Banda and Jayadasa Weeratunga, and Ramani 

Ruwanpathirana) who have worked with commitment and enthusiasm to 

make this exercise very hitful. The constant encouragement and 

guidance of Dr. J.A.de S. Siriwardene, coordinator of the 

SARECNARESA Buffalo Information Dissemination Programme, is 

gratefully acknowledged.

References 


Abeygunawardena, H., Abayawansa, W.D., Rathnayake, D. and Jayatilake, 

M.W.A.P. (1994) Zebu cattle farming in Sri Lanka: Production 

Systems and Reproductive Characteristics. In: Proceedings of the 

Final Research Coordination Meeting of an FAOIIAEA Co-ordinated 

Research Programme on "Strengthening Research on Animal 

Production and Diseme Diagnmis in Asia through the Application of 

Immunoasscly Techniques., IAEA-TECDOC-736, IAEA, Vienna, 

Austria, pp.37-5 1. 

Abeygunawardena, H., Kuruwita, V.Y. and Perera, B.M.A.O. (1995a) Effects 

of different suckling regimes on postpartum fertility of buffalo cows 

and growth rates and mortality of buffalo calves. In: These 

Proceedings . 

Abeygunawardena, H., Kuruwita, V.Y. and Perera, B.M.A.0 (1995b) Effects 

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SUPPLY RESPONSE OF MILK AND MANAGEMENT 

EFF'ICIENCY OF CAmLE AND BUFE'ALO 

PRODUCTION IN SRI LANKA: A CROSS SECTION , 

STUDY IN WJCT ZONE AND DRY ZONE DISTRICTS 


Department of Agricultural Economics, 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, 

SRl LANK4 

Abstract: Milk accounts for approximately 3% of the daily per capita calorie 

consumption and 4.5% of the protein intake of an average Sri Lankan. Nearly 

70% of the rural population is engaged in milk production. However, the 

domestic milk production from cattle and buffaloes is low and not sufficient to 

meet the local demand. 

The main objective of this study was to determine the supply response 

of milk and management efficiency of cattle and buffalo farms in Kandy, 

-a, Hambantota and Polonnamwa districts in Sri Lanka. Kandy and Matara 

districts in the wet zone and Hambantota and Polonnaruwa districts in the dry 

zone were selected purposively. The sample consisted of 86 farmers from 

Kandy, 72 fanners fiom Matara, 75 farmers fiom Hambantota and 85 farmers 

fiom Polonnaruwa Both cattle and bdfaloes were reared in their farms. A field 

survey using a questionnaire was carried out between April 1991 and March 

1992. The supply response model consists of milk productivity and herd size 

equations estimated by Ordinary Least Squares. The management efficiency of 

buffalo and cattle production was estimated by using the method of Timmer 

(1980) as modified by Russel and Young (1983). 

There was considerable variation in the supply elasticities estimated for 

the districts. The supply elasticities for cow milk and buffalo milk in Kandy, 

Matara, Hambantota and Polonnaruwa were inelastic and low, indicating poor 

price responsiveness of the producers. 

The result of techmcal efficiencies showed that the majority of the 

cattle and buffalo farms in the districts were not within 10% of their potential 

techcal efficiencies. The variations of technical efficiencies between cattle and 

buffalo farms were relatively high within each district.

Supply Fespome of milk and management eficiency 

Keywords: Milk, supply response, management efficiency 

INTRODUCTION . 

The contribution of livestock to the national gross value of 

agriculture is estimated at 6 percent and milk production contributes only 

about 1.2 percent to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of Sri Lanka 

(Livestock Statistics, 1992). The value of the contribution of the 

livestock subsector to agriculture in the country is low (Economic and 

Social Statistics of Sri Lanka, 1993) as compared to other countries of 

South and South East Asia such as Pakistan (1 8 percent) and Philippines 

(30 percent). It is an important source of supplementaiy income for 

nearly 70 percent ofnual agricultural peasants as 95 percent of the cattle 

and bufFalo population in the country is owned by rural small-holders or 

by estate labour. In the peasant livestock holdings nearly 30-60 percent 

of the gross farm income is generated from livestock activities. Ofthe 

10-1 1 million offarming population in the country nearly 3.5 million are 

directly invdved in livestock (Sri Lanka Livestock Sector Policy Review, 

1992). According to the population estimates in 1993, there are nearly 

1.716 million cattle and 0.831 million buffaloes in the country. Ofthe 

total herd, 23 percent of cattle and 8.5 percent of buffalo are in production 

(Livestock Statistics, 1993). The annual per capita consumption of milk 

of 19.87 litres is much below the level of 41.6 litres recommended by the 

Medical Research Institute, to meet the nutrient requirements of an 

average Sri Lankan. 

Like in other developing countries, Sri Lanka is also not self 

sufficient in milk, eventhough milk production is the principal element 

ofthe daq sector. The daily consumption of milk is about 1.64 million 

litreslday . However the domestic production is estimated to be 0.864 

million litreslday (Annual Report, Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 1993). 

During 1981-91, the ~alue of milk imports inaeased fiom Rs 405 million 

to Rs 2796 million. In 1992 the value of milk ii'ports was Rs 2943 

million. The tariff on imported milk and ,milk products of 15 percent


resulted in a price discrimination between the prices of domestic and 

imported milk and milk products. 

The specific objectives of this study were to (i) determine the 

supply response of cattle and buffalo milk production in the wet zone 

districts of Kandy and Matara and dry zone districts of Polonnaruwa and 

Hambantota (ii) to determine the technical efficiency of cattle and buffalo 

farms in the above dstricts. Based on the results of the study, policies 

that are required for higher milk production in these districts are 

suggested. The estimates are based on a field survey done in these 

districts between 1991 and 1992. 

Data Collection 

METHODOLOGY 

Kandy and Matara districts from the wet zone and Polonnaruwa 

sltlri.F;mkmtdadh~~.h.tb~,&~ WJ~P,W~~ y q&rd dm4d%3 

the study, to represent the major agroclimatic regions of the country. In 

each district the Divisional Secretaries (DS) divisions formed the primary 

basis of sampling. From each DS division, a random sample of cattle and 

buffalo hers were selected for the field survey a able 1). The selected 

farmers were interviewed using a questionnaire and information 

pertaining to their socieeconomic characteristics, cattle and buffalo 

production and institutions were collected for the period 1991-92. In 

addition to the field survey, a participatory survey was also done with the 

assistance of field level livestock officers in the districts.

Supply response of m'ilk and management eficiency 

Table 1. Description of the socioeconomic field survey in the 

districts. 

District Divisional Secretaries No. of Farmers 

Divisions surveved 

Kandy Gangaihala 3, 

Thumpane 6 

Harispattuwa 9 

Meda Durnbara 8 

Udu Dumbara 20 

Minipe 40 

Total 86 

Matara Dikwella 11 

Kamburupitiya 12 

Matara 3 1 

Weligama 15 

Devinuwara 3 

Total 72 

Polonnaruwa Polonnaruwa 8 

Dimbulagala 10 

Tamankaduwa 10 

Hingurakgoda 20 

Lankqura 3 6 

Total 84 

Hambantota Suriyawewa 4 

Lunugamwehera 

Hambantota 9 

Weeravila 18 

Tissamahararnaya 38 

Ambalantota 2 

Total 76 

Analytical Method 

Supply response of milk: The total production of milk (litresffarm) is 

composed of the average milk production per cow (litreslcow) and herd 

size, i.e.

where, 

Si = Supply of milk of i th farm (litresffarm); 

Hi = Herd sizelfarm; 

Yi = Average yield per cow (litresffarm). 

The supply elasticity for i th farm could be derived as follows. 

d S = -(S/H) dH + (STY). dY 

dS/dP 

dSfdP. PIS 

= (SIH) (dWdP) + (S/Y) (dY/dP) 

= (S/H).(dWdP).P/S + (S/Y).(dY/dP) .PIS 

where, 

s.p = Total supply elasticity 

h.p = Elasticity of herd 

y.p = Elasticity of yield 

The yield and herd equations far the different districts were in linear or 

logarithmic forms and estimated by the method of Ordinary Least 

Squares. The estimated coefficients were used in computing the supply 

elasticities. 

Eflciency of cattle and bufsalo management: The economic efficiency 

of management wuld be used as an index to evaluate the performances 

of farms operating under different conditions. The differences in the 

farms may be caused by the pricing and technical efficiencies. Assume 

a profit function, 

Maximizing 11 = P. f @l ,X2 ,.... Xn; Zl,Z2 Zm; e) - CWt Xi ....... .(3) 

where, 

I 

..... 

= profit earned by the farm in Rs ; 

XI ,X2 ,..... .Xn = variable inputs; 

1 . = fixed inputs;

Supply respome of milk and management e@ciency 

Wi (i=l . .... n) = prices of the variable inputs; 

e = residual term. 

The first order condition of anla Xi = Pfj - Wi 4 states that the 

producer would be price efficient if marginal value product of using Xi 

equals its input price. The technical efficiency is measured against the 

most efficient production fiontier that can be achieved under the existing 

technological condition of production in the farm. A simplified version 

of estimating the efficient production &ontier as suggested by Russell and 

Young (1983) was based on earlier methods of Aigner and Chu (1 968), 

Farrell (1975) and Timrner (1980). Here the production frontier was 

&rived by using a linear production function. The intercept term of the 

estimated funcbon was corrected by the addition of the highest positive 

residual which was generated in the estimated procedure. The technical 

efficiency (TE) is defined by, 

or potential output of farm j, if it were on the frontier. 


Supply Response of Milk Production 

The results of the yield and herd equations for cattle and buffalo 

in the districts are presented in Appendix Tables 1 and 2. These 

estimates were used for the calculations of the yleld and herd size supply 

elasticities for cattle and buffaloes ib the wet zone and dry zone districts 

(Table 2). In general, the yield and herd elasticity of * and ** : significant 

at 5 percent and 1 percent respectively for cattle and buffaloes were low 

and inelastic in the wet and dry zone districts. There was a high variation 

of elasticities between and within the wet zone and dry zone districts. 

Other than in Hambantota, the supply elasticities of milk were higher for 

cattle as compared to buffaloes in the districts.


Table 2. Supply response of milk production in the wet zone and dry 

zone districts. 

District Cattle Buffalo 

Yield Herd SW~Y Yield Herd supply 

elasticity elasticity elasticity elasticity elasticity elasticity 

Matara 0.0007 0.0019 0 0.0016 0.0266 0 

Polonnaruwa 0.0878 0.1632 0.0143 0.0057 0.2671 0.0015 

Hambantota 0.0987 0.0987 0.5299 0.5299 

In Kandy district the yield elasticity of milk was high and elastic 

as compared to herd size elasticity. For example, an increase of milk 

price by 10 percent would increase the average yield per cow by 1.2 

percent as compared to 1.6 percent for herd size per farm. The relatively 

low response of herd size elasticity makes the total milk supply elasticity 

low and inelastic, indicating that dairy farmers were not price responsive 

in this district. In Kandy the yield and herd size elasticity of buffalo milk 

could not be estimated due to the poor nature of buffalo production data. 

However the yield and herd size elasticity for cow milk was higher in 

Kandy district as compared to the values for Matara district. The supply 

elasticity of buffalo milk for Matara district was almost zero. 

In dry m e 

district afHambantota, an increase of milk prices by 

10 percent would increase the milk production by 0.9 percent as 

compared to 0.1 percent in Polonnaruwa-district. In the Hambantota 

district the yleld elasticity of milk could not be estimated and the herd 

size elasticity solely represents the supply elasticity of cow milk. 

Comparatively the supply elasticity of cow milk in this district was 

higher than that in Polonnaruwa The low price responsiveness of the 

cattle and buffalo milk producers demonstrated in the results does not 

show much promise in terms of milk production through milk price 

increases. Milk price increases would have little value with simultaneous 

inflationary price effects on wages, feed prices, transport, equipment,

Supply response of milk and management efficiency 

medicines that would change the cost of milk production and milk 

marketing. BBuffalo milk supply elasticity for Harnbantota was relatively 

high as compared to that for Polonnaruwa and such a result may be 

related to the larger scale of buffalo production in Harnbantota district. 

Efficiency of Milk Production 

The technical efficiency of cattle and buffalo farms indicates the 

value of additional output of milk produced (litreslcow) on the most 

efficient production frontier. This value could be obtained from the 

pooled linear production function by adding the intercept to the largest 

of the estimated positive residual (Russel and Young, 1983). Table 3 

shows the classification of farms by their technical efficiencies in Kandy 

district. 

Table 3. Technical efficiency of cattle and buffalo farms in the Kandy 

District. 

Technical Number of Percent of farms 

efficiencies farms 

In the Kandy district, the technical efficiendes of the farms 

operated within


yield of cattle and buffaloes. Hence the pricing efficiencies could not be 

computed. 

The technical efficiencies of cattle and buffalo farms in Matara 

district are shown in Table 4. In general, the technical efficiencies of 

buffalo farms were evenly hstributed as compared to cattle farms. Only 

1 of the 72 farms (1.3 percent) reported of technical efficiencies of >1.0 

for cattle as compared to 12.5 percent for buffaloes. ]Nearly 21 percent 

ofthe buffaloes were with technical efficiencies between 0.61-0.70. For 

cattle, 8.4 percent of the farms reported technical efficiencies between 

0.70-0.90 as compared to 14 percent for buffaloes. However 86.1 

percent of the cattle farms were not within 10 bercent of their technical 

efficiencies as compared to 25 percent for buffalo farms. 

Table 4. Technical efficiency of cattle and buffalo farms in the 

Matara District ( Percent of farms). 

Technical efficiencv Cattle Buffalo 

< 0.10 86.1 25.0 

0.1 1 - 0.20 2.8 4.3 

0.21 - 0.30 1.4 2.8 

0.31 - 0.40 - 1.4 

0.61- 0.70 - 20.8 

0.71 - 0.80 4.2 13.9 

0.81 - 0.90 4.2 11.1 

0.91 - 1.00 - 8.2 

> 1 .OO 1.3 12.5 

In Hambantota district nearly 90 percent of the cattle farms were 

managed below 10 percent of their potential efficiencies in comparison 

to 41 percent for buffalo farms. Nearly 4 percent of cattle farms operated 

with technical &ciencies between 0.30-0.40. For buffaloes, 22.7 percent 

affarms were managed with atechnical efficiency between 0.70-0.80 and 

9.3 percent between 0.8-0.9 of technical efficiency. Only 2.7 percent of 

farms and 1.3 percent for buffaloes were managed with technical

Supply response of milk and management eficiency 

efficiencies of >1.0 (Table 5). The disbributions were more even for 

buffalo farms as compared to cattle farms in the Hambantota district as 

in the Matara district. The pricing efficiencies were not computed for 

both cattle and buEdoes in the district as the inputs were not fitted in the 

yield equation. 

Table 5. Technical efficiency of cattle and buffalo farms in Hambantota 

District (percent of farms reporting). 

Techmcal efficiency Cattle Buffalo 

Nearly 73 percent of the cattle farms were not within 10 percent 

of the potential efficiencies as compared to 48 percent for buffalo farms 

in Polonnaruwa dtstrict (Table 6). Nearly 14 percent of the cattle farms 

were within 0.1 1-0.20 of them efficiency and only 6 percent over 100 

percent of their efficiency in the district. As in the previous drstricts the 

technical efficiencies were more evenly distributed for buffalo farms 

within 0.3 1 -1 .OO of efficiencies. Only 5 percent of buffalo farms were 

within >1.0 of their technical efficiencies (Table 6). In Polonnaruwa, the 

yield equations for cattle and buffalo did not show much significant 

impact of inputs used and hence the pricing efficiencies were not 

computed.


Table 6. Technical efficiency of cattle and buffalo farms (percent 

of farmers reporting). 

Technical efficiency Cattle Buffalo 

In summary, the technical efficiencies of cattle and buffalo farms 

were low with cattle farms performing worse than buffalo farms in the 

districts. However, the technical efficiencies were evenly distributed for 

buffalo farms as compared to cattle farms. In terms of policy implications 

the level of technical inputs used, management of inputs for production 

of cattle and buffalo farms requires to be further investigated. 

POLICY IMPLICATIONS 

The results of the study indicated low supply elasticities for milk 

production and low technical efficiencies of cattle and buffalo production. 

This indicated the deficiencies in policy implications in tenns of cattle 

and buffalo production. 

The average herd size of cattle and buffaloes were low 

particularly in the wet zone districts. This may be related to the small 

farm size and poor feed availability for the farm animals. The majority 

of the buffaloes are reared for draught rather than for milk. Hence it is not 

surprising to expect a low average yield capacity of 1-3 litreslfam with

Supply response of milk and management efficiency 

a short lactation period of around 200 days. Poor calf management also 

contributed to the low production of the farms. Improved housing of 

animals particularly for buffdoes is a requirement. Because of these 

factors animals ' may be prone to several diseases. An improved 

Livestock extension service may be required to develop the management 

ability of farmers. The breeding programmes for cattle and buffalo 

improvement need to be improved to serve the small fms. Ths may 

require training on correct detection of heat, availability of A.1 or natural 

stud services and technical services. Poor feeding practices adopted by 

hers may have contributed to low efficiencies of milk production. This 

may be attributed to high market prices of concentrates. Most of the 

compounded feeds are too expensive for fanners as most of the raw 

materials (maize, fish meal, meat meal) are imported. The poor quality 

of forages available in the communal grazing lands and the lack of 

improved pastures for stall feeding resulted in poor farm productivity. 

The use of low cost compounded feeds using local raw materid may 

require further research. Increasing the producer price of milk will have 

little or no value in the face of escalating feed prices particularly that of 

concentrates. The producer price of milk is generally measured on the 

cost of production of milk in the fani~ and this may .not be precise. '?his 

may or may not be better than parity pricing. The main question here is 

how the minimum price of milk should move over time as costs are 

subjected to much variation with the changes of input prices. 

The use of any of these pricing mechanisms ignores the demand 

for milk. One of the major difficulties in setting up the price support 

mechanism is the absence of a mechanism to evaluate the low supply 

responses of milk producers distributed over time. Cost of production of 

milk afEecting the minimum price is an alternative to price support 

schemes for milk. If the mandated price is lower than the market clearing 

price, the market will bid the price up. If'the mandated price is above the 

market clearing price, surplus of milk would occur which could be 

removed by a consumer subsidy for milk. Alternatively, allowing the 

market price to float and making the direct payments to the farmers of the 

difference between that price and cost of milk may be possible. Credit 

availability with low interest payments for cattle and buffalo farms may

ean itnportmt ifidvefor mill< producers. -Presently the rate of retut4r 

of milk production may be lower than high rate of interest required for 

short and long term credit. The lowering of the interest rate requi~s 

reduction of budget ddcit which may cause reduction of inflation. 

References 

Aigner, D.Z. and Chu, S.F. (1968) On estimating the ipdustry production 

function. Americqn Economic Review, 58,826-839. 

Annual Report (1993) Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 

Economic and Social Statistics of Sri Lanka (1993) Central Bank of Sri Lanka. 

Farrell, M.J. (1987) The measuremeqt of productive efficiency, Journal of 

Royal StatWtcal Society, Series A (General), Part 111, 120,253-290. 

Russell, N.P. and Young, T. (1983) Frontier production functions and the 

measurement of technical efficiencies. Journal ofAgric. Economics. 

34, 139-149. b 

Timmer, C.P. (1980) On measuring technical efficiency. Food Research 

Institute Studies in Agric. Economics, Trade and Development, 9,99- 

171. 

Livestock Statistics (1992) Mh&q of Livestock Development and Rural 

Industries, Sri Lanka. 

Sri Lanka Livestock Sector Policy Review (1992) Ministry of Livestock 

Development and Rural Industries,.Sri Lanka.

Supply respome of milk and management eflciency 

Definition of the Variables used in Appendix Tables 1 and 2 

yld 

fs 

el 

il 

bl 

ibl 

ibcl 

cbs 

fel 

mgc 

Ygc 

gh 

st 

PC 

pfc 

Ic 

-P 

bmp 

nc 

nb 

ccm 

110 

tcmc 

bc 

ctd 

mb 

eb 

ib 

oib 

pb 

PPC 

td 

milk yield of cattle/buffalo (titres/lactation/cow) 

family size 

lactation length of European cattle (months) 

lactation length of indigenous cattle 

lactation length of indigenous buffalo 

lactation length of Indian buffalo 

lactation length of Indian crossbred buffalo 

proportion of crossbred buffaloeslfarm 

experience of livestock farming (years) 

grazing hourslday for cattle in maha season 

grazing hourslday for cattle in yala season 

average gazing hours for cattle 

amount of straw fed to milking cows (kglday) 

atnount of forage fed to milking cows (kglday) 

price of concentrates (Rskg) 

labour cost for cattle (Rs) 

price of fresh cow milk (Rsnitre) 

price of fresh buffalo milk (RsAitre) 

number of cattle per farm 

number of buffaloes per farm 

chena cultivated per farm (ha) 

lowland cultivation per farm (ha) 

total cost of cattle productionlfarm (Rs) 

breeding cost of cattlelfann (Rs) 

cost of total draught of buffaloeslfarm (Rs) 

miscellaneous cost of buffaloeslfarm (Rs) 

equipment cost of buffaloeslfarm (Rs) 

number of indigenous miLkrng buffaloeslfarm 

number of other buffaloeslfarm 

purchase price of buffaloes (Rs) 

purchase price of cattle (Rs) 

buffalo draught usedlfam (animal hours)

Appendix Table 1. Yield equations for cattle and buffaloes. 

b a y 

Cattle 21.041 +259.752** el - 1068.902** lc - 2.749 b + 412.438** ~ mr_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r_r p 1.132 PO + 4.119pf~ 

(37.076) (226.464) (1.471) (51.953) (4.931) (34.006) 

Buffalo Not Available 

- 4.849 + 0.198 cmp + 2.728 llo + 70.142** ll+ 0.054* tcmc 

(0.059) (0.802) (2.559) (0.0231) 

- 1.027 + 8.987 ygb+ 15.646 Ilo + 16.299 ho + 5703.085** obx+ 64.377** bi + 0.059pb+ 0.807 bmp 

(12.299) (1 1.700) (22.599) (858.480) (18.143) (0.051) (5.317) 

Matars 

Cattle 

Buffalo 

Polmmma 0.967 

Cattle 47.833 + 0.159** pox+ 55.574 11 + 8.4591 cmp + 1.223 st0 + 0.927** bc - 5.575 gh 

(0.278) (3.017) (3.166) (4.176) (0.057) (2.918) 

Buffalo - 115.418 + 0.753 cmp+ 12.735 ygb+ 59.184** bi+ 119.8%** ibl+%.034 **lbcl-0.001 tcmb-0.470 td 0.958 

(0.711) (11.89) (0.389) (20.118) (8.001) (0.187) (1.324) 

Hmhtota 

Buffalo 0.474 + 85.041** M + 109.501** ibcl - 0.001 tomo 

(4.152) (19.599) (0.005) 09 

Figures in parentheses are the standard errors b eo, 

* and ** : significant at 5 percent and 1 percent, respectively

kJ 

District ' ' kdependent Variables R sq 'T e 

Y 

- @ - 

- . 

Kandy 

- - 0.172 

Appendix Table 2. Herd equations for cattle and buffaloes. 

2 

z 

m 

(0.059 (0.101) (0.003) ' ' 

Buffalo 1.174 + 0.230 ho + 0.103 llo + 0.851** ibo + 0.362** oibo - 0.044nc 

3 $ 

(0.154) (0.086) (0.277) (0,089) (0.090) , 0.3B 

Matara a ' 0337 ' 8 

Cattle - 0.453 + 1.973** k c + 0.019 c&p + 0.005~ tcmc + 0.018 nb 

S 

9 

(0.239) (0.369) ' (0.002) (0.019) 

Cattle 0.415 + 0042 fs + 0.439** cmp - 0.002 PC 

3 

Buffalo CL 23.369 + 6.143 ho - 0.002** ctd + 0.057** mb - 0.000 pb + 1.254 bmp 

CL 

o (4.352) (0.001) . (0.009) (0.010) (1.027) 0.527 

5 

Polonnaruwa 0.589 9 

Cattle 0.210 + 4.210**'sto + 0.010 pcx+ 0.442** rngc + 0.286 cmp g 

(0.250) (0.014) (0.152) (0.189) 

Q 

Buffalo - 2.739 -0.105nc+ 1.142** sb+ 0.784 ygb+ 1.138** bmp+ 0.011 cb+ 0.048 td-0.00004pb 

~(0.098) (0.314) (0.391) (0.234) (0.004) (0.042) (0.002) 0.840 

- 8 

Hambantotit 

Cattle - 13.648 + 2.947 fs + 0.001 tinmy + 0.005 panic - 0.018 nb + 1.086 ygc + 5.928* cmp 0.148 

(2 055) (0.001) (0.008) (0.531) (0.927) (2.735) 

Buffalo 13.032 + 3.569Ilo + 0.001 pnnic + 0.103* mb + 8.470 bms, - 0.011* pb- 0.0009 

(2,958) (0.00 1) (0.037) (0.958) (0.004) (0.00 1) 0.602 

Figures in parentheses are the standard errors 

* and ** : significant at 5 percent and 1 percent, respectively

A FlELD SURVEY AND MICROBIOLOGICAL 

STUDIES ON RUHUNU CURD 

K.K. Pathiranal, C.P. Kodikara2, D.K.M.P. DassanayakeZ 

and S. Widanapathirana2 

'Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, 

Mapalana, Kamb urupitiya 

'Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, 

University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya 

SRI W K A 

Abstract: Ruhutlu curd although acclaimed as a quality product fiom ancient 

times, has not been the subject of any authentic study. Out of 609 Grama 

Niladari (GN) divisions in the entire Hambantota district and the Divisional 

Secretaries (DS) division of Tanamalwila in Moneragala district, 5 11 GN 

divisions (84%) were covered in the study. AU curd producers were identified 

by GN division and a house to house survey was done on a 5% sample to obtain 

basic information on curd production. Sixty samples of curd were subjected to 

microbiological studies. A total of 1,968 producers manufactured 19,015 pots 

of curdlday. The highest number of producers and the number of pots produced 

were from Ambalantota and Tissa DS divisions, respectively. The lowest in 

both the aforementioned categories were from Okewela DS division. Buffalo 

milk and the warm dry conditions of the area were largely responsible for the 

fi curd, since curdling was invariably poor on rainy days. Data on herd 

composition, health, breeding, fdmg and management of herds owned by curd 

producers were also recorded. Microbiological study showed the presence of 

Coliforms in 31.25% and E. coli in 6.25% of the samples. Potentially 

pathogenic Staphylococcg aureus was present in 56.25% of the samples (10 

-13 xlO'OIg) indicating the need to improve the hygienic conditions. Yeasts and 

moulds were present in all samples with very high counts (1-5 x 10S/g) 

indicating a low keeping quality. Aspergillus~avus/par~~ticus was present in 

3 1.25% of the samples. Twelve Aspergillus isolates were producers of datoxin 

in artificial media. The pH of curd ranged fiom 3.09 to 6.22 whereas the 

maximum recommended is 4.5. Lactic starter culture organisms isolated were 

Lactobacillus fennentum, Lactobacillus cellobiosus, Streptococcus lactis and 

Streptococcus lactzi sub species diacetylactis. Acidity, pH and extent of 

curdling of buffalo milk by individual isolates after 6-8 hrs of inoculation were 

satisfachy. The minimum inoculum required for satisfactory curdling was 0.5

Microbiological studies on buffalo curd 

g of previously made curd or 34 x 106 colony forming units. 'Indications are that 

by introduction of low cost, simple scientific procedures, the quality and 

hygienic standards of the curd could be improved. 

Keywords: Milk, curdling, fermentation, microbiology 

INTRODUCTION 

Literature refers to the use of curd in Ruhuna as far back as in 

167 B.C., during the time of King Dutugemunu. Curd is defined as the 

product obtained fiom butblo or cow milk by lactic fermentation through 

the action of single or mixed strains of lactic acid bacteria as specified by 

Sri Lanka Standard 824 (1 988). 

Ruhuna extends over a large area of Sri Lanka, but Ruhunu curd 

is typically manufactured in and around Hambantota district. Ruhunu 

curd is now a popular milk product in Sri Lanka, but no authentic reports 

are available on its production process. Richards and Agalawatta (1 981) 

in a sutvey of 9 districts but excluding Hambantota district, and de Silva 

et al. (1985) in a survey covering 16 districts including Hambantota 

district reported only on whether milk fiom herds surveyed were used for 

curd production or not and the pricing of curd. When compared to the 

very low population of milking buffaloes in many of the other districts, 

a higher percentage (95.5%) of farmers in Hambantota district milked 

buffalo cows (de Silva et al., 1985), indicating the importance of 

buffaloes for curd production in the district. The important factors that 

determine the quality of curd are the level of microbial contamination and 

the quality of lactic starter culture used in fermentation. As the 

manufacture of curd is a cottage industry, no controlled fermentation 

using selected strains of lactic acid bacteria is possible. 

The objectives of this study were to obtain baseline information 

on production of Ruhunu curd through a field survey and to study the 

microbiological aspects of curd production to assess the hygienic quality

K.K. Pathirana er al. 

of Ruhunu curd and to isolate lactic starter culture organisms for fbture 

field application. 

The Survey 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 

The area surveyed included the entire Hambantota district 

consisting of 576 Grama Ndadari (GN) divisions in 11 Divisional 

Secretaries (DS) divisions and 33 GN divisions of the Tanamalwila DS 

division in Moneragala district bordering Hambantota district. Thus a 

total of 609 GN divisions in 12 DS divisions were included in the study 

(Table I). 

At the beginning, all curd producers were identdied by GN 

divisions through respective Grama Niladaris using a simple 

questionnaire to obtain following information: the name and address of 

the producer, number of pots of curd produced, source of milk for curd 

manufacture (whether own milk, bought milk or a combination of the 

two) and the number of cattle or buffaloes owned. While a house to 

house survey was conducted to'check on the information provided by 

Grama Ndadaris, information provided by other producers not identijied 

by Grama Niladark were also included for completeness. The house to 

house survey covered 512 or 83.9% of the GN divisions. Based on the 

initiial survey, a 5% sample of curd producers was selected for a 

comprehensive survey for which a questionnaire was pre-tested, 

re-formulated and used to obtain detailed information. Sixty samples of 

curd were subjected to the following microbiological studies. Ten grams 

ofthe each sample were diluted in 90 ml ofO.l% peptone water-and serial 

tenfold dilutions were prepared according to Sri Lanka Standards (SLS) 

824 (1 988, Part 1).

., 

Table 1. Area covered in the survey together with types of producers according to source of milk and the number of pots - 

of curd produced. g 

02 

DS Division GN Divisions Producers of curd by source of milk No. of pots produced ii 

Total Covered % Own (0)' Bollght (BI2 0 andB Total3 Per Producer Total % 

No. % No. % No. % Per day 3 

per by 8. 

Tissa 

Lunugamwehera 

Hambantota 

Swipwewa 

Ambahthota 

Angunaltola 

Thangalla 

Beliatta 

Weeraketip 

Okewela 

KatPwma 

Thanamalwia 

P 

Total 609 512 - 1829 119 26 1%8 19015 

Mean 9 83.9 151.9 92.7 9.9 6.0 2.1 1.3 164.0 11.73 1585 

SD 9.1 92.0 13.4 13.5 1.3 3.0 1.2 90.5 10.61 ' 1005 

producers of curd with milk from their herds only producers with only bought milk ' producers with both sources

Microbiological Studies 

K.K. Pathirana el al. 

The total viable plate count was done according to Sri Lanka 

Standard Institute (SLSI) procedures 5 16: 1 (1 984). Dilutions fiom 1 Om' 

to 1@12 were plated using the pour plate technique. Organisms were 

identified 6iochemically (Cowan, 1975). Dilutions of curd from lo-' to 

1 Om9 were plated using the SLSI pour plate technique for yeast and mould 

counts (SLS 516:2,1984). Presence of colifonns and E. coli per gram of 

sample was detected using the triplicate tube method (SLS 5 16:3,1984). 

S. aureus was identified according to SLS 516:6 (1984). Coagulase 

activity was tested following the procedures of Cowan (1975). The 

presence of Aspergillusflavus/AspergiIIus parmiticus was determined 

by culturing the organism. Twelve isolates showing typical colony 

characteristics of Aspergillus jlavur/A. parasiticus on agar were 

differenbated into the two speciesusing colony colour and morphologcal 

characters in slide cultures. The isolates were grown in potato dextrose 

agar with 'zinc dust and NaNO, and tested for aflatoxin production at the 

end of 3 and 7 days. For identification of genera of moulds, the fungi 

were grown in slide cultures and the isolates were identified up to generic 

level using colony characteristics and morphology of the fungi. For 

isolation and identification of lactic starter culture organisms, dilutions of 

curd up to 10" were inoculated according to procedures of Harrigan and 

MeCance (1 979) and de Man et al. (1 960). The characteristic colonies 

were subcultured and identified as lactic streptococci and lactobacilli 

according to Starr (1981). Each of the starter culture 'isolates was 

inoculated into skimmed milk and the pH was measured 8 hourly. 

RESULTS 

,Producers, Source of Milk and Pots of Curd Produced 

Results are presented in Table 1. There were a total of 1968 

producers, producing a total of 19,015 pots of curdfday. The highest 

number of producers and pots of curd were fiom Arnbalantota and Tissa 

DS divisions, respectively. Most of the producers produced curd with

Microbiological studies on buflalo curd 

milk fiom their own herds (92.7%), while the lowest number produced 

curd with milk fiom their own and bought milk (1.3%). The largest 

number of pots/producer/day was in Lunugamwehera DS division 

(33.83%). 

Of all herds belonging to farmers involved in curd production, 

44% had both cattle and buffaloes while 40% and 9% had only buffaloes 

and only cattle, respectively. Six percent of producers who did not own 

animals bought milk to manufacture curd. 

Composition and ReproductionIBreeding of Herds Owned by 

Curd Producers 

The information is presented in Table 2. Buffalo herds were 

larger than cattle herds. Cows in milk, age at first calving and calving 

interval were all in favour of neat cattle indicating low production and 

reproduction efficiency of buffaloes compared to cattle. 

Table 2. Composition, reproductionhreedina of cattle and buffalo herds. 

Total number1 herd 2-150 

Heifer calves and heifers - 1-32 

Bull calves 1-35 

Cows in milk 142 

Dry cows 1-54 

% cows in milk 

Stud bulls 1-4 

Age at fist calving 29-95 

Calving interval 12-41 

Cattle Buffaloes 

Range Mean*SD Range Mean*SD 

Just over 20% of the farmers were using AI, of whom a large 

majority (80.0%) consider it a successful method.

Some Management Practices 

K.K. Pathirana et al. 

Animals were brought to paddocks for the night by 85.7% of 

fanners while 14.3% allowed free grazing throughout the night. Hardly 

any of the farmers (4.1%) o£Fered water or feed in the night paddocks. 

However, 89.8% of them belieyed that the animals receive sufficient 

drinking water. 

In all herds, milking was done only once a day in the morning 

while the majority (93.9%) usedonly one hand for that purpose. In all 

cases, suckling was necessary at milking with the majority (83.7%) 

allowing it once, while 16.3% allowed it twice at each milking. Buffalo 

calves were allowed to suckle up to a more mature age than cattle. 

Milking time ranged from 5 am to 9 am with the majority of them 

(86.8%) milking between 7 am to 8 am. No concentrates were offered 

even at milking time. The total duration of milking ranged fiom 10 to 25 

min. The average milk yield of cattle and buffaloes were 1.8a.91 kg/d 

and 1.9M.9 1 kg/d with maxima of 3.9 and 3.2 kglheadld, respectively. 

Health Aspects of the Herds 

Data an some health aspects are presented in Table 3. Buffaloes 

when compared with cattle were more susceptible to disease, particularly 

at a younger age, with a higher mortality and more fiequent epidemics. 

A high percentage of farmers (93.8%) dewonned their calves using 

western drugs (82.6%) while the balance 17.4% used indigenous drugs. 

Most farmers (78.2%) wormed calves below one month of age. 

Vaccination of animals against epidemic diseases was practised by 69.4% 

of farmers. 

Manufacture of Curd 

Milk- was boiled within 3 hours after milking by 80.9% of 

farmers while the rest did so within the next hour. All use firewood as

Microb~~logic~l studies on buflalo curd 

Table 3. Data on some health aspects of the herds. 

Mortality due to all diseases (% farms reporting) 

Age up to 1 mo 

2-6 mo 

>6 mo 

No. mortality due to disease 

Incidence of mortality due to epidemics 

(% of total reported) 

Frequency of epidemics causing mortality less 

than every 3 year (% of total reported) 

Cattle Buffaloes 

Nil , 3 1.8 

10.7 38.6 

28.6 18.2 

60.7 41.4 

he1 for boiling df milk with 8 1.8% producers using an aluminium 

container while the others (18.2%) used a clay pot for the purpose. Most 

of them (56.4%) transferredthe boiled milk directly into pots, using a jug 

(34.5%) and 9.1% using a big spoon . 

Starter Culture and Curdling ofMilk 

Nearly all (98.2%) used previously prepared curd, 0.5-1.0 day 

old (74.5%) while the rest (1.8%) used yoghurt as the source of starter 

culture. The starter culture was mixed with unboiled water beh 

adding, by 69.1% of the farmers. Many farmers (58.4%) determined the 

temperature at which to add the starter culture by touching the pot while 

22.0% cl~pped a finger into milk for that purpose. Thermometers have not 

been used to determine the temperature at the time of inoculation. 

Traditionally, all the farmers used the period between 9 am to 4 pm fm 

curdling of milk. 

Minimum times required for satisfactory curdling af€er 

inoculation were 3,3-5 and > 5 hrs as indicated by 11.2,72.4 and 16.4% 

ofthe h ers, respectively. While all of them used clay pots for making 

curd, 96.4% did so in new pots while the rest re-used.old pots as well,


when available. Most of them washed (90.9%) and dried (85.5%) the 

pots before making curd. 

Other Practices Affecting the Quality and Hygienic 

Standards of Curd 

Only 1.2% of the fanners, on an irregular basis, removed fat 

before making curd; which was always aRer boiling. The amount 

removed was subjective, without adopting any standard. The only 

additives used were water and sugar by 3.7% and 1.8% of the farmers, 

respectively: The reasons given for addition of water were, to prevent 

drymg and "burning" ofmilk while boiling and to increase the amount of 

milk. Sugar was added with the notion that it promoted curdling. The 

main reasons for using buffalo milk as against cow's .milk for curd making 

were: (a) tradition (44.2%>, @)greater consumer demand (34.6%) and (c) 

better quality (9.7%). 

Farmers' perceptions on the important factor relating to quality 

was the h ess of curd. Dry and warm weather and adequate boiling 

received the highest recognition by farmers as factors contributing to 

firmness and flavour of curd. In -fact, most of the farmers (98.2%) 

reported that rain even during a dry spell resulted in poor quality curd. 

Most ofthem (83.6%) were not aware of the role of the starter culture in 

curd making. 

Social and Economic Aspects 

Most of the curd producers (83.7%) owned the milking herds. 

The "farm gate" price of fiesh buffalo milk varied between Rs, 8.00 and 

Rs. 8.50 per litre depending on the unit price determined by the 

collectors, while Rs. 14.00 was paid by others. The "farm gate" price of 

curd calculated &om basic data obtained from producers ranged from Rs. 

15-30 (46.2%), Rs. 31-40 (38.5%) and over Rs. 40 (15.3%). While 

numerous factors affected the sale price of curd, the two main factors

MicrobioIogicaI studies on buflaalo curd 

recognised were the quantity of milk produced (29.1 %) and the season of 

the year (23.6%), the price being low during rainy seasons and high 

during festival seasons. Curd producers were generally unaware of the 

methods adopted by their close neighbours. Only 4.3% of them were 

aware' of the procedures adopted by their neighbours. 

Hygienic, Quality' of Curd 

Of the sixty samples of curd analysed, 19 (3 1%) were positive 

for coliforrns and 4 (6%) contained E. coli. When the results were 

campared with the.Werent procedures used in curd manufacture, it was 

revealed that 95% of the producers who did not wash the containers prior 

to their use in curd manufacture had their curd contaminated with 

coliforms. Coagulise positive Staphylococcus aureus was present in 34 

(56%) of the samples analysed. The counts ranged fim 10-1 3x101°/g. 

As discussed earlier the practice of using the fingers in assessing the 

temperature of the milk and in mixing the starter culture with warm water 

before introduction of the culture may be the source of cantamination. 

AspergiIlusJaw or parmiticup was present in 19 (3 1 %) of the samples 

tested and the dony forming units per gram ranged from 10- 12. Twelve 

isolates of AspergilIusflavus and parmiticus were tested for datoxin 

production in artificial media. Matoxin B, and B, were detected in 3 

isolates and GI and G, in 7 isolates. However, production of datoxin 

was not detected in curd when fungal isolates were inoculated to curd. 

Keeping Quality of Curd 

The yeast and mould count of curd ranged from 13x1 0' per 

gram of curd. All samples contained contaminating yeasts and moulds. 

The contaminant fungi were of the genera Penicillium, Mucor and 

Aspergillm.

Lactic Starter Culture Organisms 


Twenty isolates of lactic starter culture organisms were identified 

using biochemical tests. The isolates were identified as Lactobacillus 

fermentum, Laetobacillus cellobiosus, Streptococcus Iactis and 

Streptococcus lactis subspecies diacetylactis and Streptococcllr 

cremoris. When the above isolates were tested for starter culture activity, 

9 of the isolates were found to be of acceptable quality as starter cultures. 

The isolates were used singly and in combination in fermentation of 

buffalo milk and were found to be satisfactory in curd production. 

DISCUSSION 

Composition and ReproductioalBreeding of Herds Owned by 

Curd Producers 

Mean herd size of 42.6 buffaloes reported in this study was 

somewhat comparable to 53.6 reported by de Sifva et al. (1985) for 

b&o herds in Hambantota district, which were higher than most of the 

mean herd sizes reported for cattle and buffaloes in other districts 

(Kumaratilake and Buvanendran, 1979; Richards and Agalawatte, 1 98 1 ; 

Siriwardene et al., 1982). In comparison with cattle, the percent 

buffaloes in milk, age at first calving and calving interval (Table 2) 

indicate a low reproductive/breeding efficiency in buffaloes. 

The mean age at first calving of buffaloes in this study (46.4 mo) 

is comparable to the mean age (45.7 mo) for buffaloes fiom 16 districts 

reported by de Silva et al. (1985). The mean calving interval of 18.2 mo. 

was also similar. The percentage buffalo cows in milk (55%) in this 

study was within the range (49-63%) reported for buffalo cows by 

Richards and Agalawatte (1 981).

Microbiologicalstudies on buflalo curd 

Management Practices and Milking 

Only once a day &king has been reported earlier as well 

(Richards and Agalawatte, 1982; Siriwardene et al., 1982). The absence 

of feeding of concentrates as hund in this study is confirmed by the 

results in other reports (Kumaratilake and Buvanendran, 1979; Richards 

and Agalawatte, 1981 ; de Silva et al., 1985). 

Health Aspects 

Higher mortality in buffaloes during early life when compared 

with cattle is in agreement with the findings of Cockrill (1981). Only 

69.4% of the farmers vaccinated their animals, whereas de Silva et al. 

(1985) reported that all the farmers had their animals vaccinated 

routinely. 

Producers, Source of Milk and Pots of Curd Produced 

Since the survey covered 83.9% of the total GN divisions and 

identdied 1968 curd producers surveyed, the total number of producers 

in the areamay be estimated by projection to be around 2300-2400. The 

production of curd would then be approximately 22,600-22,700 pots of 

curd per day. Results indicate that a much smaller number of curd 

producers with bought milk (6.0%) produced a proportionately larger 

number of pots than those who produced curd with their own milk 

(92.7%), indicating a much larger scale of operation by the farmer 

category. 

Correlation coefficients between the number of neat cattle or 

buffaloes owned and the number of pots of curd produced with own milk 

were 0.79 and 0.93, respectively indicating a greater relationship between 

buffalo milk production and curd making. While a very low percentage 

of farmers milked buffaloes in many other districts, 95.5% of buffalo 

farmers milked their cows in the Hambantota district (de Silva et al.,


1985), substantiating that a high percentage of buffaloes are being 

milked. This pretkrence for buffalo milk in curd making is based on the 

belief that bu;ffao milk gives firmness, pure whiteness and flavour to the 

curd, codrmed by the greater consumer acceptance of curd produced 

from bdklo milk The farmers' perceptions on important considerations 

for promoting firmness in curd were warm dry weather (1 OO%), adequate 

boiling of milk (87.2%) and the use of day pots (43.6%). They did not 

attach much importance to the starter culture in this respect. Their 

perceptions of the important factors which produce a good flavour were 

the use of buffalo milk (32.7%), clay pots (28.3%) and the type of feed 

offered to cows (14.5%). 

Manufacture of Curd 

The observations made during the study indicate that procedures 

adopted in the handling of milk and curd making have an adverse effect 

on the quality and hygenic standards of curd. It is clear that production, 

quality and hygenic standards need to be substantially improved by 

encouraging hers to adopt simple methods and technology, involving 

minimum interventions. The provision of drinking water in night 

paddocks and in addition some concentrates, at least at milking time 

would improve production. Since most of the farmers (83.7%) bring 

animals early in the afternoon to a night paddock, twice a day milking 

using both hands instead of one, will increase the yield. However, a 

practical means of preserving milk overnight has to be provided to 

promote milking in the evening. In fact, in the absence of an efficient 

markehg system for liquid milk, conversion of milk to curd has opened 

an avenue of marketing a value added product having a longer shelflife. 

The use of a thermometer and/or gaining experience to assess the 

optimum temperature by touching the pot rather than dipping the finger 

in boiled milk, before adding the starter culture would help to minimize 

contamination. The introduction of hygienic washing and cleaning 

procedures during transfer of milk to pots and during the introduction of 

the starfer culture could easily improve the quality of the product. The

MicrobioIogical studies on buff0 curd 

assessment of the farmers' understanding of the. process of curd 

production indicate a very poor awareness of the importance and the role 

played by the starter culture. 

However it is clear that experience and tradition have contributed 

to the development of practices suited to the warm and dry climate of the 

region for production of a firm curd, with a pure white thick fat layer. A 

low percentage of producers admitted using two adulterants only: water 

(3.7%) and sugar (1.8%). 

Social and Economic Aspects 

Most of the production units provided employment for 2-3 

persons. The eslimated value added by marketing milk as curd, calculated 

from the basic data based on a maximum value of Rs. 12.0O11 of fiesh 

milk varied widely between groups. These values ranged fiom Rs. 6-1 6, 

17-26 and over Rs. 26 per litre for 46.2,38.5 and 15.3% respectively of 

the total number of pots sdd. The absence of a well organized fresh milk 

collection network in this area may also have forced farmers to convert 

milk to curd. The importance of developing a practical curd production 

procedure, using some of the traditional methods of farmers, need to be 

recognized. 

Microbiological Studies 

The hygienic quality of Ruhunu curd produced under village 

conditions was found to be poor as indicated by the presence of coliforms, 

E. coli and Staphylococcw aureus in a high percentage of samples 

analysed. The Sri Lanka Standard for curd (SLS1988:824, Part 1) 

specifies, that the product should be free of E. coli. The presence of E. 

coli indicates the potential for the presence diarrhoeal pathogens. 

Coagulase positive Staphylococc~lp aureus is a potential pathogen which 

is normally present in the nose and on the skin of a variable proportion


of healthy people. The contributory factor for presence of 

Staphylococcus aurm in a large number of samples could be due to the 

practice of mixing starter culture with hgers and dipping them to test the 

temperature of boiled milk before addtng the starter culture. 

Yeast andmoulds find conditions in fermented milk suitable for 

growth. They contribute to the alteration of its flavour and appearance 

and the formation of toxic products. 

The isolates ofAsperginu~frm and parasiticus were found to 

be datoxin producers in artificial me&a but toxin production was not 

evident in curd at room temperature. Matoxin production has been 

reported in dauy products such as Cheddar cheese (Lie gnd Marth, 1967) 

brick cheese (Shih and Marth, 1972) and tilsit cheese (Frank, 1968). 

Aspergillus JIavus has been detected in yoghurt (Jordano et al., 1 989) 

but the isolates have not been tested for atlatoxin production. 

The high mould and yeast counts of samples as seen in the 

present study indicate that the product has a very poor keeping quality. 

Spoilage of fermented products is initiated by hng and growth of 

spoilage flora commence as the pH of the fermented product gradually 

rises during mould growth. The Sri Lankan Standard suggested for 

yoghurt is < 1000 yeasts and < 1 mould per gram (SLS 824, part 2, 

1989). The Sri Lanka Standard for curd does not refer to a limit for yeast 

and mould but excessive counts of moulds and yeasts (1 0x1 O4 - 50x1 04) 

as seen in the present study are indicative of poor manufacturing 

practices. 

The isolates of lactic starter culture organisms found in Ruhunu 

curd were satisfactory in coagulating milk in eight hours to form a curd 

of acceptable quality. Inspite of some of the short comings in hygienic 

standards, Ruhunu curd is popularly consumed as a healthy food. 

There have been no complaints or adverse medical reports associated 

with consumption of curd.

Microbiological studies on buflalo curd 


The financial assistance for this study provided by SAREC 

through NARESA is gratefully acknowledged. The authors are thankful 

to Divisional Secretaries, Grarna Niladaris and the field veterinary st& 

for giving their fullest moperation, Prof M.U. de Silva for tracing the 

history ofRuhunu curd, Prof. D. Attapattu, Dr. S.S.E Ranawana and Dr. 

L.D.P. Dharmasena who through initial collaboration in various ways 

helped to carry out this study. Mr. AT. Jayasinghe (Technical Assistant) 

worked extremely hard and did an excellent job in his capacity. Thanks 

are due to Ms. K.P.R Priyadharshani for technical assistance in 

microbiological studies. Finally we thank Miss. Sumithra Samarasinghe 

for typing the paper. 

References 

Cowan, S.T. (1975) Manual for the Identijlcation of Medical Bacteria. 

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 

Cockrill, W.R (198 1) The Water Buffalo. A review. British vet. J. 137,s-15. 

de Man, J.C., Rogosa, M. and Sharpe, M.E. (1960) A medium for the 

oultivation of Lactobaoilli. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 23, 

130-135. 

de Silva, L.N.A., Perera, B.M.A.O., Tilakeratne, L. and Edquist, L.E. (1985) 

Production systems and reproductive performance of indigenous 

btdTaloes in Sri Lanka Report 3, Swedish University of Apcultural 

Sciences, Uppsala. 

Franik, H.A (1968) Diffusion of anatoxins in food stuffs. Journal Food 

Science 33,98- 100. 

Hanigan, W.F. and MeCance, ME., Eds (1979) Laboratory Methods in Food 

and Daiy Microbiology. Harcourt Brace Jovanovioh, London. 

Jordano, R, Jordal, M, Martinez P. and Pozo, R (1 989) Atlatoxin - producing 

strains of Aspergillm $(NUS in yoghurt. Journal of Food Production 

52,823-824. 

Kumaratilake, W.L.J.S. and Bwanendran, V. (1979) A survey of production 

characteristics of indigenous buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Ceylon vet. J. 27, 

10-13.


Lie, J.L. and Marth, E.H. (1 967) Formation of aflatoxin in Cheddar Cheese by 

Aspergillus flayup and Aspergillus parasiticus. J. Dairy Science 50, 

1708-1710. 

Richards, E.M. and Agalawatte, M. (1981) An inter-agroecological zone 

survey of cattle and bufFalo management practices in Sri Lanka Field 

Document I, CCPlSRLl30 (SWE), FAO, Rome. 

Richards, E.M. and Agalawatte, M (1982) A sample survey analysis of buffalo 

management practices and herd profitability in the different 

agro-ecological zones of Sri Lanka. Workshop on Water Buffalo 

Research in Sri Lanka, 24-28 Nov. 1980. SAREC report R 3: pp. 

31-43. 

Shih, C.N. and Marth, E.H. (1972) Experimental production of aflatoxin on 

brick cheese. J. Milk Food Technology 35,585-587. 

Siriwadene, J.A de S., Wickremasuriya, U.G.J.S. and Balachandran, S.S. 

(1982) Management practices of buffalo in small farms. Workshop 

on Water Buffalo Research in Sri Lanka, 24-28 Nov. 1980. SAREC 

reportR3: pp. 11-19. 

Sri Lanka Standard (1984) 5 16: 1 

Sri Lanka Standard (1984) 5 16:2 



Sri Lanka Standard (1988) 824, Part 1 

Sri Lanka Standard (1988) 824, Part 11 

Starr, MP., Ed (1 981) The Prokayotes. Volume 11 Springer, Verlag, Berlin.

PRELIMINARY ANALYTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON 

PERSISI'ENCY OF MILK YIELD IN BT-JFF'AJB 

IN SRI LANKA 

I.D. Silva l, A. Dangollal and K.F.S.T. Silva 

'Department of veterinary' ~linical studies, Faculty of Veterinary, 

Medicine and Animal Science,' Department of Animal Science, 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya 

SRILANKA 

Abstract: The daily milk yield in buffalo cows had been observed to fluctuate 

substantially after day 75 of the lactation period when compared to cattle. This 

fluctuation may vary fiom hypogalactia to even a temporary cessation of 

lactation (agalactia). This communication examines the persistency of milk 

yield in the first lactation milk records of 23 Murrah, Surti and their crosses 

&om 3 farms in the dry, wet and intermediate zones. All observations were 

made over the period between day 75 up to at least day 178 of the lactation 

curve. The longest lactation period included was 368 days. The median, 

minimum and maximum of 10 day moving averages of the milk yield were 3.4, 

0.33 and 10.40 litres respectively. The median reduction in milk yield in any 

given month was 10% of the previous month's yield. However, the monthly 

. milk yield increased by approximately 1 10°? of that of the previous month in 14 

cows, at least once during the obqervation period. The variation in milk yield, 

in relation to the average yield, for 10 day periods was examined by calculating 

the weighted milk production (WMP). The WMP was calculated by dividing (or 

weighting) the difference between the maximum and minimum daily yield by 

the average yield for that period. The WMI) was less than 1.5 in 10 cows. 

However, in 9 cows the WMI) increased, at least twice, to over 1.5 indicating a 

substantially large variation in the milk yield in these cows. 

An interesting finding was that, at least once during the study period, 

13 cows showed an inorease of r 10% of their peak yield of the entire lactation 

duriug a 15 day period. Such unusual patterns have not been reported in cattle. 

Future studies on subsequent lactations of these buffaloes may provide 

information on factors leading to such variations in daily milk yield. 

Keywords: Persistency, buffalo, milk. yield, lactation curve, epidemiological 

parameters.

Persistence of milkyield in the buffalo 

INTRODUCTION 

Inhibition in the let down of milk in buffaloes causing economic 

loss had been reported in India and the condition has been termed 

"Palaserlu" and "Dokas" (Kesavamurthy and Kotayya, 1973; 

Bhaskarsingh et al., 1976). This condition was thought to be due to 

either a digestive disturbance, hypocalcaemia, mastitis, oedema or venous 

engorgement of the udder. Incidence had been observed to be relatively 

higher during winter (Kotayya et al., 1976). Veterinarians have claimed 

that the condition subsided following treatment with stomachic powders, 

mineral mixtures or intramammary calcium gluconate or antibiotics. 

However, some veterinarians have claimed that the condition subsided 

even without treatment. 

A similar syndrome had been observed in large organized buffalo 

farms in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. In order to study the occurrence of 

this phenomenon, it was decided to characterise the lactation curve of 

buiBoes in Sri Lanka. This preliminary communication describes some 

epidermological parameters of the lactation curve in buffaloes, includmg 

the persistency whch refers to the level at which the milk production is 

maintained as lactation progresses (Ensminger, 1993). 


Animals and locations: Past first lactation records of cows £tom three 

farms in three different agreclimatic zones in Sri Lanka were examined. 

The farms were located in the mid country wet zone, the dry zone and the 

low country intermediate me. Cows with complete records (n=23) were 

identified and the data relating to these animals were analysed. 

This study was based on information available fi-om records 

between 1987 and 1993. All observations were made for the period 

between day 75 up to at least day 178 of the first lactation. The minimum 

and maximum number of days included in the calculations were 103 and 

380, respectively.

.I.D. Silp er al. 

StaasticaI analyses: The following four calculations were made on the 

defined period of the lactation curve. The moving averages of the milk 

yield for periods of 10 days was calculated for each animal. The 

persistency of the milk yield of every cow for each month was calculated 

as a percentage of previous month's yield. The weighted rmlk producbon 

w) which is the variation in the milk yield in relation to the mean, 

was determined by calculabng the difference between the maxlmum and 

minimum daly milk yeld Lvided by the avirke yield for the 10 day 

periods. Aberrant increases represent sharp increases in the moving 

average noticed during 15 day periods. This increase was quantified as 

a proportion of the peak yield of the lactation of that particular cow. 

RESULTS 

Figure 1 shows the daily milk yleld of 2 cows. Figure 2 shows 

the 10 day moving averages of 23 cows fiom the three different large 

farms in Sri Lanka Ths figure includes data relating to 2 cows that had 

zero yield at least for one day. The mean of the 10 day moving average 

was approximately 4.5 litres, up to the 150th day of the lactation. 

Table 1 denotes the persistency with respect to 30 day periods in 

the fust lactation beguung from day 75. The majonty of observations on 

persistency were between 81 and 100%. The persistency afon'e cow was 

as low as < 20% in both 30 day periods between 105 to 164 days in 

lactation. There were 5 cows whose persistency was more than 100% 

during the last stages of the lactation.

Pershtence of milk yield in the buffalo 

1.5 I 

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 

DAYS 

Figure 1. Daily milk yield of 2 cows during the first lactation.

Days in lactation 

I.D. Sihra et al. 

Figure 2. The mean, maximum and minimum of the 10 day moving 

averages afthe milk yieldin the h t lactation of bdhlo cows. 

Table 1. Number dcows on their persistency dmilk yield in relation to 

the periods during the first lactation. 

Persistency 30 dav periods b rn dav 75 of lactation

Persirtence ofm flkyield in the buffalo 

Table 2 presents the fiequency of cows in various WMP 

categories with respect to ditferent h e periods in tJle lactation. Majority 

of the WMP values were i 1.5 irrespective of the period of lactation. 

However, an interesting observation was that a few WMP values were 

unusually high and were above 3.6. 

Table 2. The fiequency of cows in their WMP1 and the length of the first 

lactation. 

WMP 30 day periods from day 75 of lactation 

2 3.6 1 2 1 

'Difference between the minimum and the maximum milk yield of 10 day 

periods as a proportion of the average for the same period. 

The aberrant increases in the milk yield is tabulated in Table 3. 

The majority (14 out of 23) of the increases were 15% of their respective 

peak yield. Nevertheless, a substantial number of cows showed increases 

which were 220% of the peak yield. 

Table 3. Number ofcows with aberrant increases in the moving average, 

expressed as a percentage of the peak yield for that lactation, 

within i 15 day periods: 

Aberraat Days 

increase as a 

pEentage 75-104 105-134 135-164 165-194 195-224 2225 

peak yield

DISCUSSION 

I.D. Silva et al. 

The 10 day moving average was approximately 4 litres during 

the first lactation and the above average varied between 0 and 10 litres 

(Figure 1). It was interesting to note that there had been no yield 

(agalactia) in two cows on one or more days during a given 10 day 

period. However, those two cows had -subsequently re-commenced milk 

secretion. 

The persistency of the milk yleld in the majority of buffaloes 

studied were similar to that of cattle (Ensfinger, 1993). The obvious 

cause for the low values for persistency of 10-20% in a few buffaloes may 

be due to hypogalactia. This finding is largely in agreement with the 

observations made in India (Kesavamurthy and Kotayya, 1973; 

Bhaskarsingh et al., 1976; Kottaya et al., 1976). The elevation of 

persistency above 100% seen in some buffaloes could also be attributed 

to hypogalactia which had occurred in the previous month. However, 

>101% persistency further indicates that there should be other reasons 

contributing to an increase in the monthly yield, especially during the 

final days of lactation (Table 1). 

Sometimes the above mentioned increase could be as high as 

>20% of the peak yield. Sunilar observations have not been characterised 

or quantified in dairy animals, to the best of our knowledge. Therefore, 

it would be interesting to further investigate these aberrant increases in 

milk yields in dairy animals, including buffaloes. 

It is not surprising for most of the WMP values to be i 1.5, 

because fluctuations in milk yield are relatively less when compared to the 

average milk yield. Nonetheless, it is apparent that in buffaloes, the 

variation in milk yield in relation to the average yield could be 

substantially large (Table 2). The above reported phenomenon of 

hypogalactia could also lead to considerably large values for WMP. 

The buffaloes used for this study were fiom state owned farms 

where satisfactory milk and health records had been maintained. The

Persistence of milkyield in the buffalo 

records, do not provide any indication of factors which could be 

attributed to the reported degree of variations in milk yield. 


This study was supported in part by funds from Swedish Agency 

for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC) awarded 

through the NARESA. We thank L.C.S. Alwis, S.S. Withanage, 

K.A.M.J. Silva and I.N.K. Irnyagolla for their assistance in data 

processing. 

References 

Bhaskarsmgh, K., Rao RK. and Kotayya, K. (1976) Dysgalactia in buffaloes- 

Relationship with serum calcium, inorganic phosphorus and copper. 

Indian vet. J. 53,685-688. 

Ensminger, ME. (1993) Milk secretion and handling. Dazry Cattle Sczence 

Third Edition. Interstate Publishers Inc., Illinois. 

Kesavamurthy, k and Kotayya, K. (1973) Dysgalactia in buffaloes-A 

preliminary report. Indian vet. J. 50,558-561. 

Kotayya, K., Baba, E.H. and Kesavmurthy, k (1976) Dysgalactia in buffaloes 

- Studies on incidence and seasonality. Indian vet. J. 53,426-429.

FACTORS AFFECTING CARCASS AND MEAT 

QU- OF INDIGENOUS BUFFALOES IN 

SRI LANKA 

H. W. Cyril and, A. Jayaweera 

Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture 

University of Peradeniya 

SRl LANK4 

Abstract: Two separate studies were conducted to study the factors affecting 

carcass quality and meat quality characters of indigenous buffaloes. In the first 

study, 60 randomly selected buffaloes (live weights ranging from 100 kg to 450 

kg) were used, and in the second study 90 randomly selected buffaloes were 

used. Various factors (eg: dressing percentage, meat to bone ratio and organ 

percentage) affecting carcass quality of buffaloes were determined. Meat 

samples were analymd for chemical composition (eg: protein, fat, ash and water 

content), colour and tenderness. 

The results of the carcass quality study revealed that the dressing 

percentage and meat to bone ratio increased with increasing live weight. The 

dressing percentage increased (me&SD) fiom 47.99% + 0.14 to 54.35% + 0.0 

and meat to bone ratio inoreased from 2.39 + 0.45 to 4.74 + 0.0. There was no 

slgpjc6cant difference between the dressii percentage of males (5 1.66% + 3.14) 

and females (5 1.05% 2 3.32). The meat to bone ratio was found to be higher in 

males (3.06 + 0.81) than in females (2.70 + 0.72). The percentage of organs 

was higher in females than in males. With increasing live weight, the 

percentage of forequarters increased fbm 51.74 2 3.13 to 57.94 + 0.0 while the 

percentage of hind quarters decreased fiom 47.90 + 0.16 to 42.05 + 0.0. 

In the meat quality study, d8erences were observed in water, protein, 

ash and fat contents of the meat of young animals and adult animals. Respective 

meanvalueswere76.25%+ 1.12,21.26%+ 1.56,1.72%+ 1.03, 1.13%&0.06, 

for young animals and 75.26% + 2.19,21.77% + 1.89,2.87% + 1.27,l. 19% + 

0.22, fof adult animals. The shear value of the meat of young animals (6.63 kg 

& 1.69), was found to be significantly lower than that of adult animals (8.79 kg 

+ 2.37). In most of the adult animals (57.89%), meat colour was in the range 

of 7 to 9 while it was in the range of 1 to 3 for most of the young animals 

(78.52%). Between male and female animals, there was a difference in the

Factors affecting carcms and meat quality 

water and fat contents of meat. For male animals, mean values of water and fat 

contents were 75.51% ? 1.39 and 2.41% + 1.08, respectively, and for female 

animals, the values were 75.26% 5 2.59 and 3.00% 5 1.44, respectively. 

Keywords: Carcass quality, buffalo, meat cansumption 

INTRODUCTION 

The buffalo population in Sri Lanka was estimated at 825,000 

heads in 1991 (Livestock Statistics, 1992), but had exhibited a 

decreasing trend over the last decade. Buffaloes are reared mainly for 

draught and milk purposes in Sri Lanka. Although there is a ban on the 

slaughter of buffaloes, they contribute to local beef production partially, 

through illicit sources. 

The water buffalo offers promising features as an excellent source 

of meat. Since buffaloes have been bred and kept as draught animals for 

centuries, they have evolved as a meat animal exhibiting exceptional 

muscular development with some animals weighmg 1000 kg or more. 

They show faster growth compared to some breeds of dairy cattle 

(Tilakaratne, 1980). If the buffalo is reared and fed for meat production, 

the meat will be tender, palatable and of high quality so that it would be 

attractive to the consumer (Oganojanovic, 1965). Hence, there is good 

potential for rearing buffaloes under suitable environmental conditions to 

increase the supply of meat and meat products. 

Buffaloes are less prone to fat deposition and thus produce more 

lean meat than cattle. On carcass wefght basis, the percentage of high 

quality cuts, first grade meat and total meat is higher in buffaloes than in 

cattle (Padda et al., 1986). Since the present global consumer demand is 

for leaner meat, the buffalo has a vast market potential. Thus, buffalo 

meat could play more important role in the international meat market and 

the production of buffaloes solely for meat is now expanding in the other 

countries in Asia (Pathak et al., 1987).

H. W.Cyril and A. Jayaweera 

Maintaining healthy, well nourished and sturdy herds of 

buffaloes for high quality meat production is a challenge for developing 

countries like Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka most of the buffalo meat was and 

still continues to be derived fiom old animals slaughtered at the end of 

their productive life as draught or dairy animals. As a result, much of the 

buffalo meat sold is of poor quality (Padda et al., 1986), because 

buffaloes are generally reared under extensive systems of management 

and used mainly as a source of farm power. 

Recently, there has been a greater interest in rearing buffaloes 

exclusively for meat production. However, the rate of improvement in 

carcass weight achieved in developing countries is low in comparison to 

the improvements acheved in developed countries. Pricing structures 

and meat technology concerning buffalo beef is also not attractive to the 

farmer (Padda et al., 1986). In Sri Lanka, very little information is 

available on carcass characteristics and meat quality of indigenous 

buffaloes. Thls has been one of the drawbacks for buffalo production in 

the country. Hence, the potential of the buffalo as a meat animal has not 

been fully realized as yet. 

This study was undertaken to examine the various factors 

affecting carcass quality and meat quahty of indigenous buffaloes in Sri 

Lanka, with a view to assess the suitability of the buffalo as an alternate 

meat producer. 


Two separate studies on factors affecting carcass characteristics 

and meat quality were conducted. The fist experiment on factors 

affecting carcass characteristics was conducted using 60 randomly 

selected buEdoes, both male and female, slaughtered at an abattoir. Their 

live weights were recorded prior to slaughter. Data on carcass weight, 

organ weights, meat and bone weights were collected. Dressing 

percentage, meat to bone ratio, organ percentage, hind quarter and fore

Factors aflecting carcms and meat quality 

quarter percentages were calculated and tabulated in relation to sex and 

respective live weights. 

The second study on factors affecbng meat quality was 

conducted using 90 randomly selected local buffaloes. The meat samples 

were taken ftom the Longissirnus dorsi muscle. Meat samples were 

directly used for determination of colour and tenderness on the first day 

after slaughter. Cdour was assessed with Munsell colour chart and shear 

value was estimated as a measure for tenderness of meat. 

For analysis offat percentage and crude protein percentage, the 

Soxhlet method and Kjeldhal system were used respectively. Moisture 

percentage and ash percentage were also determined. 


In the first study, the live weights of selected animals varied 

between 100 kg to 450 kg. The dressing percentage increased 

sigdicantlyfiom47.99 % L0.14 to54.35 %+0.0 with increasing live 

weights (Table 1). These results agree with the results reported by 

Tilakaratne (1 980) and Cooper and Wills (1 979). The increasing trend 

was highest in the live weight range of 100 kg to 200 kg. The dressing 

percentages of buffalo carcasses of 130 - 500 kg body weight have been 

found to be between 50 and 55% in different countries (Mfi et al., 1974; 

Johnson and Charles, 1975; Tilakaratne et al., 1980; Rosa et al., 1980; 

and Pathak et al., 1987). 

The meat to bone ratio showed an increasing trend (Table I), 

fiom 2.39 k 0.45 to 4.74 & 0.0, with the live weights increasing &om 100 

kg to 450 kg. The increase was highest (3.67 + 0.27 to 4.74 + 0.0), in the 

live weight range nf 350 kg to 450 kg. According to Cooper and Wills 

(1979), meat to bone ratio increases with increasing live weight since 

the percentage of bone declines while percentage of lean increases with 

increasing live weight.

H.W.Cyril and A. Jayaweera 

Table 1. Effect of live weight on dressing percentage and meat to 

bone ratio. 

Live weight 

(kg) 

100'- 150 

150 - 200 

200 - 250 

250 - 300 

300 - 350 

350 - 400 

400 - 450 

Dressing % 

(mean + S.D) 

47.99 2 0.14 

51.01 + 3.47 

51.43 + 3.33 

50.64 + 2.98 

52.48 + 1.82 

52.97 + 3.64 

54.35 + 0.00' 

* SD is zero as measurement was made only on one animal. 

Meat:Bone ratio 

(mean + S.D) 

According to this study, significant differences could not be 

observed in the dressing percentages among male and female animals 

(Table 2), which were 51.66 % + 3.14 and 5 1.05 % + 3.32 respectively. 

These results were comparable with earlier reports on nondescript and 

Murrah buffaloes @odsward, 1972; Tilakaratne, 1 980). 

Table 2. Effect of sex on dressing percentage and meat to bone ratio. 

Sex Dressing % Meat:Bone 

(mean + S.D) ratio 

Male 51.66 2 3.14 3.06 + 0.81 

Female 51.05 + 3.32 2.70 f. 0.72 

Among males and females, the meat to bone ratio .showed a 

marked difference (Table 2). The meat to bone ratio was higher in males 

(3.06 + 0.81), than in females (2.70 + 0.72). In cattle according to 

Preston and Wills (1 976) carcasses of steers yield a significantly higher 

proporhon of edible meat to bone and less excess fat than those of heifers 

or cows. This phenomenon may be applicable to buffaloes too, and that 

may be the reason for the higher meat to bone ratio observed in male 

buffaloes than in females.

Factors affecting carcass and meat quality 

Organ percentage (Table 3) was higher in female buffaloes 

(36.68%) than in males (35.78%). Especially the liver, rumen and 

intestine accounted for a little higher percentage in females. Generally, 

females have higher amounts of fat deposits in many organs than males 

(Cockrill, 1967). This could be the reason for the observation of higher 

percentage of organs in females. 

Table 3. Effect of sex on organ percentage (mean 2 S. D.). 

organ Sex 

Male Female 

Skin 10.90*1.05 10.18*1.09 

Pluck 2.81ztO.30 2.79*0.33 

Liver 1.4M. 17 1.65ztO.36 

Spleen 0.36M.08 0;34*0.07 

Rumen 13.15*1.11 13.59h2.79 

Intestine 4.2734.88 5.13*0.94 

Feet 2.67M.52 2.72*0.22 

Tail 0.22zt0.08 0.28*0:11 

The percentage of hind-quarters and fore-quarters showed a 

marked difference with increasing live weight (Table 4). Fore-quarter 

percentage increased fiom 51.71% + 3.13 to 57.94% + 0.0 while the 

hind-quarter percentage decreased from 47.90% + 0.16 to 42.05% 2 0.0 

in the live weight range 100 kg to 450 kg. 

Preston and Wills (1 976) explained that body weight generally 

increases with age. It is expected that there will be a positive relationship 

between age and dressing percentage. Accordingly, fore-quarter 

percentage also increases with increasing dressing percentage. As stated 

by Abdullah et al. (1 981), fattening increases with age and plane of

H. W.Cyd and A. Jayaweera 

Table 4. Effect of live weight on fore-quarter and hind-quarter 

percentages . 

Live weight Percentage (mean + S. D.) 

(kg) Forequarter Hind-quarter 

nutrition, leading to heavier forequarters Ad relatively lighter hind- 

quarters. 

According to the second study, a significant difference in meat 

composition could be observed in different age categories (young animals 

and adult animals). Protein, fat and ash contents (Table 5), increased 

with the age of the animals (protein fiom 21.26% + 1.56 to 21.77% + 

1.89,Mfim 1.72%+ 1.03 to2.87%+ 1.27 and ashfiom 1.13%+0.06 

to 1.19% + 0.22). There was a significant reduction of the water content 

Table 5. Effect of age on composition of buffalo meat. 

Component . Composition % (mean + S.D) 

Young animals Adult animals 

(1 -2 years) 12-10 yezirs) 

Water 76.25 + 1.12 75.26 2 2.19 

Protein 21.26 + 1.56 21.78 + 1.89 

Fat 1.72 + 1.03 2.87 2 1.27 

Ash 1.13 i0.06 1.19 k0.22

Factbrs aflecting carcasf and meat quality 

of meat with age. Reductim in the water content (76.25% +'I. 12 ih 

young animals and 75.26% + 2.19 in adult animds).may be due to 

increase of the fat content of meat with age. Comparable results have 

been reported by Moulton and Lewis (1 940) and Anjaneplu (1 985). 

According to Lawrie (1 961), irrespective of species, breed or sex, most 

of-the comp&ition parameters of muscle, other than water content 

increase with the age of the animal. 

Differences were observed in the meat composition between male 

and female animals. The fat content of females (3% + 1.44) was higher 

than that of males (2.41% + 1.08), (Table 6). Meanwhile, the water 

content was little higher in males (75.51% + 1.39), than in females 

(75.26% + 2.59). This may be due to the low .fat content in males 

compared to females. This agrees with the findings of Moulton and Lewis 

(1975). There were no significant differences in the protein and ah 

contents between males and females. These observations agree with the 

results reported by Agabeili et al. (1971). 

I 

Table "6. Effect ofrex on comPosi$&n'of buaalo med:' ' * 

. , > , t 

Component . Percentage (mean +S.D) 

8 / 

. I , > 

Male Female 

Water 

Protein 21.63 k2.10 .21.80+ 1.81 - z 

Fat 2.41 + 1.08 3.00 + 1.44 

AS^ . i.p+o.i2 1.21 + 0.30 

h m 

in the shear value with &.age (6.63 kg + 1.69 in young 

animals to 8.89 kg + 2.37 in adult &ma&) was found to be significant 

(Table 7): According to Cooper &d Wfls (1 979) and Matassino12t al. 

(1 984), meat becomes less tender as the animh gets older. Led meat 

muscle is made up of minute fibres bundled together with connective 

tissues. In young animals, the muscle fibres-and bundles are small and 

that imparts tenderness to meat 1988). The age of animals, beyond 

two years af age has a clear effect on tenderness which decreases due to 

,

H. W.Cyril and k Jayaweera 

lack of marbling and the increase in the connective tissue and size of 

muscular bundles (Regab et al., 1966). ~ccordingl~, shear values 

increase with age. 

Table 7. Effect of age on tenderness of buffalo meat. . 

Age of animal Shear value (kg) 

(mean + S.D) 

Young (1 -2 years) 6.63 + 1.69 

Adult (2- 10 years) 8.79 + 2.37 

The highest percentage of adult animals (58.89%) was in the 

darker colour range of 7 to 9 (Table 8), while the highest percentage of 

young animals (78.52%) was in the lighter colour range of 1 to 3. Hafez 

(1 952) and Romans et al. (1985) explained that meat darkens as the 

animal ages and the Munsell test "Value" (i.e. - darkness) increased with 

maturity. According to Hill (1988), the colour of muscle deepens in older 

animals due to an increase of respiratory pigments such as haemoglobin 

and myoglobin. 

Table 8. Effect of age on colour of buffalo meat. 

Colour range . Animal percentage 

. Young animals Adult animals 

(1 -2 years) (2- 10 years) 

(n = 76) (n = 14) 

1 - 3 Lighter 78.52 13.15 

4-6 21.42 28.94 

7 - 9 Darker 0.00 57.89 

Among carcass characteristics of indigenous buffaloes, dressing 

percentage has a positive relationship to the live weight. There is hardly

Factors agecting carcass and meat quality 

any difference in dressing percentage of male and female buffaloes. Meat 

to bane ratio shows an increasing trend with increasing live weight. 

However, males have a higher meatto bone ratio than females. Organ 

percentage is higher in females than in males. Percentage of fore-quarters 

shows a positive relationship to the live weight while it is negative f a 

hind-quarters. 

In indigenmbuffaloes, the composition of meat varies with age. 

Protein, fat and ash contents increase while the water content decreases 

with age. Tenderness of meat also declines with age. Colour of meat 

changes h a lighter range in young animals to a darker range in adult 

animals. Composition of meat is different in male and female animals in 

relation to water and fat contents. Females have higher fat content and 

lower water content compared to males. 

References 

Abdullah, O.Y., Shahin, K.A and Latif, M.G.k (1981) Growth and 

development of water buffalo and Friesian cross-bred cattle with 

special reference to body and carcass composition. J. Agric. Sci. 

(Camb) 97,205-212. 

Mi, Y. A., Shain, M. A. and Omara, S. F. (1974) Meat production fiom 

buffalo male calves at different ages. Agriculture Research Review. 

India. 52,l-20. 

k A, Guseinov, I. A and Serdyuk, S. (1971) A new buffalo breed - 

the Caucasian. Zhivornavodrtavo, Mosk., Vol. 33 61-63. Anlm. Breed. 

Abstr. 40,25 (1972). 

Anjaneyulu, k S. R., Sengar, S. S., Lakshamanan, V. and Joshi, D. C. (1985) 

Meat quality of male calves maintained on different levels of protein. 

Buflalo Bulletin 4,45-47. 

Charles, D.D. and Johnson, E.R (1975) Live weight gain and carcass 

composition of buffalo (Bubalzm bubalis) steer on four feeding 

regimes. Australian J. Agric. Sci. pp 327-344. 

Cockrill, W. R (1967) The water buffalo. Scient. Am. 217,118-125. 

Cooper,M. McG. and Wills, U B. (1979) Projltable beefproduction, 3rd Ed. 

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H.W.Cyril and A. Jayaweera 

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257-263. 

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Johnson, E.R and Charles, D.D. (1975) Comparison of.live weight gain and 

changes in carcass composition between buffalo (Bubalus bubalfi) and 

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Colombo, Sri Lanka. 

Matassino, D., Giiolami, A., Ramunno, L. and Gambacorta, E. (1984) 

Comparison on meat quality between buffalo and bovine fed with hay 

and concentrates. Animal Production 3,111. 

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Chicago, Illinois. 

Oganojanovic, A (1974) Handling and ~ealth ofDomestic Buffalo. (Ed. W. 

Ross Cockrill) 377, pp. 

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buffalo beef. Buffalo Bulletin 5,27-29. 

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efficiency and carcass characteristics of Indian buffalo (Bubalus 

bubalk) calves fattened on different planes of nutrition. BufSalo 

Bulletin 6,77-8 1. 

Preston, T. R. and Wills, M. B. (1 976) Intensive Beef Production. Pergamon 

Press, Oxford. 

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from Egyptian buffaloes. I1 Physical and chemical characteristics of 

buffalo meat. J. Anim. Prod. U.A.R. 6,51-62. 

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(1985) The Meat We Eat. 12th Ed Interstate Printers Danville, Illinois. 

Rosa, A, Creta, V. and Dzic, G. (1980) Results obtained in intensive fattening 

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Growth, feed conversion and carcass characteristics of cattle and 

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Tilakaratne, N. (1980) Meat production fiom domestic buffaloes. In: 

Proceeding ofthe Worhhop on Water Buflalo Research in Sri Lanka. 

Nov 24-28, 1980. Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Session I - Production Systems and Uses 


Q: N. H. Shah - I would like to know how the small farmer having a 

land extent of only 2 acres is managing cattle for milk and buffaloes for 

draught. This would bring increased pressure on the system. In my 

opinion it would be more economical to keep a dual purpose animal, 

rather than two different species of animals. Have you made any 

comparisons on the returns by keeping one, two or three buffaloes on one 

acre of land? Have there been any economic benefit studies done? 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - Most of the Mahaweli settlements are 

located in old villages which are supplied wth water for agricultural 

purposes through an irrigation system, which has existed fiom ancient 

times Farmers engaged in hvestock rearing continue the traditional 

fmng practice of keeping two herds and relying on communal grazing 

land. But thts is gomg to be impossible in the years to come because the 

extent of communal grazing land available is diminishing. There has 

already been conflicts between crop and livestock farmers. They find 

it difficult to give up this practice because they will lose a portion of their 

regular Income. Therefore it has become essential for them to continue 

to keep livestock. What we are trylng to do is to discourage the 

management of two herds; one for milk and the other for draught. We 

encourage rearing of dud purpose animals that gives milk which could be 

converted to value added products such as curd and yogurt in order to 

provide sufficient income and thereby break the "agricultural debt" cycle, 

that farmers are generally subjected to. 

Q: C. Devendra - In the Mahaweli area, &d problem identification and 

definition actually focus on nutritional and feedmg resources as the 

number one problem, and what were the other problems or priorities. 

A: H Abeygunawardena - During Phase I of the Project, we observed 

that buffalo famng was quite extensive and the most ,important 

problems identified were (a) low milk price (b) low production and (c) 

high cost of feed. Based on these observations we developed a system 

that would reduce the cost of production and solve problems created by 

land limitations. 

Q : C. Devendra - What were the other problems beyond feeding and 

nutrition? 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - Firstly, low production. Ninety five per cent 

of the buffalo population is indigenous and therefore upgrading is

Session I - Production systems and uses 

essential. Attempts have been made to upgrade the local animal but so 

far we have not achleved the desirable levels. Secondly, endemic 

hseases. 

Q: D,K. Singh - What is the status of gastrointestinal worm infestation 

in these animals. 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - We have not noticed any major problems 

related to gastrointestinal worms. 

Comment: D.K. Singh - I raised this question specifically to share our 

experience, particularly in Gujarat in India. We have observed that if 

animals are dewormed there is a substantial increase in the milk 

production. We have also developed a deworming procedure by putting 

the drug into the urea molasses mineral block and the animal is allowed 

to lick the block for 5-6 day. 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - Studies performed by a group of 

parasitologists in Sri Lanka have shown that Toxocara vitulorum is the 

most important parasite in buffalo calves. Accordng to these studies 

calves treated at around two weeks of age with one dose of anthelminthic 

are free from the threat from ascariasis for the rest of their lives. We 

have adopted this treatment regime and do not see a need to incorporate 

an anthelminthic into the block. 

Q: D. K. Singh - I don't contest your opinion that T. vitulorum in the 

most important nematode in the buffalo. I also agree that parasitism per 

se is not an important problem clinically, but if you remove subclinical 

parasitism, occasionally, the result is a definite increase in the milk 

production. 

Comment: D.H.A Subasinghe - I like to make a comment that nutrition 

actually was in fact identified as the most important problem as tt 

influenced other factors such as reproduction and growth and even 

resistance to disease. Therefore emphasis was on providing a low cost 

nutritive feed to the animals. 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - Another reason was that we have 

considerable information on the use of rice straw as a ruminant feed and 

on the value of the urea-molasses supplement as a catalflc feed, but that 

information has unfortunately not reached the farmer. In this project we 

are also exploring the possibilities of adopting these technolog~es at the 

smdl farmer level.

Discussion 

Q : S.K. Ranj han - What is the price of buffalo milk in Sri Lanka? 

A: C. Bogahawatte - Buffalo milk fetches around Rs.10-12 per litre 

when it is collected separately. Generally, it is mixed with cows milk and 

the farmers are paid on the monthly average fat percentage. 

Q: S.K. Ranjhan - What is the price of cows milk? 

A: C. Bogahawatte - The average price is around Rs 7.50. It varies from 

Rs. 3.00 to 7.50. 

Q: I.D. Silva - You mentioned that the buffalo and cows milk go 

together to the collecting centre. May I ask you what was the source of 

data for the production values? 

A: C. Bogahawatta - The data on production has been collected at the 

farm gate. The h e r indicated how much of cow's and buffalo milk was 

produced. 

Q: C. Devendra - From your reference to technical efficiencies, do we 

infer that it involves both biological factors and policy issues. 

A: C. Bogahawatte - Yes. 

Comment: C. Devendra - You said in the conclusions that you are 

operating within 10 per cent of efficiency therefore, by inference there is 

90% potential. That is an enormous figure. 

Q: P. Bunyavejchewin - What is the cost of imported milk compared 

to the locally produced milk. 

A: C. Bogahawatta - Generally the price of imported liquid milk is 

higher and varies between Rs 65 to Rs 75 per litre, while the price of 

local liquid milk is Rs 30 per litre. 

Q: P. Bunyavejchewin - Is imported liquid milk very popular? 

A: C. Bogahawatta - Yes, especially among the expatriates. 

Comment: P. Bunyavejchewin - I would like to make two points. First 

on the work output ofmale and female buffaloes. In Thailand, we did on- 

farm monitoring and tried to compare male and female buffaloes in terms 

of work output. We found no significant gender difference in the work 

output. It must be emphasised that in Thailand more female buffaloes are

Session I - Production systems and uses 

used compared to males. Secondly, we are researching ths aspect of 

breeding on F1 or F2 crossbreds; the results are yet to be published. 

Preliminary studies have shown that 49 chromosome males have a lot of 

abnormal sperms be it a F1 or F2. 

Comment: N.U. Horadagoda - I have a comment regarding the 

incorporation of anthelrninthcs into the block. I feel that incorporating 

an anthelmntic especially a benamidazole preparation into the block and 

feerllng it over a length of time could induce the development of resistance 

by certain species of parasites. 

Comment: D.K. Singh - With regard to worm burden in adult animals, 

I agree that it is not a major problem but if you deworm an animal there 

is an increase in milk yield of 800 ml to 1 litre per day. Thls also could 

be achieved by incorporating the drug into the block or it could be given 

in feed pellets. The latter is a very convenient method of adrmnistering 

the drug. The drug is not admtnistered on a continuous basis. It is 

gtven once a year at a strategtc time: 

Comment: S.K. Ranjhan - I tend to partially agree with Dr. Singh. 

The use of anthelminthics in the block has been done in some of the 

countries. In Swaziland, we introduced the anthelminthic for one day 

and the animals consumed 400 to 450 gram per day. The animal received 

the medicated block only on one day. The use of the medicated block 

obviated the necessity to drench the animals. This is a particularly usefkl 

practice when a large number of animals are involved. Th~s method.of 

admtnistration will certainly not bring about the resistance as mentioned 

earlier. 

Comment: A Dangolla - Regardmg the adrmnstration of anthelrninthic 

through the block, I am not too sure whether anyone has looked into the 

concentration of anthelminthic at the site of action where the worm is 

' located. As far as it is known, there is no evidence of resistance to 

ascarids. I am not sure whether anyone has thought of the decay of the 

drug in blood and at the site of action. 

Q: B.MAO. Perera - I want to discuss the milk pricing scheme, since 

quite a lot of interest .was shown on milk pricing. There are seireral 

people here who I am sure could comment on the schemes presently 

operating in Sri Lanka. One is.'M. Walter Perera, who is the Manager 

of a large dairy cooperative. I would like to hear his comments on the 

subject. , 

. . . 

. . .

Discussion 

Comment: W. Perera - As a cooperative supplying milk to Nestles and 

hlilco and also manufacturing its own products, I would say that the 

present scheme in Sri Lanka is based on fat as well as on SNF. The 

standard that has been set is that, for milk with fat at 4% and SNF at 8%, 

farmers are entitled to receive Rs. 8.50 per litre for cow milk. In general 

there is no price differentiation given for buffalo milk but in our 

cooperative we are paymg the farmers Rs. 15.00 per litre for buffalo milk 

and Rs. 10.50 for cows milk. We can aEord to pay a higher price for 

milk since we are doing some processing of the milk . 

A: C. Bogahawatta - In my studies I found that most of the farmers 

who deliver milk directly to milk collection centres were paid different 

prices for cow and buffalo milk, but where milk was purchased by a 

collector and transported in the same vehcle, farmers received an average 

price based on that month's average fat content. 

Comment: W. Perera - As far as milk collection in the coconut triangle 

is concerned, we would collect even one litre and it is collected in 

separate containers, either as cow milk or buffalo milk. 

Q: C. Devendra - While you submit that there is 10% efficiency 

currently you also submit that 90% opportunities exist. Considering 

biological and policy aspects, if we had to push resources for the future 

for dairy development which direction would you push that? 

A: C. Bogahawatta - The scale of production is going to be a very 

important factor. One needs to increase the herd size assuming that one 

is going to increase the yleld per cow with new technologes. The scale 

of production is our weakness. We are not going to expand our herd size 

in the wet zone because of the population growth and intense competition 

for land. Therefore it is .more feasible in the dry zone, especially in the 

Mahaweli area where land is available and where much potential lies.

BREEDING STRATEGIES FOR OPTIMUM 

UTILIZATION OF AVAILABLE RESOURCES IN 

RURAL BUFFALO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 

C. ~hantalakh'ana and P. Bunyavejchewin 

Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, 

THAILAND 

Abstract: Buffalo raising is expected to continue to play an important role in 

rural farming especially in raided lowland and upland farming systems, as well 

as in some irrigated lowland farming systems. Breeding improvement of river 

and swamp buffaloes for rural farms has to take farming systems perspectives 

into consideration. Some breeding strategies for the improvement of buffaloes 

for draught, meat and draught, meat-milk-and-draught and for dairy purpose, are 

discussed. Some breeding schemes are proposed within the context of rural 

famg in the developing countries. 

Keywords: Production systems, breeding, strategies 

BUFFALOES IN THE WORLD 

There were approximately 148.9 million water buffaloes in the 

world in 1993, while there were only 90 million in 1961. Almost 96% 

(142.6 million) of them were found in Asia and the Pacific, while they 

were distributed in-more than 50 countries around the world, fiom China 

and India to Brazil, fiom USA and Europe to Australia. The number of 

buffaloes by continent is shown in Table 1. Most buffaloes are raised by 

small hers in developing countries. 

The water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) can be classified into 

two breed types, the river and the swamp type. 

A. River breeds consist of (a) Asian breeds such as those 

in India and Pakistan and (b) Mediterranean breeds 

such as those in Italy, Romania and Middle East. 

B. Swamp me such as those in China and Southeast 

Asia (SEA).

Breeding strategies for rural buffalo production 

Table 1. Number of buffaloes by Continent (Chantalakhana, 1991). 

Continents Decades 

Asia N 

GI' 

Afiica2 N 

GI 

South N 

~merica' GI 

Europe N 

GI 

World4 N 

GI 

1961ffO 1971/80\ 1981190 

(In millions) 

I GI = Growth Index, average annual percentage change. 

2 Only for Egypt and Mautitius, some bugaloes are found also in 

Madagascar, Mozambique, S. Africa, Uganda, Zaire and Congo. 

3 

Only for Brazil, but some buffaloes are found also in Venezuela, Trinidad, 

Peru, Paraguay, Argentina, Ecuador, Colombia, Surinam, Honduras, Costa 

Rica, Bolivia and Uruguay. 

4 Australia is not included, where about 200,000 buffaloes are found. 

More than 70% of the total buffalo population in the world belong to the 

river type while almost 30% are of the swamp type. 

During the past three decades the number of buffaloes in the 

world steadily and consistently increased by.about 1 to 2% per year, 

except in some Eastern European countries, where buffalo numbers 

decreased during 1981 -1 990, as inhcated in Table 1. The most obvious 

increase in the number of buffaloes took place in Brazil and some other 

Latin American countries. 

In the year 2025 it is expected that there will be a human 

population of more than 8.2 billion in the world with about 3.3 billion 

people living in ma1 areas. Clearly, more meat and milk will be required 

for urban consumption, while rural farmers will continue to depend on 

buffaloes for draught power, manure, cash income as well as other

C. Chantalakhana and P. Bunyavejchewin 

noncash values. The water buffalo will remain an important component 

contributing to sustainable farming systems and rural development in 

developing countries for many decades to come. 

BUFFALO PRODUCTION AND RURAL FARMING 

In 1990, out of 136 milhon buffaloes in Asia more than 95% 

(1 29.5 million) were found in India (75 m), China (21.4 m), Palustan 

(15 m) and Southeast Asian countries including Myanmar, Bangladesh 

and Sri Lanka Most buffaloes in these countries are concentrated in the 

following croplanimal ago-ecosystems (Devendra, 1 995): irrigated 

lowland fanning systems, rainfed lowland farming systems and upland 

farming systems. 

In India most milk production is obtained fiom dairy buffaloes 

whlle the use of buffalo for draught power is also important. In Pakistan 

and China buffaloes are used as draught animals as well as for meat and 

milk. In SEA the water buffaloes provide meat and draught power, while 

manure and other by-products such as hide, horn are also important. 

Buffalo Farming in Developing Countries 

South Asia: Buffaloes in this region mostly belong to the river breeds. 

More than 67% of the world buffalo population can be found in 

Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Water 

buffaloes are a source of milk, meat and draught power i.e. a triple 

purpose animal. In India 25.5 million tons of milk are produced by 

buffaloes annually, while only 23 million tons are fkom cattle (Soni, 

1991). In Pakistan, buffaloes produce three times as much milk (9.9 m 

tons) as do cattle (3.1 m tons). 

According to Soni (1991), buffalo production in South Asia is 

mainly by small farmers who are engaged in traditional integrated 

small-farm systems in whch crops are commonly a major component.

Breeding strategies for rural buffalo producrion 

Farmers maintain buffaloes mainly because they depend on these animals 

to cany out agricultural operations. Most of the farmers are subsistence 

farmers with limited land area for cultivation. The number of livestock, 

especially bovine animals, kept per fannholding is rather low. Most of 

the farmers keep around one or two buffaloes for crop cultivation or for 

milk production. Meat and manure are generally considered as 

by-products. 

In India and Pakistan, buffalo production systems can be 

generally classitied into 3 types, i.e. (1) extensive, (2) semi-intensive, and 

(3) intensive (Soni, 1991). The extensive system of buffalo raising is 

commonly practiced by small hers who keep one or two buffaloes and 

maintain them by grazing on common village land, roadside grass and on 

stubble. Natural grazing is supplemented with straw and other crop 

residues. The semi-intensive system of buffalo raising is generally 

associated with intensive systems of crop production. Buffaloes are raised 

mdy for milk production and are stall fed. Some farmers may raise 10 

to 50 buffaloes. The intensive system is usually characterized by 

largescale buffalo production units or colonies to provide milk for large 

city consumption. This kind of buffalo operation involves a relatively 

large number of dairy buffaloes, usually located near metropolitan areas. 

East and Southeast Asia: According to Bunyavejchewin and 

Chantalakhana (1 991), 95 to 99% afthe buffalo production in China and 

aost SEA countries can be classified as smallholder or small farm 

systems, in whch buffalo raising is regarded as an integral part of a crop 

production system. Swamp buffaloes primarily are a source of farm 

power for tillage and transportation, and a source of manure for use as 

fertilizer for crops, while meat is a secondary product and milk is 

generally unimportant. The most common areas where buffaloes play 

prominent roles are in rainfed lowland or upland rice production. 

Raising swamp buffalo for beef production is becoming more 

common in East and SEA. However, the number of commercial buffalo 

farms in most countries is still relatively few. Raising buffaloes for 

dual-purpose, i.e. for meat sad milk, has also become an important area

C. Chantalakhana and ~..~un~avejchewin 

of buffalo development in certain countries such as the Philippines, 

Malaysia and Thailand. 

Rural Farmers and Their Buffaloes 

Meaninghl and useful breeding strategies have to be formulated 

with rural farming perspectives while keeping in mind hture trends and 

changes in buffalo fanning systems due to changing socio-economic 

conditions in the developing countries. Opinions of rural farmers who 

raise buffaloes on how they determine desirable traits, traditionally and 

economically, are important factors in the formulation of buffalo breedlng 

Subsistence production: Most buffalo production in India, Pakistan, and 

other South Asian countries, as well as in China and SEA can be 

characterized as subsistence production. Buffaloes are generally regarded 

as multi-purpose animals. Milk, meat, draught power, manure, and 

by-products such as hide, are important economic commodities, whlle 

priceless values of buffaloes are also sipficant, for example, serving as 

farm family assurance in case of crop fdure due to natural hazards, being 

a source of long-term saving, fultilling traditional and cultural needs, 

providing a source of social status and prestige and being a family 

companion especially for children. For rural fanners, buffaloes are 

generally used to satis@ multiple needs of the farm family : 

(1) To produce milk, such as in India, Pakistan, 

Bangladesh; or to a certain extent in Sri Lanka, Nepal, 

China and the Philippines. 

(2) To produce meat, such as in Pakistan, China and SEA 

(3) 

countries. 

To provide draught power and manure for rural farming, 

which is commonly needed in almost every Asian 

country.


Breeding strategies should be formulated to serve the 

requirements of different farming systems and farmers' socio-economic 

conditions. This paper aims to &scuss buffalo breeding strategies for 

some multi-purpose uses under rural farming conditions in order to make 

optimum utilization of locally available resources, such as feed and to 

promote sustainable farming systems. 

SOME BREEDING STRATEGIES 

Breeding Buffaloes for Draught Purpose 

Recognizing that the working capacity of an animal is directly 

related to body size and weight, rural farmers generally select larger 

buffaloes for work. In many countries farmers prefer to use male animals 

for work due to its larger body size. However, during recent years more 

and more female buffaloes are used for work as well as for reproduction 

due to the shortage of draught animals. 

The measurement of draught ability of an animal is rather 

complicated since it depends on age, sex, size, health and nutritional 

conditions, training, harness and working equipment, time of day, soil 

types and conditions, etc. Since the conditions under which the animals 

are put to use vary fiom one location to another, standard engneering or 

laboratory measurement might not be useful or meaningful to all farm 

situations. 

Draught buffaloes are generally used for work during early 

morning hours, usually fiom 05:00 hr. until 10:OO or 11 :00 hr. It has 

been well recognized that buffaloes are generally less heat tolerant than 

cattle due to fewer sweat glands in the slun. No breeding work has been 

done to improve heat tolerance in buffaloes. It is probably quicker and 

more effective to improve animal working efficiency by reducing heat 

stress through management or other body cooling methods.


Animal draught efficiency can also be significantly increased 

through the use of improved harness systems (Garner, 19.57; Starkey 

1989), or improved farm tools and implements (Starkey and Sips, 1989). 

However, most of these improved harness systems and tools have not 

been widely adopted by rural farmers due to various reasons. hhy of 

these problems were due to a lack of farmer participation in the 

development of these tools and equipment. Other socio-economic factors 

and government policies, for instance, lack of credit for small farms, lack 

of farmer training, or low price for farm commdties, have had negative 

effects on the ability of rural farmers to adopt new technologies. Indeed, 

it will be very useful and helpll to find ways and means to extend 

existing improved farm tools and harness systems to fmers in rural 

areas. Ifthis effort becomes successful, animal draught capacity will be 

much improved. 

Breeding improvement of buffaloes for draught purpose through 

genetic selection within a population is expensive and slow as compared 

to improvement by other methods such as feeding and management, 

health care, and use of improved farm tools and harness systems. From 

breeding aspects, it appeared to be generally agreed that the draught 

, ability of buffalo& could be improved as a secondary purpose within the 

improvement programs for meat or milk production (Chantalakhana, 

1992; Gunaivan and Vercoe, 1989) by simultaneously selecting for 

animal body weight and height. 

Crossbreeding of swamp buffalo with Murrah and Nili-Ravi in 

order to improve draught ability as well as milk and meat has been 

conducted in some countries such as the Philippines and China. Some 

crossbreds were found to have lighter body weights than the swamp 

(local) buffalo at the same age, while the working ability of crossbreds 

having the same body weight and heat resistance were comparable to the 

local (Momongan et al., 1989). It was reported that crossbred buffaloes 

in China were superior to local swamp buffalo in working ability, i.e. 

draught power, area ploughed per unit time, plouang speed and 

duration of work. This could be attributed to the lighter body weight of 

the crossbreds Wao Yongzuo, 1989a).

Breeding strategies for rural bufalo production 

Castration of draught buffaloes: In some Asian countries, male 

buffaloes are usually castrated by farmers at about 2-3 years of age before 

training for work. Castrated animals are believed to be more tame and 

not distracted by females while working. However, castration of larger 

males in effect has resulted in negative selection against superior breeding 

stock as evident by the decline in the average body size of buffalo in 

Thailand and some other SEA countries. Therefore, it is very important 

to provide superior buffalo bulls for breeding at village level. Artificial 

.insernination -of buffalo cows with semen from superior bulls has had a 

limited impact at farm level as far as draught buffaloes on small farms are 

concerned. This is due to various socio-economic, technical as well as 

institutional constraints facing village farmers. 

Breeding Buffaloes for Meat or Meat-and-Draught 

Purpose 

Meat production £iom buffalo has provided an important part of 

total national beef supply in many Asian countries. In China and SEA 

countries, many buffaloes are sold for slaughter immediately after the 

planting season in order to obtain cash for purchase of fertilizer and other 

farm inputs. In some Asian countries, such as the Philippines, China, 

and Thailand, more and more farmers raise buffaloes for sale while 

buffalo draught power becomes a complementary source of farm power 

to the two-wheel tractor. As the beef demand rises with increasing 

number of people and their educational and income levels in Asian 

countries, it is anticipated that meat production from buffalo will become 

more economically important because cattle beef supply does not grow 

at a sufficient rate to meet the fast expanding demand. In a country like 

Thailand with approximately 60, million people, it was estimated that 

each year up to one rmllion cattle and buffaloes were imported (smuggled) 

for slaughter' fiom neighbouring countries, while according to official 

statistics only about half a million cattle and buffaloes were slaughtered 

in various municipal slaughter houses annually. It was estimated that 

illegal slaughtering in. some areas could be up to 3 to 5 times the official 

records. Therefore, it is anticipated that buffalo raising for meat purposes

C. Chantalakhana and P. Builyavejchewin 

at small farm level will increase in the future, while feeding and 

management will continue to rely on the use of low quality roughages 

such as rice straw, natural grasses and tree leaves. However, buffalo 

fattening or finishing operations utilizing supplementary energy feeds 

such as cassava chips or molasses could become profitable as beef 

demand rises. Hence breeding strategtes to improve buffalo for meat or 

meat-and-draught can be quite useful for many Asian countries. 

The traits related to meat production in buffaloes such as weights 

at different ages and growth rates are expected to be medium to highly 

heritable, with h2 of 0.3 to 0.7 (Bhat, 1992; Chantalakhana. 1 992). There 

has been no genetic study on buffalo carcass traits so far but judgng from 

experiences in beef cattle breeding they can be expected to be highly 

hentable, which means that breeding imp~ovement can be effective. 

Selection of swamp buffczlo for beef and draught: Superior male and 

female buffaloes can be selected based on their own performance such as 

weights at 6 or 8 months and at one year to 18 months of age and growth 

rates before and after weaning at 6 or 8 months of age. Body height at 

withers and conformation score can also be used as supplementary 

criteria, while some reproductive traits such as size of scrotum or udder 

should also be, observed. 

Performance testing of animals fiom known or pedigree parents 

selected fiom breeding herds after weaning needs to be conducted at a 

central location where buffaloes can be fed and managed under uniform 

and, well-planned herd management. Since buffaloes will be used for 

breeding by village farmers after the test it is important to provide them 

a similar feeding and management regime while on the test. The testing 

period is relatively longer (up to 10 months or an year) if the animds are 

tested for growth performance on grass. During the test, buffaloes are 

allowed to graze in pasture during the day and return to the barn in the 

evening where rice straw or other crop residues are fed ad libitum. 

Mineral licks are also provided in the barn as well as clean d;inlang 

water. In the early morning hours before buffaloes are let out to graze, 

they are fed with feed supplements at about 2-3 kg per head. Feed


supplements are composed of low priced and locally available ingrehents 

such as cassava chips, leucaena leaf meal, etc. Feed supplemefits are 

provided to tested buffaloes in order to allow optimum genetic expression 

as far as growth rates and body .weights, and size are concerned. A 

selection and breeding scheme for buffaloes is shown in the following 

diagram (Figure 1). 

Selected arents i d x 9 

(Nationaf herds) I 

offspring : 

Selection @ 6 or 8 m : 

JI 

To 

JI 

Fs 

I 

Performance testing : F_ 

- 

Top N d use in Selected d Culled animal 

elite - ~- herds -~ 

use as breeding Casirated for 

or AI service bulls in villg draught or meat 

~overhment A1 Center d Loan or Sale 

Breeding Station /to farmer groups for 

or breeding purpose 

Multiplier private A1 Service 

farms 

Figure 1. Selection and Breedmg Scheme 

An example of a buffalo selection scheme for meat and draught 

purpose in Thailand was reported by Konanta and Intaramongkol(1994) 

with satisfactory progress. This selection scheme implemented by the 

Thai government has been going on for more than 15 years. It started as 

a small scale project and is to be expanded in scale in the next five years 

(1996-2001) as the demand for meat and draught buffalo increases.


Crossbreeding for beef and draught: Crossbreeding of swamp buffalo 

with river breeds such as Murrah has been carried out in various 

countries in Asia in order to improve meat production and draught 

ability. F, crossbreds of swamp x Murrah are fertile and perform well 

under rural conditions. Their working ability is comparable to the swamp 

parent, while body size and growth rates in some cases equal or are 

slightly better as reported by Momongan et al. (1989), and shown in 

Tables 2 and 3. 

Table 2. Least-square means (LSM in kg) for body weights of 

- 

Plulippine carabao and crossbreds. 

Age Philippine Phil-Munah F, Phil-Ravi F, 

(months) carabao 

n LSM n LSM n LSM 

36 48 305210" 98 462~24~ 21 46G25b 

Note: Sigtllficant difference @

' Breeding strategies for rural buffalo production 

long-term ultimate breeding goal is often unclear while suEcient and 

good data are lacking to carry out comparisons of production and 

reproductive performance of crossbreds and their parental breeds. 

Table 3. Work perfiance of Philippine carabao (PC) antfPhil-Murrah 

F, (CB) steers. 

Parameters Wet land conctition Dry land condition 

Depth of ploughing (cm) 

Width of ploughing (cm) 

Soil moistur6 (%) 

Hardness of soil (kg/ cm2) 

Ploughmg velocity (mlseo) 

Ploughing time (hour) for 2500 m2 

Average draught force (kg) 

Drawbar horsepower (PS) 

Breeding Buffaloes for Meat-Milk-and -Draught 

Crossbreeding between the swamp buffalo and the river breeds 

is often aimed at producing milk in addition to meat and draught in the 

crossbreds, as reported in China and the Phdippines mao Yongzuo, 

1989a; Momongan et al., 1989). In many developing countries, though 

UHT milk is available and can be kept without refigeration, dnnking 

milk is not always available to rural people, and furthermore milk is still 

expensive and not affordable by farmers. Crossbred buffaloes can 

produce 3 to 5 kg of milk per day which cah be used for household 

consumption, where only 1 or 2 buffalo cows are kept. Hence, buffalo 

crossbreeding in this case is aimed at improving nutritional status and 

human health as well, especially for children and elders. 

Only moderate levels of milk and meat production is expected 

from crossbred buffaloes since most dairy and beef characteristics in 

bovine animals are genetically negatively correlated. Under village 

conditions where feed resources and feed quality are commonly limited,


milk production by an animal could mean that less nutritional supply is 

available for meat pqoduction. Similarly, to use crossbred buffaloes for 

farm work resulted in decrease of milk production by 12 to 17% Wao 

Yongmo, 1989b). However, Zerbini et al. (1 995) who worked on dairy 

cow traction in Ethiopia concluded that with appropriate feeding levels 

dairy cows could be used for drau&t purpose without any detrimental 

effects on fertility, except for extended calving intervals and a small 

reduction in milk (see Table 4). Further, feed supplementation to dairy 

cows used for work could results in a satisfactory level of milk 

production, but socio-economic considerations at small farm level may 

render feed supplementation of the multipurpose aaimals impractical and 

uneconomical. 

Rural people in some countries are not natural milk drinkers and 

milk drinlang could be problemaiic; marketing milk is also a complicated 

process. In such cases promoting milk production fiom buffalo might not 

be too useful. However, improved milk production of buffalo cows will 

definitely increase growth rate and body weight of the offspring at 

weaning age. 

Table 4. Cumulative milk yield (kg) of F, crossbred cows over a period 

of two years. 

Treatment 0-365d 0-730d 

Non workinglnon supplemented 849 1,226 

Non workinglsupplemented 1,792 3,186 

Worklnglnon supplemented 802 927 

Workinglsupplemented 1,770 3,044 

Standard error 152 ' 219 

Table 5 shows the levels of milk yield &om different buffalo 

genotypes in China (Xiao Yongzuo, 1989b). It should be noted, 

however, that these buBaloes were raised on experimental farms and they 

were expected to be well managed for milk production.


Table 5. Milk yield of different buffalo breeds in China 

Breed Number Average Average Average Highest 

of lactation ladation daily milk dailymilk 

animals period (days) yield (kg) yield (kg) yield (kg) 

Local 

(swamp) 10 23 5 441+212 1.9 5.5 

MxL 12 276 10%+26 1 3.7 9.5 

WI) 60 270 11532397 4.3 11.0 

n 4 3 3 f w F 2 ) 12 291 1540i687 5.2 13.0 

TnpIe-Cross 10 288 1981i470 6.9 5.3 

Murrah 8 1 237 15735524 6.6 7.0 

Nili-Ravi 25 261 18735690 7.2 9.9 

Breeding Buffaloes for Milk Production 

The use of buffaloes as dairy animals by rural farmers has been 

well known in many countries such as India and Pakistan. River 

buffaloes of at least 15 breeds have been described by various authors 

(Mudgal and Sethi, 1989; Bhat, 1992). Some river breeds such as the 

Murrah and Nili-Ravi have been introduced to some other countries such 

as China and the Philippines to cross with local buffaloes in order to use 

the crossbreds as dairy or multi-purpose buffaloes. Different types of 

crosses such as that shown in the following breeding scheme (Figure 2) 

are commonly carried out in various countries, especially in SEA and 

China where only swamp buffaloes exist. 

Mudgal and Sethi (1989) did a comprehensive review of 

performance for both meat and milk of different breeds of river buffaloes 

and some types of crossbreds between river and swamp buffaloes, mainly 

in Chma and the Phdippines as Mer reported by Xiao Yongzuo (1 989a 

and 1989b) and Momongan et al. (1989). Only the Murrah and the 

Nili-Ravi have been used more extensively so far in crossbreeding 

programs with the swamp buffalo in Asia. The milk yield and lactation 

period of dairy buffaloes of different genotypes appeared to be at 

satisfactory levels as shown in Table 6 @ao Yongzuo, 1989b).

(A) Local (Swamp) x 

1 

(B) Interse 

mating 

Fl x F, 

1 

F2 

(50% M) 

1 

? 


(D) Triple cross 

F, x Nili-Ravi 

1 

F2" 

(50% N 25%M) 

1 

? 

(C)upgrading 

(Backcross) 

F, x Murrah 

1 

F2 

(75% M) 

1 

F, 

(87.5% M) 

1 

? 

Figure 2. Some Crossbreeding Schemes for Swamp x hver Buffaloes.

Breeding strategies for rural bufalo production 

Table 6. Milk production of different buffalo genotypes in China 

Breed Lactation Lactation Lactation Highest Average 

sequence period miUr yield milk yield milk yield 

(4 Org) Org) 0%) 

Triple 1 311.5 2100.7 12.5 6.7 

Crossbred 2 312.2 2574.2 15.7 8.2 

3 317.9 2704.9 17.0 8.5 

Nili-Ravi 

x Local 

Nili-Ravi 

Judging fiom existing reports, it is not possible to state clearly 

what breeds or genotypes are best suited for milk production. Variation 

due to feeding, management and environmental conditions apparently 

presented diIEculty in genetic evaluation of various crosses conducted in 

different studies, whde the numbers of animals in each study were usually 

not sufficiently large. 

Cattle vs. buflalo crossbreds for dai yproduction: In countries where 

buffalo milk, whch is exceptionally high in percent butterfat (7-8%), is 

not a traditional food for local people, there is a question whether cattle 

crossbreds such as Holstein crosses or buffaloes are more suitable for 

' drury production. In many Asian countries, Holstein crossbreds of 50% 

or hgher can easily produce 15 kg milk per day or more, while buffaloes 

of river breeds or crosses usually average lower yields (6-8 kg). It 

appears that dairy farmers can obtain a higher income fiom raising 

crossbred dauy cattle than crossbred buffaloes in SEA countries, such as 

Thailand, where the benefit of high butterfat in buffalo milk cannot 

compensate for lower rmlk yields. However, crossbred buffaloes become

,-> 

C. Chantalakhana and P. Bunyavejohewin 

&ore superior to crossbred cattle when they are considered as the 

multipurpose animals in integrated farnring systems to utilize farm wastes 

and by-products, natural grasses and tree leaves, as well as marginal 

lands such as highway shoulders and scrub forest. 

CONCLUDING REMARKS 

In rural areas especially uh&r rainfed conditions, buffaloes have 

been incorporated as a vital component in sustainable agricultural 

production systems. They continue to provide renewable resources in 

terms d draught power and manure, while meat and milk are often 

secondmy products in these systems. It is very evident in Thailand, that 

rice productivity during the last three or four decades has been sustained 

at a stable level, while chemical fertilizer use has been minimal. Thai 

farmers in rainfed areas have been using cattle and buffalo manure to 

maintain soil fertility. Manure is spread on to paddy fields in early rainy 

season and ploughed down before rice planting. Each adult buffalo can 

produce 4 to 6 metric tons of wet manure per year. 

In most developing corntries draught animal power remains an 

important source of energy input per unit of cultivated land area in spite 

of the increasing use of petroleum-based power in certain areas of some 

countries, wherever technically feasible and economically viable. Even 

tcday, water buffaloes provide 20-30% ofthe farm power in South China, 

Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Indochina. 

Considering the socieeconomic aspects of existing fannitfg systems in 

these countries, which are not expected to change quickly or drastically, 

the mixed use of all these sources of power in suitable proportions will 

offer the highest benefit to the farmers, especially those engaged in 

rainfed agriculture. 

In the last two decades, farm mechanization has increased at 

various rates in many Asian countries. This raises questions concerning 

the future of draught animal power. But it is clear that the benefits of 

mechanization on crop yield wil be realized only when other production

Breeding strategies for rural bufSalo production 

inputs such as fertilizer, insecticide and irrigation water become available 

and economical. It is therefore evident that under the prevailing ranfed 

and subsistence farming conditions in developing countries 

mechanization has not played a major rde in sustainable crop production. 

For Asia, in general, in spite of the apparent increase in the use of farm 

machineq especially in irrigated areas, in most of the cultivated areas the 

use of draught animal power will remain relatively high. In many cases, 

the use of draught animal power can be strengthened so as to be 

complementary to the mechanized system. 

Another important aspect of sustainable integrated farming 

systems practised by rural smallholders is the utilization of crop wastes 

and by-products, such as cereal straws, maize and sorghum stovers, 

pineapple waste, sweet potato vines and groundnut vines, by ruminant 

animals. Buffaloes are known to digest such poor-quality roughages 

more efficiently than cattle, and in developing countries small farmers 

commonly use most crop wastes and by-products to feed animals, 

especially buffaloes. 

Buffalo raising as part of small fann agricultural systems has 

positive effects on social and economic sustainability and consequently 

on rural development. Buffaloes are usually looked after by the women, 

old folk and children, who are not employed otherwise. Old folk in the 

family feel that they are being useful and needed when tending buffaloes. 

One of the major reasons why rural people choose to remain at home 

during the dry season and not migrate to work in cities is because they 

have to look after their buffaloes or other livestock. 

References 

Bhat, P.N. 

(1992) Genetics of river buffaloes. Buffalo Production, Chapter 2. 

Ed. N. M. Tulloh and J.H.G. Holmes. World Animal Science, C6. 

Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam. pp 13-58.


Bunyavejchewin, P. and Chantalakhana, C. (1991) Buffalo Production in East 

and Southeast Asia: Problems and prospects. Papers presented at I11 

World Buffalo Congress. In: "Buffalo Production around the World 

: Problems and Prospects", Ed: C. Chantalakhana. Kasetsart 

University, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 30-45. 

Chantalakhana, C. (1991) Buflalo PraIuction around the World: Problems and 

Prospects. Proceedings of I11 World Bufflo Congress. Kasetsart 

University, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 80. 

Chantalakhana, C. (1992) Genetics and breeding of swamp buffaloes. Buffalo 

Production. Chapter 4. Edited by N.M. Tulloh and J.H.G. Holmes. 

World Animal Science, C6. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam. 

pp 95-1 10. 

Chavananikul, V. (1994) Cytogenetic aspects of crossbreeding for the 

improviment of buffalo. Proceedings of the First Asian Buffalo 

Assoc. Congress. Ed: P. Bunyavejchewin et al. Kasetsart University, 

Bangkok, Thailand. pp 153- 159. 

Devendra, C. (1995) Increasing research and development focus on the 

relevance of draught power from buffaloes. Proceedings of 

Symposium on Improving Draught Capaciry of the Multi-purpose 

Buflaloes in Small Farm S'tems, Edited by P. Bunyavejchewin et al., 

Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 3-12. 

Garner, J.K. (1957) Increasing the Work Eflciency of the Water Buffalo in 

Drawing the Plough and other Implements through the Use of 

Improved Harness. Thailand United States Operations Mission. pp 

11. 

Gunawan, B. and Vercue, J.E. (1989) Genetic improvement of draught animals. 

Proceedings on Draught Animals in Rural Development, Ed: P. 

Hohann et al. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27. pp 195- 198. 

Konanta, S. and Intaramongkol, J. (1994) Buffalo selection schemes in 

Thailand. Proceedings of the First Asian BufSalo Assoc. Congress. 

Ed: P. Bunyavejchewin et al. ~ktsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. 

pp 71-84. 

Momongan, V.G., Parker, B.A., & 10s Santos, E.B. and Ranjhan, S.K. (1 989) 

Proceedings on Draught Animals in Rural Development, Ed: D. 

Hohann et al. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27. pp 190- 194. 

Mudgal, V.D. and Sethi, R.K. (1989) Riverine breeds of buffaloes in Asia 

Proceedings of Seminar on Buffalo Genorypes for Small Farms in 

Asia. Ed: M.K. Vidyadaran et al. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 

Malaysia. pp 27-44.


Soni, B.K. (1991) Buffalo production in South Asia: Its problems and propects. 

Papers presented at 111 World Buffalo Congress. In: " Buffalo 

Production around the World: Problems and Prospects", Ed: C. 

Chantalakhana. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 17-29. 

Starkey, P. (1989) Harnessing for cattle and buffaloes: Options and research. 

Proceedings on Draught Animals in Rural Development, Ed: P. 

Ho&ann et al. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27. pp 280-292. 

Starkey, P. and Sims, B. (1989) Animal-drawn implements : An overview of 

recent research and development Proceedings on Draught Animals in 

Rural Development, Ed: D. Hothanu et al. ACIAR Proceedings No. 

27. pp 248-257. 

Xiao Yongzuo. (1989a) Production performance of crossbred buffaloes in 

China. Proceedings of Seminar on Buffalo Genotypes for Small 

Farms in Asia. Ed: M.K. Vidyadaran et al. Universiti Pertanian 

Malaysia, Malaysia. pp 245-254. 

Xiao Yongzuo. (1989b) The buffalo improvement programme in China. 

Proceedings of Seminar on Buffalo Genotypes for Small Fams in 

Asia. Ed: M.K. Vidyadaran et a]. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 

Malaysia. 

Zerbini, E., Wold, A.G. and Gemeda, T. (1995) Dairy cow traction: Effect of 

draught work on milk production and reproduction. Proceeding of a 

Symposium on Improving Draught. Capacity of the Multi-purpose 

Buffaloes in Small Farm Systems. Ed: P. Bunyavejohewin et al., 

Kasetsart lhiversity, Bangkok, Thailand. pp 170- 189.

PEtYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF LANKAN 

BZ.7FFALOES TO STRESS AT WORK 

AA.J.Rajaratnel and S.S.E.Ranawana2 

'Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, 


Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya 

SRI LANU. 

Abstract: A series of experiments was carried out to investigate the degree of 

stress that buffaloes undergo during different types of work in the field. 

Physiological parameters such as heart rate, respiration rate and rectal 

temperature were measured in Lankan buffaloes engaged in different types of 

work namely thresh paddy, ploughmg muddy fields and ploughmg dry lands 

before and at 30 minute intervals of workmg. Mean rectal temperature 

increased fiom 38.1"C to 39.2T, mean respiration rate fiom 21 to 45 per minute 

and mean pulse rate from 63.3 to 84.5 per minute during a 1.5 h period of 

ploughing muddy fields. Mean rectal temperature increased &om 37.4"C to 

39.7T, mean respiration rate fiom 20.3 to 75.5 per minute and mean pulse rate 

fiom 66.5 to 82 per minute when animals ploughed dry land for a period of 1.5 

h. When the animals were used for threshing paddy for a period of 2 hrs, mean 

rectal temperature increased fiom 38.5"C to 40.5OC, mean respiration rate fiom 

34.5 to 1 12 per minute and mean pulse rate £tom 68.9 to 107.3 per minute. 

The results indicate that threshing paddy although not a very strenuous 

exercise, w e d si&cantly higher stress in buffaloes compared to ploughing 

muddy fields. When water was poured as a method of alleviating stress in 

working buffaloes, there was a sigdicant reduction in the pulse rate and 

respiration rate but there was no sigtllficant effect on rectal temperature. The 

results point to heat mess as the main stress factor in working buffaloes but the 

work load itself does not seem to cause a significant effect. Therefore, it is 

important to separate these two effects when studies are conducted on stress in 

buffaloes at work. 

Keywords: Stress, work, respiration, rectal temperature, pulse


INTRODUCTION 

The use of animals as a draught power source has been 

recogtllzed as extremely important and useful by people in aU parts of the 

world. It is a conventional practice in Sri Lanka also to use animals for 

agricultural activities. The most common species df animals used for this 

purpose are buffaloes and cattle. Buffaloes a& commonly used for 

plouang, harrowing, 1eveUing paddy fields and threshing paddy in Sri 

Lanka. 

Effiaency of work performance is likely to be affected by several 

factors namely, species, duration and type of work and climatic 

conditions. Ammals employed for draught in warm climates are often 

subject to stress fiom drect effects such as climate as well as indirect 

effects such as low quality feed (Devadattarn and Mayura, 1978). Studes 

have been carried out in other countries to investigate the physiological 

changes occumng iri cattle during work. However, similar studies in 

buffaloes are scarce. Therefme, the objective of this study was to monitor 

the physiologcal changes taking place during work in order to obtain 

maximum efficiency in working buffaloes. 


As a tool for monitoring physiological changes, measurements 

of respiration rate, pulse rate and rectal temperature were made on 

working buEaloes, prior to the commencement of work and thereafter, at 

30 minute intervals on different days. These measurements were made 

m b~~£€aloes threshmg paddy, ploughing muddy fields and also ploughmg 

dry fields. Effect of pounng water was also studied when the animals 

were threshing paddy and ploughing dry land. Environmental 

measurements such as dry and wet bulb temperature were also made. 

The respiratory rate was measured first by observation of flank 

movements of animals for one minute without disturbing them, As pulse 

rate is a good indicator of the heart rate, pulse rate was measured by 

counting the pulse in the coccygeal artery for a period of one minute.

A.k J. Raj aratne and S. S.E. Ranawana 

Rectal temperature was measured last in order to minimize the 

effect on other measurements. A nylon cord was tied to a clinical 

therrncmeter and the £tee end of the cord was tied to a snap-paper clip. 

By this device the thermometer could be clipped to the skin on the gluteal 

regon. Thls prevented damage to the thermometer in case dung was 

voided during measurements. 

Statistical analysis: Significance of differences between 

treatments as well as groups was tested by performing Student's t test. 

RESULTS 

Table 1 presents means of physiological measurements made in 

buffaloes ploughmg dry land. There was a gradual but sigpficant 

@


rectal temperature by pouring water was only 0.6"C. However, the 

respiration rate declined from 75.5 to 24 per minute and the reduction 

was very highly significant @

AkJ. Rajaratne and S.S.E. Ranawana 

However, the differences in rectal temperature and respiration rate 

between 1.5h and 2.0h were not sigmficant. Pulse rate difference. 

between 1.5h and 2.0h was statistically significant (p


Lower pulse rate seen in buffaloes used for ploughtng muddy fields 

indicate that these animals were performing exercise at a rate well below 

the sub-maximal load. On the other hand, according to Johnson et al. 

(1963) a rapid heart rate and a hlgher cardiac output is indicative of 

thermal strain. Therefore, the increase in heart rate observed in these 

working buffaloes is a result of a combination of both work and thermal 

strain but the thermal strain was responsible for the major part of the 

effect. 

Heat stress has been shown to increase respiratory activity in 

animals (Worstell and Brody, 1953). The contribution of respiratory 

evaporation to heat dissipation in cattle-and buffaloes is much smaller 

than that of cutaneous evaporation. Indeed, it is well established that 

respiratoxy activity under conditions of heat stress is a measure of the 

inadequacy of the quantitatively more important cutaneous evaporation 

to maintain heat balance mek and Lee, 1948). High respiratory rate is 

an attempt to compensate for a poor heat balance brought about by some 

other causes (Bianca, 1962). On the other hand, exercise also increases 

pulmonary ventilation in order to provide a constant supply of oxygen 

required f a metabolic activities. A moderate increase in respiration ,rate 

in the.buffaloes ploughtng muddy fields indicates that the severity of 

exercise is not sufficient to cause any excessive increase in respiration 

rate. 

Bligh (1 955) tested the validity of using rectal temperature as a 

measure of deep body temperature and concluded that the rectal 

temperature was 0.1-0.3"C lower than carotid blood temperature under 

conditions of thermo-neutrahty and mild heat stress, whereas both 

temperature measurements were identical under severe heat stress. Rectal 

temperature is a fairy good indicator of the core temperature though there 

appears to be variations in different sites. There is a distinct diurnal 

variation in deep body temperature in cattle and buffaloes, the maximum 

being in early evening and the minimum in early morning ( Wrenn et al., 

1961; Rajaratne et al., 1983). A rise in core temperature is often taken 

as a sign that the animal has failed to bring into action the proper 

adaptates to maintain heat balance (McDowell, 1966). Excessive heat in

AkJ. Rajaratne and S.S.E. Ranawana 

the body produces undesirable effects on a number of physiological 

processes, chiefly on metabolism by lowering the feed substrate to the 

cells and lowering calorigenic hormones in the body. 

A change in any of these physiological processes will provide 

some indication of the animal's response to thermal stress. However, the 

animal's body temperature is the direct measure of its physiological 

response to heat stress. Other reactions have been generally considered 

supplementary, indicating either the way in which the animal attempts to 

keep its heat load in balance or some of the consequences of the failure to 

do so. 

It is clear fi-otn the results that although threshing paddy is a Light 

type of work, very high rectal temperature together with high respiration 

and pulse rate seen, indlcate that the animals ,were severely stressed by 

performing th~s work. Thls increase is due to the thermal strain created 

by the insulation effect of a thick covering of straw over the ground. 

Therefore, extra care should be taken when buffaloes are used for 

threshing paddy. On the other hand, plouglung paddy fields caused a 

mild heat stress as indicated by comparatively lesser increases in the 

physiological parameters due to a canstant loss of heat into water in the 

paddy fields. Wallowing is one of the main avenues of heat loss in 

buffaloes (Ranawana et al., 1985). Although pouring water could be a 

useM method of alleviating heat stress, it was not sufficient to cause an 

appreciable reduction in the rectal temperature. The marked reduction 

observed in the respiration rate with the reduction in slun temperature, in 

the absence of any significant change in rectal temperature suggests that 

the respiratory centre situated in the medulla of the brain is influenced by 

the thermcwxeptors in &e skin. 

The results of these experiments point to heat stress as the main 

factor responsible for bhysiologcal changes observed in working 

buffaloes, but the work load itself does not seem to cause a significant 

effect. Therefore, it is important to separate these two effects when 

studies are conducted on stress in buffaloes at work.

Physiological respomes of Lankan buffaloes to stress 


We acknowledge the able technical assistance of Miss. 

S.Kulatunge, Mr. A.G.Jayasena and Mr. R.A.D.Nicolas in conducting 

these studies. The work was financially supported by the Swedish 

Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries. 

References 

Blanca, W. (1962) Tolerance to severe heat stress and the behaviour of 

respiratory minute volume in cattle. Nature London, 195, 1208- 1209. 

Bligh, J. (1955) Comparison of rectal temperature and deep body temperature 

in the calf. Nature London, 176,402-403. 

~evadattam, D.S.K. and Mayura, N.L. (1978) Draught ability of Haryana 

bullocks. Indian J. Daily Sci. 31,120-127. 

Johnson, J.E., Naelapaa, H, and Frye, J.B. (1963) Physiological responses of 

Holstein, Brown Swiss and Red Scindhi crossbred bulls exposed to 

high temperature and humidities. J. Anzm. Sci. 22,432-436. 

McDowell, RE. (1966) The role of physiology in animal production for tropical 

and sub-tropical areas. Anim. Prod. 1,39-46. 

Rajaratne, A.A.J., Ranawana, S.S.E. and Tilakaratne, N. (1983) Comparative 

tolerance of hot-humid climatic conditions by three species (Bos 

taurus, Bos indicus and Bos bubalus bubalis) of Bovidae. Srz Lanka 

Vet. J. 31,21-26. 

Ranawana, S.S.E., Rajaratne, A.A. J. and Tilakaratne, N. (1985) Dissipation of 

body heat by buffaloes during wallowing. In: Proceedings of the 3"' 

AAAP Congress, May 6-10, Seoul, South Korea, pp 894-896. 

Riek, RF. and Lee, D.H.K. (1948) Reactions to hot atmospheric conditions of 

Jersery cows in milk. J. Daily Res. 15,219-226. 

Worstell, C.F. and Brody, S. (1 953) Comparative physiological reactions of 

European and Indian cattle to changing temperature. Research Bulletin 

51 5. Missouri Agricultural Experimentation Station. 

Wrenn, T.R, Bitaman, J. and Syke, J.F. (1961) Diurnal patterns of body 

temperature. J. Daily Sci. 44,2070-2080.

EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFERENT COOLING 

TREATMENTS IN ALLEVIATING HEAT LOAD IN 

WATER BUFFALO (Bubalus bubalis): A SUITABLE 

COOLING METHOD 

E.R.K. Perera and A.N.F. Perera 

Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, 

University of Peradeniya, 

SRl LANK4 

Abstract: An experiment was conducted to determine a suitable duration and 

frequency of cooling treatment that would effectively alleviate the heat load in 

water buffaloes. Thennoregulatory responses of buffaloes to the application of 

the following eight different cooling treatments were compared with no cooling 

(control), using a minimum of 3 heifersltreatment. Covering with wet gunnies 

(T,), six sprinkler applications (T,-T,) using daerent combinations of 30, 60, 

or 90 sec (unit) durations and 3 or 6 repeated sprinklitlg cycles, and 540 sec 

continuous sprinkling (T,). Among the treatment groups, the heifers were 

balanced by age (2.0 * 0.6 yr) and body weight (1 55.5 + 10.0 kg). Data on skin 

temperature (ST), respiration rate (RR), heart rate (HR) and rectal temperature 

(RT) were obtained fiom all the animals at - 10,0, +15, +30, +45, and +60 min 

following application and withdrawal of each treatment. Data on ambient 

temperature and relative humidity were recorded at the same time intervals. 

Each treatment was repeated on 5 days. The temperature humidity index (THI) 

remained >81 d w all treatments. Skin temperature was reduced (~~0.05) in 

response to all sprinkler treatments. Increasing the frequency and duration of 

sprmkling increased the effectiveness of cooling. Three repeated cycles of 30 

or 60 sec sprhldmg were not effective in lowering HR, RR or RT significantly. 

However, 6 repeated cycles of 60 and 90 sec sprinkling, and 540 sec continuous 

sprinkling decreased @~0.05) HR and RR. Rectal temperature was reduced 

(p~0.05) by 6 repeated cycles of 90 sec sprmkhg and 540 sec sprinkling only. 

Following the withdrawal of the cooling treatments, ST, RR, HR and RT 

increased over time at different rates to reach the pre-cooling values. Hourly 

application of either 6 repeated cycles of 90 sec sprinkling or 540 sec 

continuous sprinkling is recommended for effective dissipation of heat and 

reduction of the heat load in buffalo, at ambient conditions t8 1 THI.

Effectiveness of cooling in heat stress alleviation 

Keywords: Water buffalo, heat stress, cooling methods, thermoregulator- 

responses 

INTRODUCTION 

The hot chmattc conditions which prevail during the day time in 

buffalo rearing counties such as Sri Lanka, create stress in the buffalo, 

primarily due to the less efficient heat dissipation mechanisms. Provision 

of effective means of cooling to fdtate heat hssipation is required when 

buffalo rearing is practised under such conhtions. Although wallowing 

is the natural and most efficient method of cooling for buffaloes, it limits 

buffalo rearing to the areas where wallowing facilities could be found. 

Besides, buffaloes cannot be allowed to wallow throughout the day time, 

as wallowing results in water pollution. Hence, the development of 

suitable alternave methods of cooling for heat stress alleviation in 

buffalo is essential. Limited available data suggest that covering the body 

trunk with wet cloth (Chikamune and Shimizu, 1985) and application of 

water on body surface (khnett, 1947) improved heat dissipation in the 

buffalo. Since water is a scarce resource, whch cannot be wasted, 

determination of an appropriate duration and frequency of cooling system 

which would effectively cool the animal is vital. This study was 

conducted to determine the most suitable duration and frequency of 

cooling that would effectively facilitate heat &ssipation and reduce the 

heat load in the water buffalo by evaluating the thermoregulatory 

responses to application and withdrawal of different cooling treatments. 


The study was conducted in the Department of hmal Science, 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka using 

indigenous buffalo heifers balanced by age (2.0 * 0.6 yr) and body weight 

(155.5 % 10.0 kg). After an adaptation period of 14 d, the following 

cooling treatments were applied at 1200 hr (for 5 d /treatment) using a 

minimum of 3 heifers/ treatment, and compared with no cooling (control):

E.R.K. Perera and AN.F Perera 

T, =dorsal trunk covered by wet gunnies, T, - T, = combinations of 30, 

60 or 90 sec (unit) sprinkling durations (USD), and 3 or 6 repeated 

sprinkler cycles (RSC) with 10 sec intervals between each, T, = 540 sec 

continuous sprinkling. A single nozzle hand sprinkler delivering 1500 

mU min placed at 1.6 m height and 1.2 m distance fiom the heifers was 

used for sprinkling of water. Except for the cooling treatments, other 

management practices were identical for all the heifers which were 

housed together. Measurements on skin temperature (ST) at mid-flank 

and shoulder, respiratory frequency (RR), heart rate (HR) and rectal 

temperature (Rp were obtained fiom individual heifers at -1 0,0, 15,30, 

45, and 60 min pre and post treatment. A thermistor probe attached to a 

tele-thermometer (Cole-Panner model 747), visual. counting of flank 

movements/min, and a stethoscope placed under the arm-pit were used 

to obtain ST and RT, and RR and HR, respectively. Ambient temperature 

(AT) and relative humidity @If) inside the barn during application of the 

treatments were recorded using a hygmthmograph (Cole-Parmer model 

SL 8368-50) placed at a height of 1.5 m inside the barn. Response to 

cooling (R) as estimated &om the differences in physiological parameters 

before (-10 min) and immediately after application of treatments were 

subjected to analysis of variance procedures. Regression analysis was 

performed on the physidogical responses to withdrawal of the treatments 

versus time, to determine the rate of change (C). Time taken to reach the 

pre-cooling physiologieal values was estimated by dividing R by C. 


Ambient Temperature and Relative Humidity 

Ambient temperature withtn the animal housing complex during 

different treatment periods ranged between 26.0°C and 3 1.7OC with a 

mean value of 30.6'C. The hfferences in mean AT among different 

treatment periods were not sipficant @>0.05). Similarly, RH ranged 

between 63% and 87% with a mean of 68%, and the differences between 

the mean RH of different treatment periods were not significant (p0.05). 

Thus, the estimated temperature-humidity index (THI) based on the AT

Effectiveness ofcooling in heat stress alleviation 

and RH that prevailed during different treatment periods were also not 

hfferent (p>O.O5), the mean value being 81*1.5. These meteorological 

indices show that even the da@me indoor conditions were warm and 

exceeded the THI of 80 during the treatment periods. 

Physiological Responses to Cooling Treatments 

The changes observed in different physiological parameters in 

response to application of different cooling treatments are gven in Table 

1. In the following discussion, the six different combinations of 30,60 

and 90 sec USD and 3 or 6 RSC will be designated as 3013,3016,6013, 

6016,9013 and 9016 respectively. 

Skin temperature: Mean ST reduced significantly (~~0.05) 

in response 

to application of aU the spr&er treatments (Table 1). It was not possible 

to monitor ST accurately after covering the dorsal trunk with gunny bags, 

hence these measurements were excluded. A 10 sec interval was allowed 

between consecutive RSC in every treatment. This resulted in spending 

additional 20 sec and 50 sec time period between RSC in treatments 

including 3 and 6 RSC respectively. Hence the 0 min physiologcal 

measurements were obtained after atotal of 110,230,200,410,290, and 

590 sec, fiom the commencement of applications of 3013, 3016, 6013, 

60/6,90/3 and 9016 sprinkler treatments respectively. Hence, substantial 

reductions in ST just after the completion of sprinkler applications were 

anticipated. The observed significant reductions in ST in response to all 

the sprinkler treatments indcated the effectiveness of sprinkling in 

increasing heat dissipation fiom the body surface. However, whether the 

resulting body surface cooling were adequate to trigger a signal to the 

higher centers of thermoregulation, to lower the deep body temperature 

effectively would be revealed after evaluating the responses of the other 

physiological indicators which reflect the interior thermal status of the 

body.

E.RK. Perera and AN.F Perera 

Table 1. Responses of physiological parameters to application of cooling 

treatments. 

Treatments Skin Temp. Resp. Rate Heart Rate Rectal Temp. 

("c) (per min.) (per min.) ("c) 

TI (G) 0.5 0.3 0.01 

Respiration rate: The mean RR reduced significantly (~10.05) in 

response to 30/6, 60/6, 90/3, 90/6 and 540 sec sprinkling treatments 

(Table 1). Despite the 14 d adaptation period allowed, the RR of heifers 

did not decrease, but increased insignificantly when covered with wet 

gunnies, possibly due to excitement. Respiration serves as an avenue for 

evaporatory heat loss in addition to its primary function of gas exchange. 

As the ambient temperature rises above the upper critical temperature, 

animals become increasingly dependent upon evaporation via sweat 

glands and respiratory tract to enhance heat loss. The dependency on 

evaporatory heat loss via the respiratory tract is greater in the buffalo 

because it has a relatively smaller population of sweat glands. If the heat 

load is reduced due to cooling, the demand for respiratory evaporation 

declines and as a result RR decreases. Significant reductions in RR in the 

buffalo in response to spray cooling have been reported (Chikamune and 

Shirnizu, 1985; Chikamune et al., 1986). 

In this experiment, the response of RR to cooling increased in 

magtutude and became significant as the frequency andlor duration of 

sprinkling was increased. For instance, as the USD increased from 30 sec 

to 90 sec, even 3 RSC caused significant reductions in RR, while at


lower USD (30 sec and 60 sec) only 6 RSC was effective in reducing RR. 

Similarly, despite having the same (180 sec) absolute total sprinkling 

duration (excluding the interval between RSC) in 3016 and 6013, RR was 

signtficantly reduced by 3016 but not by 6013 sprinkling (Table 1). The 

3016 treatment included 6 consecutive RSC, whereas the 6013 sprinkling 

treatment whch was non-effective included only 3 RSC. 

Heart rate: The mean HR of heifers reduced O, i 0.05) in response to 

3016, 6016, 9016 and 540 sprinkhng treatments. The other treatments 

were not effective (Table 1). Heart rate increases upon exposure to heat 

due to stimulation of peripheral vasodilation and augmentation of blood 

flow to the s h. Coohg facilitates heat dissipation and reduces the heat 

load in the animal, thereby lowering the demand for increased blood flow 

and Hk Reductions in HR of buffalo in response to water spraying have 

been reported previously (Chikamune and Shimim, 1985). In this 

experiment, sidcant reductions in HR in response to 3016,6016, 9016 

and 540 sprinkling suggested that these sprinkler treatments were more 

effective in facilitating heat dissipation and reducing the heat load in the 

animal. 

Rectal temperature: The RT of the animals were reduced (~~0.05) 

in 

response to 9016 and 540 sec sprinkling, while the other cooling 

treatments were not able to lower the RT sigmficantly (Table 1). Rectal 

temperature represents the deep body temperature, and is changed withn 

limits reflecting the thermal status of the body. Effective cooling 

improves the efficiency of heat dissipation mechanisms and thereby 

reduces the heat load resulting in a lower RT. The results of ths 

experiment indicate that, although every sprinkhng treatment tested was 

able to facilitate heat loss &om the body surface, only the 9016 and 540 

sec sprinkling treatments were capable in lowering the heat load of the 

animal effectively as evidenced by the significant reductions in all 

thermoregulatory inQcators in response to application of these two 

cooling treatments.

E.R.K. Perera and A.N.F Perera 

Physiological Responses to Withdrawal of the Treatments 

In the subsequent sections, the discussion will be limited to 

explain the observed changes in physiological parameters following 

withdrawal of the most effective cooling treatments (9016 and 540). 

Skin temperature: Following withdrawal of the 9016 treatment, the mean 

ST of heifers increased linearly @r0.01) fiom 3 1.4'C (at 0 min) to 35.2' 

C (at 60 min). Correspondingly, the ST of heifers subjected to 540 sec 

continuous sprinkling also increased (prO.O1) linearly from a mean value 

of 31.4' C at 0 min to assume a mean value of 35.6' C at 60 rnin 

following withdrawal of the treatment. The lowering of ST by sprinkler 

treatments created wider temperature gradients between the environment 

and skin (body surface), as well as between the core and the skin of the 

animal, both gradients favouring the flow of heat towards the skin. This 

would explain the observed increases in ST following the withdrawal of 

treatments. 

Regression analysis- of ST ("C) against time (min) after 

withdrawal of sprinkling revealed that the rate of increase in ST was not 

dfferent (0.0627 "C vs 0.0696 "C per min) between the two treatments. 

Regression equations representing the change of ST following withdrawal 

of the 9016 and 540 sprinkling treatments were Y = 3 1.97 + 0.06 X (9 = 

0.89) and Y = 32.09 + 0.07 X (? = 0.87), respectively. 

Respiration rate: The RR of the heifers subjected to 9016 sprinkling 

increased linearly (pr0.05) from a mean value of 23.7 respirationslmin 

(0 min) to 27.0 respirationslmin (60 min). In contrast, the RR of heifers 

sprinkled for 540 sec continued to decline (pi0.05) fbrther fiom a mean 

value of 23.7 respirationslmin at 0 min to a mean RR of 22.5 

respirationslmin at 30 min following withdrawal. Thereafter, the mean 

RR increased (p50.05) to reach 27.1 per min at 60 min (Figure 1). The 

sustained decrease in RR till 30 min following withdrawal of treatment 

rdected a long standing and effective reduction in heat load by treatment 

T8. Regression equations representing the above mentioned changes in 

RR (Figure 1) revealed that the RR of heifers subjected to 540 sec


continuous sprinkling treatment increased at a similar rate from 30 min 

to that of the heifers exposed to treatment T7, but kept a lower RR than 

with treatment T7 throughout the 60 min monitoring period. 

Figure 1. Change of respiration rate of heifers following withdrawal of 

sprinkling. 

Heart rate: Following the withdrawal of 9016 treatment, mean HR 

increased linearly bx0.05) fiom 58.9 beatslmin at 0 mn to 61.5 

beatslmin at 60 min. This change of HR over time (min) was represented 

by the regression equabon Y = 59.53 + 0.039 X (12 = 0.75). The mean 

HR of the heifers subjected to 540 sec continuous spnnkhng ranged 

between 57.4 and 58.5 beatslmin, and assumed a mean value of 58.1 

beatslrnin during the 60 min monitoring period. Heart rate fluctuates in 

the direction of the changes in peripheral vasodilation and blood flow to 

the skin. The maintenance of a lower HR by the 540 sec sprinkler group 

through 60 min implied that this treatment was more effective than 

treatment T7.

E.R.K. Perera and AN.F Perera 

Rectal temperature: The change of RT of the two treatment groups 

following the withdrawal of treatments is given in Figure 2. The mean 

RT of treatment T7 remained around 38.27"C with a rate of increase of 

0.00013 "Clmin (iW.50). In contrast, the RT of heifers subjected to 540 

sec continuous sprinkling declined (~~0.05) krther till 30 min following 

withdrawal to reach 37.g°C, and increased (~~0.05) thereafter at a rate 

of 0.0057"CImin (?= 0.99). The results suggested that 540 sec 

sprinkling was more effective than 9016 treatment in maintaining a lower 

RT following the withdrawal of treatments. 

Time (min.) 

9016 ........... 540 (conIinuous) 

Figure 2. Change oi-rectal temperature of heifers following withdrawal 

of sprinkling. 

Time taken to return to pre-cooling values: Based on the above 

observations on responses of physiologcal indicators to the application 

of the 9016 or 540 sec sprinkler treatments, and the rates of change of 

these parameters following the withdrawal of the treatments, the 

approximate time taken by the four parameters to reach the pre-cooling 

values were estimated. In calculating these values, the rate of change to 

reach pre-cooling values was assumed to be linear. According to these 

calculated (predicted) values, the ST, RR , HR and RT of the 9016 group

Efectiveness of cooling in heat stress alleviation 

of heifers would have reached the precooling values in approximately 68, 

128, 80 and 120 min respectively. The ST, RR, and RT of heifers 

subjected to 540 sec continuous sprinkling would have taken 73, 205, 

and 78 rnin to reach the pretreatment values. It was not possible to 

predict the time taken by the HR of this group to reach pre-cooling values 

because a representative regression line could not be derived due to the 

variation wib the treatment. The results suggest that the physiologtcal 

indicators did not reach their pre-sprinkling values 'after >60 min 

following the withdrawal of 9016 or 540 sec sprinkler treatments. Hence, 

if any of these two treatments were re-applied aRer 60 min, it would 

prevent the thermal status of the animal from rising, by facilitating heat 

dissipation and lowering heat load ion buffaloes. Based on these results, 

hourly application of either 9016 or 540 sec sprinkling is suitable to 

reduce the heat load in buffaloes at ambient conditions of > 8 2 THI. 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 

The results indicate that all the tested sprinkling treatments were 

effective in improving heat dtssipation fiom the body surface. hcreasing 

duration and frequency of sprinkling improved the efficiency of cooling. 

Out of the 8 tested cooling methods, 9016 and 540 sec continuous 

sprinkling were the most effective. These two treatments were able to 

maintain the physiologtcal parameters at a lower level for 260 min 

following withdrawal of the treatments. Hourly application of any of 

these two sprinkler treatments when THI is 281 is suggested to facilitate 

heat dissipation and lowering the heat load in buffaloes and to prevent 

heat stress 


The authors gratefhlly acknowledge the Swedish Agency for 

Research Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC) for funding 

the research and the Natural Resources Energy and Science Authority of 

Sri Lanka (NARESA) for administration of hnds.

References 

E.R.K. Perera and A.N.F Perera 

Cbikamune, T., Kanai, Y., Lchikawa, T., Hamma, H. and Shirmzu, H., (1986) 

Influence of solar radiation and effects of water spray on 

thermoregulatory responses and heat production in swamp buffaloes. 

Jap. J. Trop. Agric. 31,l-11. 

Chikamune, T. and Shimizu, H: (1985) Covering of body trunks with white 

cloth effects on thermoregulatory responses. BufSalo J. 1, 1 9-27. 

Minett, F.C. (1947) Effects of artificial shower, natural rain and wallowing on 

body temperature of animals. J. Anim. Sci. 6, 35-49.

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF LANKAN 

BUFFALOES TO DEHYDRATION 

A. A. J. Rajaratnel and S. S.E. Ranawana2 

'Department of Physiology, Faculty -of Medicine, 


2Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya 

SRI LANKA 

Abstract: Buffaloes are widely known as shade and water loving animals. 

However, they also possess a remarkable ability to thrive under dry conditions. 

The main objective of this study was to investigate responses of buffaloes to 

dehydration. 

Water balance was studied in four one year old female Sri Lankan 

buffaloes (mean body weight = 142.8 kg) by measuring water intake and water 

output. Total mean water intake, output and balance in the normal hydration 

was 21.8 llday, 19.4 llday and 2.32Vday respectively. Feed and urine water 

output was 5.34 Vday and 5.20 Vday respectively. The figure for water balance 

(2.32 Vday) represents water loss by cutaneous and respiratory evaporation. 

When the animals were dehydrated by withholding water until they 

lost 7% of their body weights, the urine output was 595 mllday. This value 

could be considered as the obligatory urine volume for Lankan buffaloes., 

Faecal water output during dehydration was 1.2 Vday. 

These results show the ability of buffaloes to conserve water both by 

urinary and faecal routes as a response to dehydration. 

Keywoods : Buffalo, water balance, dehydration

Session I1 - Genotype and Environment 


Q: W. Perera - How do the cattle and buffalo banks function in Thailand? 

A: C. Chantalakhana - The cattle and buffalo banks in Thailand were 

formed to help the poor rural farmers. Generally, during the cultivation 

period there is a big demand for buf€alces. Due to this heavy demand, the 

rates for hiring buffaloes are also high during this period, and affect the 

poor farmers. In order to reduce the burden during the cultivation period, 

the banks were formed with the help of NGOs. They are managed by the 

farmers and this helps the farmers to hire animals at a cheaper rate. 

Q: M. G. Jeyaruban - How is the bull performance testing programme 

conducted in Thailand? 

A: C. Chantalakhana - The bulls are selected at the government farms for 

draught traits. The top grade bulls are kept as farm replacements, and the 

second grade bulls are issued to farmers. In the meantime the best 

performers or "champion bulls" are purchased fiorn the farmers and added 

to the top grade at the government farms. The programme is not very 

successful at the present time, mainly due to the availability of artificial 

insemination facilities and the preference by farmers for Murrah crosses 

over the local buffaloes. 

Q: B.M AO. Perera - How are the breeding bulls distributed to farmers? 

A: C. Chantalakhana - After the selection of elite bulls the second grade 

bulls are sold to farmers or given on loan. Majority of the buffaloes are 

sold to farmers on the condition that the animals should be used only for 

breeding purposes. The major problem encountered is that the farmers 

like to use these animals to breed their own cows and cows of their 

relatives, but not those of the neighbours. 

Q: T.N. Jayatilake - What type of characters are looked for in the 

breeding programme? 

A: C. Chantalakhana - Farmers want to have buffaloes mainly for 

draught purposes. They like an animal with black coat colour and large 

horns. As the appearance of the bull is not known with AI, the farmers 

are reluctant to use this method.

Session I/ - Genotype and environment 

Q: T.N. Jayatilake - Is heat detection a major problem in buffaloes in 

Thailand? 

A: C. Chantalakhana - No. As the herd size is about 2 to 3 cows, heat 

detection is not a major problem. 

Q: T.N. Jayatilake - How is natural service carried out in Thailand? 

A: C. Chantalakhana - The cows are brought to the bull breeding station 

for natucal service. 

Comment: V. Momongm - In the Philippines buffaloes are distributed 

over a vast land area and it is really difficult to artificially inseminate all 

the cows. In order to overcome this problem, about 100 breedable 

females are synchronized and artificially inseminated at the same time. 

In Indonesia the livestock technicians visit the villages at regular 

intervals. In order to facilitate the visits of the technicians, different 

coloured flags are used to indicate the requirements in a herd. A red flag 

is used to indicate a sick animal while a blue flag is used to indicate an 

animal in heat. 

Comment: C. Devendra - In order to achieve better results in research 

and development regarding buffaloes, they should be looked at with a 

broader vision on an interdisciplinary approach. The systems approach 

should be adopted to include buffalo and crop production in the overall 

production system. 

Comment: S.K. Ranjhan - Research and development in the buffalo 

sector should be undertaken with the concurrence of fmers. The 

fmers' views should always be cansidered in research, and the 

constraints in each particular region should be taken into consideration 

in transferring technologies to farmers. 

Q: T.N. Jayatilake - What would be the effect of humidity as a stress 

factor in buffalo? 

A: A.A.J. Rajaratne - If an animal is losing heat through evaporation 

loss, the animal will definitely be &ected by high humidity. As buffaloes 

lose heat by wallowing, they appear to be less effected by the rise in 

humidity. But earlier studies have shown that humidity has an influence 

as a stress factor in buffalo because it hinders evaporative loss. 

Q: T.N. Jayatilake - Farmers use buffaloes to thresh paddy in the night. 

Is thts done in order to reduce stress in buffalo?

Discussion 

A: A.A.J. Rajaratne - We should consider the temperature humidity 

index with regard to buffaloes as the influence is regarded to be high. 

Buffalo has a dark coat colour and direct sunlight could be absorbed 

through the skin. The earlier studies at Undugoda, which were conducted 

during the rainy season, showed that buffaloes were stressed to a lesser 

extent when they were exposed to low temperature and high humid~ty 

than to hgh temperature and hgh humid~ty. Humidity plays a secondary 

role. 

Q: B.MA.0. Perera - Buffaloes are used in very muddy lands and their 

legs as well as lower body get wet during plouglung. Does this have any 

influence in reducing the stress in buffaloes? 

A: A.A.J. Rajaratne - Yes. Even if buffaloes were to plough from 

morning till evening, they do not show stress. Heat stress is mainly due 

to accumulation of heat in the body rather than to work stress. Working 

in wet conditions has adefinite Influence in reducing stress in the buffalo. 

When buffaloes were ploughing in muddy land they were covered with 

mud, the rectal temperature increased by only 1°C and the respiration rate 

and heart rate remained at a low level. Therefore, the ploughing 

conditions where water is available reduces the stress factor in buffaloes. 

Q: S.S.E. Ranawana - The buffalo is well known for its labile body 

temperature. Is there any close link between rectal temperature and 

respiration rate in buffalo during ploughing? 

A: A.A.J. Rajaratne - Generally body temperature has an effect on the 

respiratory center in the brain. But in buffalo, when the water is poured 

over it, the respiratory rate decreases without a similar effect on the rectal 

temperature. This may be due to some thermo receptors in the slun, 

which effects the respiratory centre in the brain. 

Q: C. Chantalakhana - We generally tend to look at the effects of 

temperature on stress. I am glad to note that both temperature and 

humidity have been considered in this study. The temperature humidity 

index is more meaningfull. The question that comes to mind is how 

much can you reduce the respiration rate and heart rate and what is the 

critical level at which the working ability of the animal is effected? At 

farm level, what kind of recommendation can be given because sprinkling 

would not be practical? 

A: E.R.K. Perera - The temperature humidity index in this study was 

between 77 to 83. I feel that as animals are more comfortable working

Session II - Genotype and environment 

during the morning hours, we could try to reduce the levels to those found 

is the morning hours. 

Q: S.S.E. Ranawana - Ifyou want to see the effect of temperature on 

rectal temperature and other physiological parameters, the animals should 

be heat stressed. Would you say that the animals were heat stressed in 

your experiment, because the animals were under the shade and the 

temperature was in the range of 25 to 27°C ? This is a field situation. 

A: E.R.K. Perera - In the previous experiment I found that the diurnal 

variation in skin temperature of the buffalo was more than the changes in 

cattle. 

Q: S.S.E. Ranawana - Generally buffaloes are considered shade and 

water loving animals and therefore susceptible to water deprivation. But 

in dry areas in Australia buffaloes show good adaptability. Was the 

osmotic pressure measured in the urine of buffalo and if so what was the 

average osmotic pressure of buffalo urine? 

A: A. A. J. Rajaratne - The osmotic pressure was not measured in this 

study. But the specific gravity was measured and the value for specific 

gravity was 1.05. This is the maximum value that any animal can 

achieve. 

Q: S. S.E. Ranawana - Did you measure the moisture content of the 

buffalo faeces? 

A: A.A.J. Riyaratne - The dry matter content of faeces had 50% moisture 

content. Despite that animals were eating and ruminating and dld not 

show evidence of stress. 

Q: K.K. Pathkana - What would be the effect of water intake on the feed 

intake and subsequent milk production in buffalo? 

A: A.A.J. Rajaratne - Since ths study was based on non-lactating 

animals it is difficult to extrapolate the result to a lactating cow. 

Restricting water to lactating animals might have some influence on the 

milk production. The lower water intake may lead to a more concentrated 

milk in buffalo. 

Q: H. Abeygunawardena - Can the result fiom this research be used to 

find the minimum requirement of water to get the optimum production?

Disoussion 

A: A.A.J. Rajaratne - It is very difficult to determine this fiom the 

present study. But &re studies will be conducted to find this affect.

NEW CONCEPI'S. AND STRATEGIES IN THE 

UTILIZATION OF FIBROUS CROP RESIDUES WCR) 

AND AGRB-INDUSTRIAL BY PRODUCTS (AIBP) IN 

BtrnALO FEEDING 

N. V. Thu 

Faculty of Animal Hurbandry and Veterinary Medicine, 

Cantho University, Cantho 

P7ErnAM 

Abstract: Under increasing human population pressure, the need for strategies 

for the efficient use and development of feeding systems based on fibrous 

residues and agm-industrial by products for buffaloes should be realized in Asia. 

China is a good example for learning the concepts of using FICR and AIBP to 

produce meat and save grain for human beings. The research and application 

under the field coriditions of FICR and AIBP utilization for feeding ruminants 

is not only based on advances in knowledge on animal feeding and nutrition, but 

also on the benefits of re-cycling available local feed resources to the economy 

and the environment Sustainable integrated farming systems practised by rural 

small-holders are based on the utilization of crop wastes and by products, such 

as cereal straws, maize stovers, sugarcane tops, bagasse, molasses, pineapple 

waste and groundnut vines by the ruminant animal. Buffaloes are known to 

utilize poor quality roughages more e5ciently than cattle, and in developing 

countries small fanners commonly use crop wastes and byproducts to feed 

animals, especially buffaloes. Burning of straw and stubble or other agro- 

industrial by products is wasteful, creates pollution and sometimes causes 

serious accidents. 

Bu€hlo raising as part of small farm agricultural systems has positive 

effects on social and economic sustainabrlity, and consequently on rural 

development. One of the major reasons why rural people choose to remain in 

villages rather than go to work in cities is that they have to look after their 

buffaloes or other livestock. 

Keywords: Fibrous crop residues, ago-industrial by products, buffalo, 

environment, social and economic sustainability.

Strategies for agro industrial by product utilization 

INTRODUCTION 

In many developing tropical countries, ruminants including 

buffalo and cattle are fed on straw fiom cereal crops (mainly rice and 

wheat). As population pressure increases and the land area devoted to 

food crop production is extended, the use of crop residues and by 

products for animal feeding will increase. In some countries with 

specialized livestock production systems, straw is considered of such low 

feed value that it is often burnt. But in developing countries where 

livestock is integrated with mopping it is a valuable resource (Preston and 

Leng, 1987). 

Draught animals appear to be able to work and to maintain body 

condition on a diet mainly of straw. In Vietnam, most often working 

buffaloes lose body weight during the worlung time because the main 

feed is the rice stubble in the fields and supplemented with rice straw at 

night. This results in reduced working capacity of the animals. In very 

extreme cases, farmers sell or slaughter their animals because of poor 

health (Thu and Hon, 1992). In Thailand, studies show that buffaloes are 

raised mainly on native feedstuffs and seasonal agricultural by products. 

Farmers do pay attention to their animals, especially the working ones as 

evidenced by the conservation of feed and forage and non-conventional 

feeds for use during times of scarcity. Variations of feed quality also exist 

throughout the year which can Influence the performance of these animals 

(Wanapat, 1991). 

Ago-industrial by products (AIBP) produced in many Asian 

countries have been used extensively. However, some of these resources 

have only limited application as a basal component in livestock feeds (eg: 

bagasse, palm pressed fibre, cocoa pods and rice hulls). The limitation of 

all these feed resources is the extremely low digestibility and, even when 

supplemented with essential nutrients, the intake is too low to support 

maintenance (Tables 1 and 2). Most of these residues arise fiom 

industrial processing and are therefore available in large quantities only 

at the factory site. The availability of the by products at the factory is an 

incentive towards finding ways of using them as ruminant feeds by

N. V. Thu 

'relatively sophisticated' technologies to increase the digestibility such as 

briquetting, steam treatment and ammoniation. 

Table 1. Some ageindustrial fibrous residues in Asian countries. 

(Oh in dry matter) 

Ash 

Sugarcane bagasse 

Banana stemltrunk 5.3 0.2 1.5 1.1 

Cassava leaves 100.0 23.2 21.9 7.8 

Corn cobs 92.2 3 .O 34.6 2.4 

Corn stover 89.0 4.5 32.0 7.1 

Cotton seed hulls 100.0 4.4 38.0 2.8 

Groundnut hulls 100.0 6.2 45.7 11.1 

Groundnu t straw 100.0 8.1 40.6 8.7 

Rice hulls 90.4 2.5 38.0 19.3 

Rice straw 92.6 3.7 31.4 21.2 

Sorghum stover 90.8 8.3 33.3 7.3 

Sugarcane tops silage 24.8 1.7 7.7 2.2 

Pineapple pulp 22.5 1.2 6.6 0.8 

Coconut leaf blades 40.3 5.3 10.3 - 

Sources: Gerpacio and Castillo, 1979; Devendra, 1979; Ranjhan, 1980; 

Castillo, 1983a. 

CONCEPTS OF USING FICR AND AIBP 

Two events will influence, profoundly, the role of livestock in 

farming systems in developing countries in the next century. The first is 

the projected doubling of the world population, which wil be most 

evident in the developing world. The second is the increasing aspirations 

in developing countries to acquire those amenities taken for granted in 

developed countries. Economic development will result in a massive 

increase in demand for energy. Yet the reserves of fossil fuel are likely to 

last less than 30 years ( Economist, 1994 quoted by Preston, 1995).

! Strategies for agro industrial by product lctl'lizahahon 

Table 2. Availability of some selected crop residues and agro-industrial 

by products in Asia and the P dc. 

Crop Residues and Production Production 

by products (lo6 tomes) (% of world) 

Rice broken 16.8 90.7 

bran 37.4 90.7 

husk 59.8 90.7 

straw 373.7 90.7 

Cassava leaves 5.9 38.0 

waste 28.0 38.0 

Cotton seed meal 8.0 43.8 

Groundnut meal 6.4 62.3 

Maize germ meal 15.0 19.4 

stover 64.0 19.4 

Sesame cake 0.8 67.3 

Sorghum stover 13.5 29.3 

Soya bean soya bean meal 7.3 10.8 

Sugarcane bagasse 48.6 41.2 

green tops 68.0 41.2 

molasses 12.6 41.2 

Wheat bran 14.6 30.3 

stover 145.7 10.03 

Source: Wanapat, 1991 

The justification for.making better use of FICR and AIBP is 

supported by the following: 

* There wilkbe a competing demand for cereal grains - currently 

the basis of livestock production in the more developed 

countries. For example, in recent years China has increased the 

use of fibrous residues to produce beef in an effort to save grain 

for human consumption (Tingshuang et al., 1995). 

* Increasing importance to the production and utilization of 

renewable forms of energy, especially biomass. Natural

N. V. Thu 

renewable resources will have to be used more efficiently, and 

the farming system will need to create more employment 

opportunities. 

* Mechanization will be increasingly based on animal rather than 

mechanical power (Preston, 1995). Buffaloes in Asia are truly 

multi-purposeanimals for work, meat, milk and manure (biogas 

and fertilim) (Mathers et al., 1985). They can adapt to the new 

situations. 

* Observatians under field conditions indicate that buffaloes thrive 

better than do cattle on coarse fodder. One special characteristic 

of feeding buffaloes on FICR and AIBP is that they are less 

discriminating in foraging and therefore consume a larger 

quantity of coarse fodder, not readily eaten by cattle 

(Bhattacharya, 1990). Langer et al., 1968; (quoted by 

Bhattacharya, 1990) reported that when the ration was deficient 

in carbohydrate the rumen microbes in buffaloes could utilize 

dietary protein more efficiently. 

STRATEGIES FOR THE- USE OF FICR AND AIBP FOR 

FEEDING BUFFALOES 

The role afbufFaloes and cattle must increasingly be a secondary 

scavenging one, to make use of byproducts and residues that might 

otherwise be wasted (Table 3). lfthe available resource is cereal straw, 

or cane tops or bagasse, it makes economic and ecological sense to offer 

twice the feed biomass that the animal can be expected to consume and 

utilize the less nutritious residue as fuel or as litter which will eventually 

be recycled into the soil and provide energy for N-fixing and methane- 

oxidising microorganisms, or burned directly as fuel.


Table 3. Potential supply of roughage (thousand tomes) from some crop 

by products in Southern and South-east Asia. 

Crop by products South-east 

Asia 

hce straw 

Matze, aerial 

Sorghum 

Cassava 

Sugarcane bagasse 

Sugarcane tops 

Palm press fibre 

Peanut, aerial parts 

Pineapple process 

residue dehyd. 

Pineapple process 

residue 

Wheat and barley 

straw 

Indian sub- Total 

continent 

When fibre-rich crop residues and byproducts are the primary 

feed resource for ruminants, feeding strategies must be based on a clear 

understanding of the relative roles and nutritional needs of rumen 

microorganisms and of the host animal. The advances in ruminant 

nutntion that are most applicable to the animals managed by resource- 

poor farmers in tropical developing countries have untd now been 

scattered through the scientific literature. 

GUIDELINES FOR OPTIMIZING UTILIZATION OF 

TROPICAL FEED RESOURCES 

The proposed strategy considers the buffaloes and cattle as 

composed of two subsystems: the rumen and the animal.

Feeding the Rumen Microbes 

N. V. Thu 

Ammonia is needed in the rumen to maximize digestibility and 

intake by the animals. There is also a need for macro and micro- 

minerals (P, S and Co), also some micro-nutrients (amino acids, 

peptides, etc.). It is necessary to optimize the ecosystem in the rumen 

for promoting rapid colonization and maximize the rate of intake of 

fermentable carbohydrate. The other approach is to treat crop residues 

with ammonia, or other alkalies or other treatments (steam or 

microbiology). 

Feeding the Animal 

The aim is to increase the proteintenergy (PE) in the nutrients 

absorbed for metabolism by increasing the efficiency of rumen function, 

supplying bypass protein, controlling protozoans by using shrub 

foliages and reducing the external heat load. In the tropics there is a 

greater response by ruminants to supplementation strategies as 

compared with responses in temperate countries, and generally the 

requirements for protein (amino acids) per unit energy substrate wil be 

greater for ruminants in the tropics than for those in temperate 

environments. 

FICR AND AIBP AS ANIMAL FEED 

Although the meals made fiom leaves may have a high content 

of true protein in relation to crude protein, fibrous agreindustrial 

residues in general have low protein and high fibre as with rice and 

wheat straws, stovers of sorghum, millets and maize and sugarcane 

bagasse fiom sugarcane processing (Table 1). Many non-conventional 

feed resources have been identified and are now being utilized by the 

compounded feed industry (Castillo, 1983a; Acharya, 1993). Examples 

of these are aga-industrial by products, of which molasses is the most 

important. Other by products include pulp fiom citrus, pineapple and

Strategies for agro industrial by product utlutllization 

the sisal industries and rejected h it and h it wastes (Preston and Leng, 

1987). 

Over the period 1977 to 1990,27 meetings were held on the use 

of fibrous crop residues in Asia, without any discernible impact at 

farmer level. There is a need to formulate and demonstrate rural-oriented 

strategies that will gve priority to the on-farm use of local resources.. 

Extending the mformation an fibrous crop residues to on-farm situations 

is considered in two phases: 

- The information needed by farmers and their advisers, 

- Mechanisms for delivering infiation to farmers 

The benefits of addressing these phases more thoroughly will 

increase the current level of animal production and the socio-economic 

status of the rural poor @evendra, 1993). 

Rice, Wheat, Corn and other Cereal Fibrous Residues 

In Asia, especially in South-east Asia, there are abundant crop 

residues (Table 3) available for ruminant feeding. However, the intake 

and digestion offibrous roughage by ruminants is limited by the rate of 

breakdown of feed particles, mainly by chewing, but also through micro 

fermentation in the rumen. Alternatives available to improve the intake 

and digestibility of fibrous roughage range fiom feeding at the proper 

stages and providing supplements (additional nitrogen, readily available 

carbohydrate and minerals) and to treat the roughage by physical, 

chemical or biological means (Na Phuket, 1993). 

In the Philippines, chopping of rice straw or corn stover 

increased the voluntary intake of the roughages by buffaloes; soaking of 

the chopped feeds did not further increase intake (Doyle, 1982 quoted 

by Na Phuket, 1993). By using an alkali (such as sodium hydroxide, 

calcium hydroxide, ammonia, etc.) the bonds between hemicellulose 

and lignin and lignin and silica can be broken, removing the physical

N. V. Thu 

barrier to digestion (Davis et al., 1983). Arnmoniation is a preferred 

treatment because it provides both the alkali effect and nitrogen for 

microbial fermentation. It can be generated from urea or urine. Urea is 

easily transported and available in remote villages. According to 

information provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, the quantity of 

straw treated m China since 1985 has risen sharply. When used for beef 

production, 6 million tonnes of treated rice straw could produce over 

300,000 tonnes of carcass meat (Dolberg and Finlayson, 1995). 

Treatment of roughages has become very popular at the village 

level. Urea is however expensive to buy and farmers must determine 

how to obtain the best return fiom their investment. Nitrogen is a 

hdarnental component of the fanning system. It should not be wasted 

by practices such as the burning of dung, but should be recycled through 

crops, livestock, bio digesters and fish ponds. 

The importance of urea in straw-based diets is demonstrated by 

an experiment in which rice straw was sprayed with 10% molasses 

alone or containing 1,2 or 3% urea, sundried and then fed to female 

buffaldes the following day. The addition of molasses alone did not 

significantly sect intake or weight change but the addition,of urea to 

molasses at various levels slightly increased daily feed intake and 

decreased weight loss in all animals (Suriyajuntratong et al., 1974). 

Concerning the biotechnological approaches to straw utilization 

by microbial systems, the biodegr&on of lignin and ligno-cellulose by 

white rot hngi (actinomycete) has been studied. However, the results 

obtained so far show the need for further studies on genetic 

improvement of specific microbial strains, control of fermentation as 

well as understanding of the fundamental enzyme systems, before field 

application is possible (Neelakantan and Deodhar, 1993). Where basal 

&ets of poor quality, such as rice straw or other crop residues were fed, 

buffaloes responded less to concentrate feeding than cattle. Thus, 

supplementation schemes should rely on supplying essential nutrients 

to roughage-based diets, preferably using roughage as supplements, 

such as legume crop residues or forage legumes produced on farms.


Sugarcane By products 

When complemented with rumen bypass supplements, sugar 

cane tops will support live weight gains in the order of 700 g/d in 

fattening cattle and 3000 litres lactational yield in milking animals 

(Ferreiro et al., 1977 and Boodm et al., 1990a quoted by Preston and 

Murgpeito, 1992). It is ~rnportant to enmurage selection, by offering the 

animal quantities of tops which exceed the expected intake by at least 

50%. Under such circumstances, animals have been observed to select 

preferentially the growing point of the cane and to reject in large part, 

the leaf blade (Preston and Murgueito, 1992). Pregnant and lactating 

buffaloes and cattle used for work when fed with cane tops and grass, 

urea-molasses block and rice bran, sustained work and milk production 

(Thu, 1994). Cane tops can be ensiled with and without molasses and 

fed to cattle, sheep and goats (Castillo, 1983b). In Colombia, fiesh 

sugar cane tops are usually chopped and then mixed with other forages 

to feed animals or is fed alone. 

Carabaos (swamp buffaloes in the Philippines) seem to digest 

better than cattle the nutrients in the rations containing 60 per cent 

bagasse and 1 percent urea or 40% bagasse and 2 percent urea. 

Furthermore, carabaos had better nitrogen retention on both rations than 

cattle (Roxas eta/., 1969). In Brazil, where the integration of sugar and 

alcohol production results in large surpluses of bagasse, it is reported 

that more than 200,000 cattle are fed with steam hydrolysed bagasse 

(Preston and Murgueito, 1992). Alkaline hydrolysis of factory bagasse 

with sodium hydroxide is also an effective method of upgrading the 

bagasse (Martin et al., 1977). The bagasse fiom artisan sugar 

production contains some 25% of soluble sugars in dry matter. This 

raises the total dry matter digestibility to almost 55% (Preston and 

Murgueito, 1992). Yuan et a/. (1995) reported that when bagasse was 

treated with 5% ofNaOH, 0.8 % of urea and 15% of molasses and then 

ensiled for one month, the digestibility in cattle was 21% higher for the 

treated ration than the untreated ones. The fermentation process of 

bagasse residue from sugar production changes the energy feed to 

protein feed. It has been claimed that the protein content of bagasse can

e increased by 200% by fermentation and that the use of fermented 

bagasse residue to replace soybean meal as feed for dairy cattle can 

reduce feed cost by 40% and increase milk production by 5.2% (Jintong, 

1995). 

Molasses is a "cdncentrated" source of fmentable carbohydrate 

that is widely available in the tropics. It can be used as a basis of 

intensive cattle fattening and as a carrier for urea, minerals and other 

nutrients (multi-nutritional blocks) (Preston and Leng, 1987). Molasses 

can be mixed with urea and directly sprayed on rice straw for feeding 

cattle and buffaloes. The use of molasses-urea cake for feeding worlung 

buffaloes can improve working capacity and health (Thu et al., 1995). 

Sansoucy (1 995) reported that the various studies recently undertaken 

in ClifEerent parts of the world concerning the manufacture and utilization 

of multinutrient blocks have led to real progress in the technology and 

its use. 

Other Agro-industrial By products 

When banana fiuits are graded for export, up to 25% may be 

rejected. They can be used for fattening cattle (Castillo, 1983b). 

Buffaloes and cattle also like to eat banana leaves and pseudo stems. In 

fruit canning plants, pineapple crowns, pulp and peel are the by 

products. In the Philippines, average daily weight gains of 0.38 and 

0.48 kg were obtained when cattle were fed with pineapple pulp and 

pineapple leaf silage, respectively. In China, farmers obtain pineapple 

peel from the plants, then incubate under plastic covers to preserve it for 

gradual use. Banana peel is also a feed resource for cattle and buffaloes 

in Vietnam. Many fiuit fibrous residues have yet to be tapped for their 

better utilization (for example, mango and water melon). 

It is relevant to keep in view the amounts of FICR including 

AIBP and non-conventional feed resources (NCFR) that are generated 

in Asian countries. The total availability of these from field and tree 

crops is about 2098 x lo6 tonnes of dry matter, which increases at the 

rate of 2.9% per annum. The uses of AIBP and NCFR in Asia are


accordant to their potential value and importance for individual species 

of animals. The bulk of the FICR is dry and of poor quality and only 

useful for low or mediumlevels of production and for draft animals 

(Devendra, 1993). In the context of "matching Livestock systems to 

available resources" there is a need to promote closer cooperation 

between farmers and scientists. Important developments have been 

made recently in dual purpose systems for cattle production. However, 

in the case of buffalo production (especially, milk and meat), there is a 

need for more research to demonstrate the advantages of this species in 

using fibrous crop residues and by products. 

Management of tropical forages and utilization of crop residues 

poses real problems, because of their low and rapid changes in quality. 

This d Wy effects animal productivity. For example, if corn stover is 

fed to animals directly at the time of harvest, the nutritive value of corn 

stover will not decline as much as when it is left in the field until the 

whole plot is harvested, before using it for grazing. Even though 

buffaloes have advantages over cattle, goat and sheep in the utilization 

of low quality feeds as FICR (Mc Dowell, 1985), for maximum 

production efficiency, feeding of forage alone is not enough (Eusebio, 

1975 quoted by Na Phuket, 1993). 

The availability of fibrous residues varies depending on the 

status of agricultural development. Countries with more advanced 

agriculture systems generally have more residues per hectare from 

&ent crops. Although many of the fibrous residues have been used 

in the past, there is a need to improve the efficiency of utilization. Other 

residues which have not yet been used and have potential as feed should 

be investigated. Buffalo production in Asian countries plays a very 

important role for work, meat, milk and manure, therefore there is a need 

for more research and development in utilization of FICR and AIBP for 

buffalo feeding, and thereby increase their usefulness, augment the 

income of villagers and minimize environmental pollution.

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N. V. Thu 

Acharya, R M (1993) Livestock production systems, animal feeding and feed 

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Bhattacharya, P. (1990) Buffalo. In: An Introduction to Animal Husbandry 

in Tropics. Co-published in New York, USA. pp 421-47 1. 

Castillo, L. S. (1983a) Feeding value of crop residues of food crops grown in 

rice-based farming systems. In: Asian Cropping 1983. IRRl, Los 

Banos, Laguna, Philippines pp 385-406 

Castillo, L.S. (1983b) Current utilization of fibrous residues in Asian 

countries. The Utilization of Fibrous Agricultural Residues. pp 

33-49. 

Davis, C.H., Saadullah, M., Dolberg, F. and Haque, M. (1983) Ammonia 

treatment of rice straw for cattle production in intensive agrarian 

agriculture. Proc. Fourth Seminar on Maximum Livestock 

Production on Minimum Land, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. pp 1-25 

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and Development Institute, Serdang, Selangor. 

Devendra, C. (1993) Fibrous crop residues: strategy for the efficient use and 

development of feeding systems. In: Feeding of Ruminants on 

Fibrous Crop Residues. pp 8-20. 

Dolberg, F. and Finlayson, P. (1995) Treated straw for beef production in 

China. World Animal Review 13-24. 

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Philippines feedstuffs. Technical Bulletin 21, 1 17 

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In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on 

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China. 

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A.J. (1985) The use of draught cows in agricultural systems with 

particular reference to their nutritional needs. In: Milk Production in 

Developing Countries. Ed. k J. Smith. Edinburgh University Press. 

pp 476-496. 

Martin, P.C., Cabello, k and Elias, A (1977) The use of fibrous sugarcane 

byproducts by ruminants. 11. Effect of NaOH-pressure combination 

on the digestibility and chemical composition of bagasse and bagasse 

pith. International Sugar Journal 79,236.


Mc Dowell, RE. (1 985) Meeting constraints to livestock production systems 

in Asia. In: Proceding of the Reglonal Worhhop on Lwestock 

Production Management. Asian Development Bank, Manila. 

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Produotion. World Animal Science Volume C6, Elsevier, 

Amsterdam. 

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straw utihation by microbial systems for feed and industrial 

purposes. In: Feeding of Ruminant on Fibrous Crop Residues. Eds. 

K. Singh and J.B. Schiere. pp 248-257. 

Preston, T.R and Leng, Rk (1987) Guideline for feeding systems & agoindustrial 

byproducts. In: Matching Ruminant Production Systems 

with Available Resources mt the Troplcs and Sub-Tropics. 

PENAMBUL Books Ltd., Annidale NSW, Australia. pp 103- 158. 

Preston, T.R (1995) Sugarcane for feed and fuel: recent developments. World 

Animal Review 82, 84-89. 

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Publishing House, New Delhi, India 

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nitrogen balance by oattle, carabaos and sheep. Animal Sci. 6, 33- 

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Sansoucy, R (1995) New developments in the manufacture and utilization of 

multinutrient blocks. World Animal Review 82, 78-83. 

Suriyajuntratong, W., Susksuchok, J., Pollarp, S., Sarapol, S. and Pison, U. 

(1974) The utilization of rice straw by water buffalo when 

supplemented with molasses andurea The Kesetsart Journal 8,103. 

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feed development in China In: Proceedings of the Second 

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sugarcane in Colombia. M.Sc. Thesis. Swedish University of 

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Thu, N.V., Dong, N.T.K., Hon, N.V., Quac, V.A and Preston, T.R. (1995) 

Effect of Molasses-urea cake on performance of growing and working 

local buffaloes and cattle fed low nutritive value diet. In: 

Proceedings of The Second International Conference on Increasing 

Animal Production with Local Resources. Zhanjiang, China. 

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beginning of raining season. Selected Works of Scientific Research. 

Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Vet. Med. University of Cantho. 

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Proceeding ofthe International Workshop on Increasing Livestock 

Productiofi by making better use of Local Feed Resources, Vietnam. 

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Second International Conference on Increasing Animal Production 

with Local Resources. Zhanjiang, China

DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMS OF SUPPLEMENTARY 

FEEDING FOR BUFFALOES IN SRI LANKA 

S. Premaratne and A. Sivaram 


University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 

SRI LANKA 

Abstract: Improving the productivity of the domestic buffalo is an urgent 

necessity for the Sri Lankan economy. Productivity of these animals mainly 

depend on the availability of quality feed throughout the year. Therefore, the 

objective of this study was to develop systems of supplementary feeding for 


Experiments were conducted with four rumen fistulated male buffaloes 

to study the intake, digestibility and growth response of buffaloes fed rice 

(Olyza satzva) straw, supplemented with non-protein nitrogen and energy. 

Treatments consisted of 2% urea supplemented straw or plain straw with or 

without Jak (Artocapus hetemphyllus) seeds. Feed offered, refused and faeces 

excreted were measured and the dry matter intake and digestibility were 

calculated. Urine was collected to measure the nitrogen balance in animals. 

Animals were weighed before and after the experiment. Effect of these 

treatments on volatile fatty acid production, rumen ammonia and pH were also 

measured. Experiments were also conducted to study the effect of different 

fodders on dry matter intake of straw by milking buffrloes. 

Dry matter intake of urea supplemented straw with jak seeds was 

higher compared to that with plain straw (102 vs 87 g/kg w'~), whereas dry 

matter digestibility of plain straw with jak seeds was higher compared to plain 

straw (56% vs 48%). Inclusion of jak seeds improved the weight gain of 

buffaloes. Inclusion of fodders increased the straw dry matter intake by milking 

animals-and the effect was promiuent with glyncidia. In conclusion, it is evident 

that supplementation of straw based diets with urea and glyricidia improved the 

intake, digestibility and growth of buffaloes. 

Keywords: Buffaloes, supplementary feeding, rice straw, fodder trees, urea 

feeding

Development of supplementary feeding systems 

INTRODUCTION 

The buffalo is an important source of draught power and to a 

limited extent a source of milk. Improving the productivity of these 

animals is an urgent need for the Sri Lankan economy. Unlike cattle, 

buffaloes are not widely distributed but are more concentrated in some 

regions of the country. In fact 70% of the buffalo population is in eight 

districts namely; Kurunegala, Anuradhapura, Hambantota, Batticoloa, 

Ampara, Trincomalee, Polonnaruwa and Kegalle. Productivity of these 

animals mainly depend on the availability ofgood quality feed throughout 

the year. Like in many other countries in the region, the rainfall 

distribution in Sri Lanka is not unifprm throughout the year especially in 

the above mentioned districts. The pasture production curve usually 

follows the rainfall curve, resulting in a shortage of feed during the dry 

periods of the year 

Feed shortages during the dry periods can be overcome by use of 

crop-residues especially rice straw, non-conventional feedstuffs, agro- 

industrial by-products and tree fodder. The annual yield of rice straw is 

estimated at 3.0 million tons ~~, 1986) and the most effective way 

of utilizing rice straw is as a feed for ruminants. But straw alone can 

neither provide protein nor energy in sacient amounts to meet the 

nutritional needs of the animal. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the 

nutritive value of straw either by pre-treatment or supplementation. 

Addition of fodder leaves such as Glyricidia maculata 

(Glyricidia), Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-Ipil) and Tithonia diversifolia 

(Wiid sun-flower) could also improve the utilization of rice straw through 

improved protein nutrition and the supply of other nutrients to the rumen 

microbes. Addition ofcarbohydrates wil also help to improve the energy 

nutrition ofthe m en microbes. Therefore, the objectives of the present 

study were to develop systems of supplementary feeding for buffaloes in 

Sri Lanka


S. Premaratne and A. Sivaram 

Experiment I: Four rumen fistulated male buffaloes, 2 years of age 

weighing 140-170 kg were used. They were tethered to rails in a well 

ventilated, partitioned building with fie access to feed and water. During 

the experiment, they were housed in metabolism cages (1.95~0.9~1.9m) 

in order to record feed intake, faeces output and urine output. 

The dietary lmitments consisted of 2% urea supplemented straw 

(USS) or plain straw (PS) with or without Jak seeds (JS) and minerals. 

Dry matter intake of animals was 3% of their body weight, whereas the 

jak seed intake was limited to 5% of the total feed intake. Initially all the 

buffaloes were fed rice straw. The experimental diets were gradually 

introduced over a 10 day period. The experiment lasted 35 days which 

included a preliminary period of 20 days followed by a collection period 

of 15 days. During the collection period, feed offered, refused and faeces 

excreted were measured and the dry matter intake and digestibility were 

calculated. 

Urine was collected to measure the nitrogen (AOAC, 1980) 

balance of the animals. Animals were weighed before and after the 

experiment. The effect of these treatments on volatile fatty acid 

produdion apd rurnen pH were also assessed. The four diets were fed to 

4 animals in a Latin Square Design with 4 replicates. 

Experiment 2: This experiment was carried out at the University 

Livestock Farm, Mawelawatte, Uda Peradeniya which is situated at an 

elevation of 1000 m above the mean sea level. The mean annual rainfall 

is about 2500mm. 

Four male animals (12 - 18 months of age) weiglung 60 -140 kg 

were used. During the day time, the buffaloes were allowed to graze in 

the field and in the night straw based diets were given (same as in 

Experiment 1). Intake of straw based diets during the night was 

measured for 30 days and nitrogen intake and weight gain were also 

measured. The design was a Latin Square with 4 animals.

Development ofsupplementary feeding systems 

Experiment 3: This experiment was also carried out at the University 

Ijvestock farm, Mawelawatte, Uda Peradeniya. Four milking buMoes 

(weighing 379-482 kg) in different stages of lactation and pregnancy 

were used. Four experimental diets were used; (a) 2% urea sprinkled 

straw ad-libitum + minerals @) 2% urea spnnkted straw ad-libitum + 5% 

Ipil-Ipil + minerals (c) 2% urea sprinkled straw ad-libitum + 5% wild 

sun-flower + minerals (d) 2% urea sprinkled straw ad-libitum + 5% 

glyricidia + minerals. The design was similar to that in the earlier 

experiments. 

Animals were i2d on one ofthe diets described earlier, during the 

night and allowed to graze in the field during the day time. Feed intake 

and nitrogen intake were measured for 30 days. Live weight gaidoss 

and milk production of animals wete recorded. Data were statistically 

analyzed and the means were compared using Duncans Multiple Range 

Test (Steele and Torrie, 1960). 


Table 1 presents the composition of fieeds used in the study. 

Crude protein content ofjak seeds was 14.7%, whereas the crude protein 

content of rice straw was 6.9%. These values are in agreement with the 

values1 reported by Ibrahim (1988). Table 2 presents the effect of 

supplementation on the dry matter intake, dry matter digestibility and 

nitrogen digestibility in buffaloes. Dry matter intake of plain straw was 

less (pS0.05) compared to all other treatments, whereas the highest 

@

S. Premaratne and k Sivaram 

of the diets also followed the same trend. Nitrogen digestibility of plain 

straw was low but inclusion of urea a jak seeds improved the 

digestibility sigmiicantly. Also the addition of both urea and jak seeds 

improved the nitrogen digestibility significantly. This may be due to the 

balanced nutrient supply provided by these ingredients to the rumen 

microbes. 

Table 1. Chemical composition of straw and supplementary feeds. 

Feed Dry Crude Fat* Crude 

matter protein* fibre* 

Rice straw (YO) 

Wild sun- 

flower (%) 

Jak seed (%) 94.92 14.71 3 .O - 

* As percentage of dry matter 

Table 2. Effect of urea and/or jak seed supplementation on the dry 

matter intake, digestibility and the nitrogen digestibility in 

buffaloes*. 

Item Diet 

DM Intake 

(gA~gw~-'~/d) 

DM digestibility (YO) 

PS+JS USS USS+JS 

N digestibility (9'0) 3 2.7" 41.1b 40Sb 53.1" 

* Mean of data fiom four buffaloes 

Means within the same row having dserent superscripts differ sqgdicantly 

(P

Development of supplementaly feeding systems 

Table 3 presents the effect of fodder supplementation on the dry 

matter intake of milking buffaloes. According to Table 3, the total dry 

matter intake of urea supplemented straw with glyricidia was higher 

compared to urea supplemented straw alone, fed during the night. 

However, the inclusion of Ipil-ipil also increased the total intake of 

supplemented straw compared to supplementation with wild sun-flower. 

The lower intake of straw supplied with wild sun-flower may have been 

due to its poor palatability. 

Table 3. Effect of tree fodders on the dry matter intake of straw in 

buffaloes . 

Diet Dry matter Intake (g~kgw"'~ld) 

USS 22.2 

USS.+ 5% PlL 25.4 

USS + 5% WSF 23.3 

USS + 5% GLY 26.7 

In conclusion, it can be said that supplementation of straw based 

diets with urea and glyricidia improved the intake and digestibility of the 

feed, 


The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support given 

by the SARECJNARESA Buffalo Research Programme which made this 

study possible. They wish to thank Ms. Nilmi Tissera, Mr. Daya Perera 

and the staff at Mawela Livestock Fann, University of Peradeniya for 

their valuable help during the study. 

References 

Association of Official Analytical Chemists (1980) OfJicial Methodr of 

Analysis. (12 th Ed.) AOAC. Washington, D.C.

CQMPOS~ON OF NATURAL HERBAGE AND 

IMPROVEMENT OF QUALITY OF SOME 

ALTERNATE FEED SOURCES FOR BkrFFALO 

FEEDING 

A.N.F. Perera and E.R.K. Perera 



SRILANKA 

Abstract. The total buffalo population in Sri Lanka is 0.85 million, and more 

than 75% are reared under fiee grazing conditions in grazing lands on natural 

pastures or on other herbage. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the 

botanical composition and feeding value of natural forages. A series of 

experiments were conducted to evaluate the methods available to upgrade the 

feeding value of crop residues to feed buffaloes as a supplementary feed. 

In natural forages, the highest grass component (72%) was observed 

in roadside forage and the highest legume component fkom scrub jungles (30%). 

Crude protein (CP) ranged from 8 - 16 % and in vitvq dry matter digestibility 

(IVDMD) was 45 - 64 %. Rice straw was ensiled with biogas slurry liquid 

(BSL) up to 14 days and CP improved fiom 4 to 7 %, and IVDMD and m vitro 

organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) from 29 to 41 % and 25 to 39 % 

respectively. Different levels of urea treatment (0 - 6 % urea) and ensdmg 

duration (0 - 21 days) of bagasse were evaluated. Urea treatment improved CP 

from 1% to 9 %, and IVDMD and IVOMD from 29 to 34 % and 28 to 33% 

respectively. Duration of ensiling had no effect. Treatment of palm press fibre 

(PPF) with urea (0 - 8 %) was studied. The IVDMD and IVOMD of PPF were 

improved fiom 22 to 32 % and 17 to 24 % respectively. Urea treated,PPF had 

a htgher CP content (33% vs 5 %) due to urea nitrogen. These results suggest 

the possibdity of using different treatments on available crop residues to 

improve their utilization as supplementary-feeds in buffalo production. 

Keywords: Herbage, composition, alternate feeds, feed improvement, 

digestibility

Natural and alternate feed sources for buflalo production - 

INTRODUCTION 

The water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) population in Sri Lanka has 

been estimated to be 0.85 million. They are mainly kept for draught 

purposes. Ofthe total population, 72 % is in the dry and dry intermediate 

zones, where year-round feed availability is limited. Generally buffaloes 

are not intensively managed, especially by the rural farmers due to their 

low income gendon potential. However, the high price of buffalo milk 

and theincreasing demand for buffalo curd has induced the rural buffalo 

farmer to extract as much milk as possible fiom their buffaloes. 

One of the major factors that determines the efficiency of milk 

production is nutrition. Since alarge proporhon of buffaloes in Sri Lanka 

are in the dry and dry intermediate zones, they often face seasonal 

fluctuations in feed availability and quality. The natural feed sources are 

constantly subjected to seasonal fluctuations since their growth is mainly 

determined by the annual rainfall pattern. As a result, severe feed 

shortages are common, during inter-monsoonal dry spells and sometimes 

there is virtually nothing for animals to graze on. Therefore, alternate 

feed sources become vitally important to sustain, if not production, at 

least the condition of animals. 

Rice straw is the most abundant crop residue available in Sri 

Lanka.. It is available at the time when the dry spell begins and when 

natural forage availability is at a minimum. The total annual production 

of rice straw at present is 2.8 million metric tomes. Of this, nearly 60 % 

is not used and is either allowed to decompose on the threshing grounds 

or burnt in the field. This enormous resource of valuable feed is not 

properly utilized as a ruminant feed due either to the lack of interest by 

the farmers or their belief that straw is low in feed quality. Therefore 

simple, economical and appropriate systems of treatment become 

important to upgrade this valuable feed resource. 

Sugarcane by products are the second largest crop residue 

resource available as a potential feed for ruminant livestock feeding. 

Sugarcane green tops and bagasse are produced in large quantities during

A.N.F. Perera and E.RK. Perera 

8 months afthe year. Howeveqit is not utilized as an animal feed. Most 

ufthese by-products are allowed to decompose in the field (Khanal, et al., 

1995). Limitations with regard to their low digestibility and nutritive 

value can be overcome by pre-treatment @evendra, 1 992). 

Though not much palm press fibre (PPF), is available in the 

country, the amount that is produced by the palm oil industry in the 

Southern region can be ~u~essfullly utilized for livestock feeding with 

proper pre-treatment, as is done in countries like Malaysia, where large 

quantities are fed to ruminant livestock (Devendra, 1992). 

werally, all crq, residues are low in nutritive value resulting in 

low intake and digestibility. By employing different pretreatment 

methods both the intake and digestibility can be improved making crop 

residues a suitable alternate feed resource for livestock feeding. 

The objective of this study was to evaluate the natural forages 

and use of different pretreatments to.improve the feeding value of some 

common crop residues in Sri Lanka 


Botanical and chemical composition of natural forages: Samples of 

natural forages were collected fiom waste lands, coconut lands, road 

sides, tank beds, fallow rice fields, scrub jungles and marshy lands in the 

wet me, wet intermediate zone, dry intermediate zone and dry zone, in 

both wet and dry seasons. An iron quadrate nieasuring 0.5 x 0.5 m was 

used to collect random samples fiom each site for the deterinination of 

the botanical composition and feeding value. Samples from each site 

were placed in polythene bags and stored in an ice box to prevent any 

moisture losses. Botanical composition was determined by separating the 

fkesh samples first as mono and dicot, thereafter as grasses and sedges 

and legb~es and non-legumes. These were then dried separately at 60 OC 

to determine the total dry matter. A second sample was dried in an oven 

at 60 OC, until a uniform weight was obtained. Proximate and cell wall

Natural and alternate feed sources for buflalo production 

constituents and in vitro digestibility was determined. The composition 

of composite samples collected in both dry and wet seasons are given in 

Table 1. 

Table 1. Botanical mmpositioa (% DM basis) of forages harvested fiom 

natural grazing lands. 

Location Grasses Sedges Dicots Legumes 

Waste lands 42 8 3 1 19 

Coconut lands 58 7 20 15 

Road sides 72 3 13 12 

Tank beds 55 27 11 7 

Fallow rice fields 28 53 12 6 

Scrub jungles 12 2 46 30 

Marshy lands 32 64 2 2 

Each value is an average of 10 samples taken during two seasons. 

Rice straw ensiled with biogm slurry ljquid (BSL): Biogas slurry liquid 

was collected &om an active Chinese type biogas unit, continually fed 

with dairy washings. Sluny was collected from the fermentation 

chamber, strained with a double layer of cloth and immediately 

transferred to a large vacuum Bask for transportation. Fresh rice straw 

was mixed with strained BSL in the ratio of 1 : 1 and immediately packed 

into large polythene bags for ensiling. Separate samples were subjected 

to 0,3,.6,9,12 and 15 day ensiling periods. Upon opening the treated 

bags, organoleptic characteristics, proximate and cell wall composition, 

ammonia nitrogen, total volatile fatty acids and in vitro digestibility were 

determined. 

Sugarcane bagasse treatment with urea: Sugarcane bagasse was treated 

with 0, 2, 4 and 6 % urea solution (wlv) in the ratio of 1: 1. Atter 

thwoughly mixing with the urea solution, the treated bagasse was stored 

in polythene bags for 0,7,14 or 21 days. At the end of the treatment 

periods the bags were opened and half of each sample was dried and 

. .

. . AN.F. Perera and E.RK. Perera 

ground to 2 mm particle size and the other half was stored in a fieezer 

Proximate and cell wall composition and digestibility were determined 

Pdmpressfibre treatment with urea: Palm press fibre was treated with 

0, 4, 6, or 8 % urea solutions and allowed to react for 7 days in closed 

polythene bags. Urea treated samples were analyzed for proximate 

composition and detergent fibre. The rate of dry and organic matter 

disappearance of the components in the rumen of a cannulated buffalo 

was assessed for 24 hours. 

Proximate analysis was done using standard methods (A.O. A. C., 

1980) and detergent fibre according to Goering and Van Soest (1 970). 

Rumen pH was measured electrometrically and total volatile fatty acids 

by steam distillation. In vitro digestibility (Tilley and Terry, 1963) was 

conducted using buffalo rumen fluid and in sacco degradation (Mehrez 

and Otskov, 1977) was determined using rumen cannulated buffaloes. All 

data were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance procedures 

(Snedcor and Cochran, 1967). C 


The major source of green feed for extensively reared buffaloes 

is the natural grazing lands (Wickrarnaratne, et al., 1993). The botanical 

composition of natural forages in these lands is given in Table 1. A h~gh 

propartion of grass was observed in road side herbage samples (72%) and 

the lowest in herbage fiom scrub jungles (12%). Fallow rice fields were 

densely populated with sedges such as Echinicloa spp., Cyprus spp and 

Frimbristilis spp. These monocot weeds are very common in rice fields 

and completely cover the field during fallow. They provide much of the 

bulk requirements of buffaloes grazing on fallow rice fields. Scrub 

jungles provide nitrogen rich feed due to the presence of legurnnous 

fmbes which are generally palatable (Perera, 1 995). The highest content 

of DM (45 %) and lignin (24 YO) were observed in fodder fim scrub 

jungles (Table 2). This is mainly due to the presence of woody plant 

portions of dicots. Forages fiom all locations contained a CP content of

Natural and alternate feed sources for bufJk10 production 

less than 10 %, except the forages fiom tank bunds. This level of 

nitrogen is sufficient to maintain a rumen NH,-N level to meet 

maintenance requirements. Road side grass exhibited the highest 

digestibility (643 glkg). This is mainly due to the continuous removal of 

the mature vegetative portion of grass in road-side reservations, allowing 

regrowth which is tender (Perera et al., 1993). The green biomass in 

natural grazing lands is subjected to severe fluctuations in both yield and 

quality. 

Table 2. Chemical composition (DM basis) of forages harvested from 

natural grazing lands. 

Location Composition (%DM) 

DM% CP ADF ADL IVDMD 

Waste lands 28.7 14.2 47.3 18.2 52.7 

Coconut lands 32.2 12.1 40.7 12.3 47.3 

Road sides 25.0 18.0 45.7 8.6 64.3 

Tank beds 22.8 8.2 34.5 13.8 47.2 

Fallow rice fields 22.6 16.4 48.7 13.6 52.6 

Scrub jungles 45.3 14.7 54.3 24.1 45.3 

Marshy lands 21.7 10.3 39.8 14.3 45.2 

Composition of composite samples in both wet and dry seasons. 

Rice straw, the largest crop residue resource available in Sri 

Lanka has been investigated in depth particularly with respect to 

upgrading the feeding value and utilization as a ruminant feed. Many 

chemical treatment methods have been suggested but the adoption of the 

procedbres by farmers have not been very encouraging. Therefore, an 

environmentally friendly biological method was used in this study. The 

proximate composition, cell wall constituents and digestibility of rice 

straw ensiled with BSL is given in Table 3. Increasing the ensiling period

A.N.F. Perera and E.R.K. Perera 

Table 3. P r d cumposition, cell wall constituents, pH, total volatile 

fatty acids and digestibility of rice straw ensiled with biogas 

slurry liquid. 

Ensiling duration (days) 

Components (YO). 0 3 6 9 . 12 15 SE =k 

Dry matter 44.7 43.6 42.7 42.3 41.9 41.6 0.36 

A1 ash 15.5 16.3 15.7 14.6 15.2 15.8 0.21 

Crude protein 4.4" 6.2b 6.2b 7.2b 6.2b 6.4b 0.2 

Crude fibre 26.4" 33.2b 33.0b 30.4' 30.4' 30.5' 0.29 

AD fibre 55.5 54.6 55.4 54.7 51.4 51.5 0.61 

Celldose 27.4" 26.2" 23.7b 23.4b 20.5' 22.0' 0.65 

/ 

AD lignin 12.2 14.9 16.4 16.5 14.5 13.6 0.7 

Digestibility 

- Dry matter 29.5' 30.3' 36.gb 36.3b 41.4b 41.1b 1.29 

Total VFA 741' 942b 95@ 9Ub 932b 940b 14 

(pmoV100g DM) 

means followed by the same superscript within a row are not sigxuticmtly Merent 

(PM.05). 

decreased the DM content, possibly due to breakdown of cell wall 

material (hemicellulose into pentoses) by the fermentative bacteria 

(Magno et al., 1980). Increased level of CP observed with longer ensiling 

durations is a relative response resulting fiom a decrease in DM. 

Satisfactory fermentation was indicated by the significant increase 

(F'

Natural und alternate feed sources for buSjblo production 

as an alternative low pollution method to improve the utilization of rice 

straw as aruminant feed. However, the acceptability by animals has yet 

to be investigated. 

Urea treated bagasse exhibited a high CP content due to the 

addition of urea (P


obtained perhaps by merely supplementing urea at the time of feedlng. 

Evidence is available to suggest that physicochemical methods such as 

steaming with chemical treatment or strong alkali treatment could 

improve its utilization (Devendra, 1979). However, more studies are 

needed to recommend suitable simple methods appropriate for local 

conditions. 

Palm press fibre is a' low quality roughage, but chemical 

treatment has been shown to ensure its potential as ruminant feed 

(Devendra, 1978). Treatment of PPF with urea up to 8% dld not improve 

the levels of proximate components. But CP contents were elevated 

(Pc0.05) due to the addition of urea-N. Urea treatment only reduced 

ADF (P

Natural and alternate feed sources for bugalo production 

Rumen incubation for 24 hours significantly improved IVDMD and 

NOMD, but the level of improvement was not very promising. The low 

response to urea treatment by PPF is similar to that of bagasse due to the 

presence of high lignin. Therefore, stronger treatments may be needed to 

break the lignocellulose complex (Perera, 1992). Devendra (1 978) 

suggested that a kl treatment did not improve the digestibility of CP in 

PPF due to the formation of soaps. 


The authors wsh to extend their thanks to Miss. R. Ratnayake 

and H.G.D. Perera for their assistance in conducting the experiments. 

This study was conducted with financial assistance fiom the SARECI 

NARESA Buffalo Research Programme. 

References 

A. 0. 

A. C. (1980) Offictal Methods of Analysis, 12th Edition, Association of 

Official Analytical Chemists. Washington D. C. 

Devendra, C. (1978) The utilization of feedingstus from oil palm. Proc. 

Feedrtufs for Livestock m South East Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

Devendra, C. (1 979) The digestibility of chemically treated bagasse in molasses 

based diets for sheep and goats. MARDI Res. Bull. 1,103- 1 15. 

Devendra, C. (1992) Strategies for expanding utilization at the small farm level. 

In; Non-conventional Feed Resources in Asia and the Paczfic. 4 

Edition. FA0 I UNDP. 

Goering, H.K. and Van Soest, P.J. (1970) Forage Fibre Analysis. US. 

Department of Agriculture Hand Book No: 375. U.S. Government 

Printing Mce, Washington D. C. 

Khanal, RC., Perera, AN.F. and Perera, E.RK. (1995) Ensiling characteristics 

of sugar cane tops and its potential as a ruminant feed. Trop. Agrzc. 

Res. 7: 177-185. 

Magno, N.K., Carpenter, J.R., Nolan, J.C. and Campbell, C.M. (1986) Effect 

of addition of microbial inoculant, molasses and urea on silage quality 

of immature whole plant sugar cane. J. Anim. Sci. 63, Suppl. 1, 290.


Mehrez, A.Z. and Orskov, E.R. (1977) A study of artificial fibre bag technique 

for determining the digestibility of feeds in the rumen. J. Agric. Sci. 

. (Cambridge) 88, 645-650. 

Perera, AN.F. (1992) Agricultural by-products as a feed resource for 

ruminants. Proc. Eco Friendly Commercial Activities, Organized by 

the Management for Development Foundation (MAD - Sri Lanka) and 

Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD), 

Colombo, Sri Lanka. 

Perera, A.N.F. (1995) Potentials of livestock production in forestry systems. 

Proc. Annual Foresty Symposium, Forestry Unit, University of Sri 

Jayawardanepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka. 

Perera, A.N.F., Wickramaratne, K .k and Perera, E.R.K. (1993) Botanical 

composition and nutritive value of pastures in natural grazing lands of 

Ratnapura district. (Abst.). Proc. 49th Annual Session of Sri Lanka 

Asso. Advancement of Science. 

Snedcor, G.W. and Cochran, W.G. (1967) Statistical Methods. 6th Edition, 

Iowa State University Press, Iowa. 

Tilley, J.M. and Terry, R.A. (1963) A two stage technique for the in vifro 

digestion of forage crops. Journal of Britisli Grassland Society 18,104 

' - 

111. 

Wickramaratne, K.k, Perera, A..N.F. and Perera, E.RK. (1993) Botanical 

composition and nutritive value of pastures in natural grazing lands of 

Ratnapura district. (Abst). Proc. 49 Annual Session ofrhe Sri Lanka 

Assoc. Advancement of Science, Colombo, Sri Lanka, December, 

1992. pp. 56.

SERUM CONCENTRATIONS OF PROGESTERONE 

AND ITS PRECURSOR CHOLESTEROL ]IN 

BUFFALOES 

R. Sivakanesanl, J.G.S. Ranasinghel, C. Mariathasanl 

and H. Abeygunawardena2 

'Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, 

2Depnrtment of Veterinary Clinical Studies, 

- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences, 


SRI LANKA 

Abstract: The dependence of steroidogenesis in mammalian ovary on high 

density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) prompted a study on the relationship 

between serum progesterone and HDL-C concentration in buffaloes. All 

pregnant animals at the Narangalla buffalo farm were divided into two groups 

and one group was supplemented with urea treated straw. All the animals were 

allowed to graze freely. Blood samples were collected at fortnightly intervals 

and progesterone, total cholesterol (TC) and HDL-C concentrations were 

measured. 

Pearson correlation analysis gave coefticient values of 0.083 

(progesterone and TC all animals, ~ 124); -0.037 (progesterone and HDL-C all 

animals, n=128); 0-061 (progesterone and TC, control group, n=62); 0.1 12 

(progesterone and TC, supplemented group, n=62); -0.007 (progesterone and 

HDLC, control group, n=63); -0.082 (progesterone and HDL-C supplemented 

group, 1145) indicating very poor correlation. The TC concentration was lowest 

during the first two weeks postpartum in both control [la22 & 0.082 (SEM) 

mmoM] and supplemented [l-42 0.061 (SEM) moM] groups and increased 

sigdicantly up to 10 weeks (control 1-68 * 0.094, supplemented 1-70 * 0.089). 

Thereafter in the control group the levels fluctuated between 1.51 to 1.86 

mmoWl whereas iu the supplemented group it remained very close to 1.76 

mmoV1. The wide fluctuations seen in the control group may be due to the 

availability of food. The TC concentration in the supplemented group did not 

differ sigdicantly hm that of the control group at any stage of the experiment. 

The HDLC was lowest during the fust two weeks after parturition; the values 

being 1.00 * 0.068 (SEM) mrnoVl and 1-10 * 0.044 (SEW moYl respectively 

for the control and supplemented groups. The HDL-C gradually increased over

Serum concentration ofprogesterone and cholesterol 

a period of 8 weeks after which it remained around 1-22 mmoVl in both groups. 

The differences between the control and supplemented groups were not 

sigtllficant at any stage during the experiment. 

Five animals out of 18 in each group, control and supplemented, were 

cychg by 150 days and 133 days respectively. Supplementary feeding did not 

result in an appreciable improvement in the reproductive status and serum 

cholesterol. There was no correlation between either TC or HDL-C and serum 

progesterone concentrations, indicating the possibility that the progesterone 

synthesis is not influenced by the circulating levels of HDLC and TC. 

Keywords: Buffalo, progesterone, cholesterol, nutrition, ovarian activity 

INTRODUCTION 

Cholesterol is the precursor for steroid hormone biosynthesis 

(Everett, 1947). Cholesterol in the ovary can be derived fiom two 

sources; cellular denovo synthesis from acetate or uptake of plasma 

lipoprotein cholesterol. The relative contribution of cholesterol 

synthesized denovo vs that derived from exogenous sources for 

steroidogenesis varies among species. The corpus luteum of the rabbit 

may utilize principally denovo synthesized cholesterol (Kovanen et al., 

1978), whereas rat (Anderson and Dietschy, 1978) bovine (Savion et al., 

1981) and porcine (Veldhuis and Gwynne, 1985) luteal tissues appear to 

depend on lipoprotein. The vast reduction of progesterone synthesis by 

ovarian cells when these cells are incubated in lipoprotein deficient media 

provides evidence for the major contribution of lipoprotein for 

progesterone synthesis (Tureck and Strauss, 1 982). 

There are species differences in uptake of lipoprotein by 

steroidogenic cells. Cultured luteal cells or luteinized granulosa cells of 

rat utilize high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDEC) for progesterone 

synthesis, even though low density lipoprotein &DL) receptors are 

present (Anderson and Dietschy, 1978). In contrast, the rodent and 

swine ovarian tissues preferentially use LDL for steroidogenesis (Carr et 

al., 1982).

R Sivakanesan et al. 

Being herbivores, buffaloes depend on acetyl CoA formed during 

cellular metabolism for the synthesis of cholesterol. The dietary 

polysaccharides yield acetate as one of the volatile fatty acids during 

ruminal microbial fermentation. This is converted to acetyl CoA during 

cellular metabolism. Further, acetyl CoA is formed when cells oxidise 

glucose and fatty acids. It appears therefore that sufficient energy sources 

should be provided in the diet to enable the synthesis of cholesterol by the 

ruminant. Hence a connection such as dietary polysaccharides ---> 

acetatelacetyl CoA ---> cholesterol ---> lipoprotein cholesterol ---> 

progesterone might exist. This hypothesis needs to be tested and can be 

done if an assessment of some of the parameters in the above connection 

is carried out. 

Therefore this study was conducted to determine the relationship 

between serum total cholesterol (TC) and HDL-C concentrations and 

serum progesterone in animals under the existing feeding pattern, namely 

grazing only, and in animals provided with a supplement in the form of 

urea treated straw. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

The study was carried out fiom September, 1993 to July, 1994 

at the SARECINARESA buffalo research station at Narangalla, 

Kuliyapitiya, located in the intermediate zone. The farm is about 23 8 

acres in extent and is under coconut with natural and Brachiaria 

, miliformis pasture. It receives an average rainfall of 2057k405 

ndannum occurring mostly during the north-east (October to January) 

and south-west (May to July) monsoons, but heavy precipitation is fi-om 

the north-east monsoon. The average temperature is 30°C. 

There are about 200 heads of indigenous buffalo (Bubalus 

bubalis) managed extensively under the coconut plantation. -Usually 

animals are sent to pasture at around 7 a.m. and brought into night 

paddocks between 5.00 and 6.00 p.m. They are not provided with any 

supplementary feed. All animals were provided with wallowing facilities


and calves are given anthelmintic at the age of 14 days. Routine 

vaccinations are done against Haemmhagic Septicaemia and Foot and 

Mouth disease. Calves were allowed to suckle their dams ad tibitum and 

cows were not milked. AU the pregnant animals (n=35) in the farm were 

included in the study. The ages ranged &om 4-8 years and host all of 

them were multiparous animals. 

Animals were divided at random into two groups (control and 

supplemented) at calving. The supplemented group was provided with 

4 kg of urea supplemented straw (15 gmkg of straw, sprayed 12 hr 

before the night feed) in addition to daytime grazing. The control group 

did not receive any supplementary night feed. Straw was withheld on the 

night previous to the day of blood collection to ensure that all animals had 

the same status. 

Blood samples were collected fiom 8 months of pregnancy. 

Jugular blood (10 ml) was collected at 14 day intervals into vacutainers. 

One ml was transferred to oxalate fluoride bottles (30 parts of potassium 

oxalate and 1 part of sodium fluoride for 10 ml of blood) (Varley, 1980), 

soon after withdrawal for glucose, haemoglobin and packed cell volume 

measurements. Blood was transported to the laboratory within 2 hours 

of collection, centrihged at 5000 rpm for 10 minutes and serum was 

separated. Aliquots were stored at -20°C until assay. 

Total cholesterol and cholesterol in the HDL fiaction were 

measured by the enzymatic method using Randox assay kits (Randox 

Laboratory Ltd, Diamond Road, Crumlin, Ireland). HDL fiaction was 

obtained by phosphotungstate-Mg?precipitation (Lopes-Virella, et al., 

1977). Plasma progesterone was measured by radioimmuno assay 

techmque using antibody coated tubes and progesterone -112' as a tracer 

using the FAO/IAEA assay kits (Vienna). The standards were prepared 

at concentrations of 0 .O, 0.1,O. 5,2.0,10.0 ng/rnl.

RESULTS 


Postpartum cyclicity as evidenced by plasma progesterone 

elevations above 0.5 nglml (Perera, 1986) was observed around 85 days 

in both control and supplementary groups. Twelve animals out of 35 

(35%) included m the study were cycling of which 5 animals belonged to 

the control group of 17 (30%) animals and 7 animals belonged to the 

supplemented group of 18 (39%) animals. However, a rise in serum 

progesterone above 0.5 ndml before 150 days postpartum, which is 

considered to be the average postpartum anoestrous period for buffaloes 

by Jainudeen, et al. ( 1982) was observed only in 3 animals in the 

control and 5 animals in the supplemented groups. 

The number of anoestrous animals in the control and the 

supplemented groups during the entire experimental period of 240 days 

were 12 out of 17 (77%) and 11 out of 18 (62%), respectively. 

Total Cholesterol 

The mean total cholesterol (Table 1) of the supplemented group 

was significantly higher @


Table 1. Serum total cholesterol concentrations (Mean*SD) in ~01itr01 

and supplemented groups of buffaloes. 

Period Mean cholesterol concentration (mmolA) p value 

24-26 1.87 f 0.1 (10) 1.78 f 0.05 (5) 0.54 

Statistically significant 

Relationship between Progesterone and Total and HDL 

Cholesterol Concentrations 

In order to determine whether the synthesis of progesterone is 

dependant on the circulating levels of lipoprotein cholesterol, the 

association between serum concentrations of progesterone and total 

cholesterol and cholesterol in the HDL 6action was ascertained by 

subjecting the data to a linear correlation analysis. Pearson correlation 

analysis of progesterone and cholesterol gave coefficient values of 0.083


Table 2. Serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations 

(M-SD) in control and supplemented groups of buffaloes. 

Period Mean HDL-C concentration (m.moV1) p value 

(weeks) 

Control (n) Supplemented (n) 

0-2 1.00 * 0.07 (14) 1.10 * 0.04 (16) 0.23 

(progesterone and total cholesterol in all animals, n=124), -0.037; 

(progesterone and HDL cholesterol in all animals, n=128), 0.061; 

(progesterone and total cholesterol in the control group, n=62), 0.1 1; 

Oprogesterone and total cholesterol in supplemented group, n=62), -0.007; 

(progesterone and HDL cholesterol in the control group, n=63), -0.082; 

(progesterone and HDL cholesterol in the supplemented group, n45) 

indicating very poor correlation.


Body Weight 

The mean pre-calving body weight (2 weeks before calving) of 

the control group (268*7.9 kg, n=17) was higher than that of the 

supplemented group (249* 6.0 kg, n=18), but the difference was not 

statistically significant. The mean body weight of the control group also 

was higher than that of the supplemented group during the entire 

experimental period (Table 3). Statistically significant difference was 

observed (P

DISCUSSION 


The low reproductive efficiency of local buffaloes still remains a 

major problem in buffalo farming. Field surveys have revealed that long 

periods of postpartum anoestrous is the primary cause for the extended 

calving interval (Perera, et al., 1987). The genetic and environmental 

factors, play major roles in determining the reproduction capacity. 

Among the environmental factors, rainfall is considered to be 

very important because it directly effects the availability of forages 

(Sindappa and Patil, 1979). In traditional dry zone farming systems 

buffalo cows are usually maintained on natural herbage and the quantity 

and quality of the forages are dependent on the seasonal rainfall (Mohan, 

1990). 

Limited studies have been canied out on the effect of dlet on 

progesterone levels. Progesterone concentration in peripheral blood has 

been reported to decrease with poor nutrition @ll, et al,, 1970) while 

Donaldson, et al. (1970) found the opposite results. On the other hand, 

Aspar, et al. (1975) revealed that in conditions of undernutrition it 

remained constant. In the present study, more animals in the 

supplemented group were found to be cycling compared to the 

unsupplemented group, indicating that feed supplementation had a 

marginal improvement on the reproductive status. 

The total cholesterol cancentration in Lankan buffaloes is slightly 

lower than the values reported by Jadhav, et al. (1977). The total 

cholesterol concentration increased atter 8 weeks of calving irrespective 

of the group in the present study. However, Jadhav, et d. (1977) 

observed that it increased fiom the second week onwards in Gir cows. 

This difference may be due to species variation or other management 

factors. Increase in HDL-C during early postpartum period is in 

COnfOmnity with the observation of Puppione (1 978). The increased HDL 

concentration during early lactation is an adaptation to the increase of apo 

C as a byproduct of VLDL catabolism by Lecithin Cholesteryl Acyl 

Transferase action.


Even though there is convincing evidence that steroid formation 

depends on the cholesterol supplied by circulating Lipoprotein in many 

species of animals, the present study did not reveal any relationship 

between cholesterol and progesterone levels in serum. The total 

cholesterol concentrations and HDL-C in animals receiving urea 

supplemented straw were not statistically different to that of the 

unsupplemnted animals. Diane, et al. (1992) reported that 

supplementation of fat to datry cattle rations stimulate lipoprotein 

cholesterol export by intestine to the major sites of denovo cholesterol 

synthesis in the ruminant, which can be utilized for steroidogenes~s. 

Further, Pate and Condon (1982) observed that cows fed supplementaty 

fat had higher progesterone concentrations either due to increased 

production or decreased clearance. In view of these observations, studies 

need to be carried out in local buffaloes to investigate the effect of fat on 

serum progesterone and lipoprotein concentrations and its impact on 

fertility. 

Supplementary feeding with urea supplemented straw did not 

result in an appreciable improvement in reproductive status and serum 

cholesterol. There was no correlation between either TC or HDL-C and 

serum progesterone concentrations indicating the possibility that 

progesterone synthesis is not intluenced by the circulating levels of HDL- 

C and TC. Further studies are required to elucidate the ovarian follicular 

lipoprotein cholesterol uptake mechanisms to understand ovarian 

steroidogenesis. 

References 

Anderson, J.M and Dietschy, J.M. 

(1978) Relative importance ofhgh and low 

density lipoproteins in the regulation of cholesterol synthesis in the 

adrenal gland, ovary, testis of the rat. J. Biol. Chem. 253,9024-9030. 

Aspar, J.D., Aspros, J.E., Hixon, RR and Hansel, W. (1975) Effect of 

restricted feed intake on the sensitivity of the bovine corpus luteum to 

LH in vitro. J. Anim. Sci. 41,1120.

R. Sivakanesan et al. 

Carr, B.R, Macdonald, P.C. and Simpson, RR. (1982) The role of lipoproteins 

in the regulation of progesterone secretion by the corpus luteum. 

Fertil. Steril. 33,303. 

Diane, J., Carroll, Ric, Grummer, R and Murray, K. (1992) Stimulation of 

luteal cells progesterone production by lipoprotein fiom cows fed 

control or fat supplementary diet. J. Dairy Sci. 65,2205-2215. 

Donaldson, L.E., Bassettand, J.M. and Thorburn, G.D. (1970) Peripheral 

plasma progesterone concentration of cows during puberty, oestrous 

cycle, pregnancy and lactation and the 'effect of under-nutrition or 

exogenous oxytocin on progesterone concentration. J. Endocr. 48, 

599. 

Everett, J.W. (1947) Hormonal factors responsible for deposition of cholesterol 

in the C.L. of the rat Endocrinology 42,364-374. 

Hill, J.R, Lamond, D.M., Henricks, D. M., Dicky, J.F. and Niswender, G.D. 

(1970) The effect of under-nutrition on ovarian function and fertility 

in beef heifers. Biol. Reprod. 2,78. 

Jadhav, S.S., Velhanker, D.P. and Deshpande, B.R. (1977) Variation in the 

,Serum cholestrol levels in Gir cows during pregnancy, parturition and 

puerperium. Indian vet. J. 54, (7) 536-544. 

Jainudeen, M.R., Bongso, T.k, and Tan, H.S. (1982) Postpartum ovarian 

activity and uterine involution in the suckled swamp buffalo (Bubalus 

bubalis). Anim. Reprod. Sci. 5, 18 1- 190. 

Kovanen, P.T. Goldstein, J.L. and Brown, M.S. (1978) High levels of 3- 

hydroxy 3-methyl glutaryl coenzyme A reductase activity and 

cholesterol synthesis in the ovary of the pregnant rabbits. J. Biol. 

Chem. 253,5126 

~i~es-~irella M.F., Stone, P ., Ellis, S. and Colwell, J.D.A. (1977) Cholesterol 

determination in high density lipoproteins separated by three daerent 

methods. Clin. Chem. 23,882-884. 

Mohan, V. (1990) Clinical and endocrinological studies on postpartum ovarian 

activity in Lanka buffaloes (Bubalm bubalis). Ph.D. ,Thesis, University 

of Peradeniya. 

Pate, J.L. and Condon, W.A. (1982) Effect of serum and lipoprotein on 

steroidogenesis in cultured bovine luteal cells. Mol. Cell Endocr. 28, 

571-580.

Serum concentration of progesterone and cho2esterol 

Perera, B.M.AO. (1986) Use of RIA methods for studies on the reproduction 

of buffaloes. Nuclear and related techniques in animal production and 

health. In: Proceedings of an International Symposium on the Use of 

Nuclear Techniques in Studies ofAnimal Production and Health in 

Dgerent Environments. Joint FAOMA Division, Vienna. 17-21 

Perera, B.M.A.O., De Silva, L.N.A., Kuruwita,V. Y. and Karunaratna, AM. 


indigenous buffaloes at a selected village location in Sri Lanka. Anim. 

Reprod. Sci. 14,115-127. 

Puppione, D.L. (1978) Implication of unique features of blood lipid transport 

in the lactating cow. J. Dairy Sci. 61,65 1. 

Savion, N., Laherty, R, Lui, G.N. and Gospodarowicz, D. (1 981) Modulation 

of LDL metabolism in bovine granulosa cells as a function of their 

steroidogenic activity. J. Biol. Chem. 256,128 17- 12823. 

Sindappa, T.N. and Patil, S.H. (1979) Seasonality of breeding and calving of 

buffaloes. Indian vet. J. 56,122- 124. 

Spicer, L.J.K., Sejrsen, kk, Tucker, A and Huber, J.T. (1984) Secretion of 

LH and FSH from over feeding dairy heifers. J. Daily Sci. 67,1993- 

2000. 

Tureck, RW. and Strauss, J.F. (1982) Progesterone synthesis by luteinized 

human granulosa cells in culture: the role of denovo sterol synthesis 

and lipoprotein carried sterol. J. Clin. Endocr.Metab. 54,367. 

Varley, H. (1980) Prac/ical Clinical Biochemistry vol. 1,Sth edition, p 72. 

Veldhuis, J.D. and m e , J.T. (1985) Properties of LDL binding by cultured 

swine granulosa cells. Endocrinology 117,1067.

CHANGES IN GROWTH, RUMEN 

CHARACTERISTICS AND BLOOD METABOLITES OF 

INDIGENOUS BUFFALO EIEIFERS IN RESPONSE TO 

SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDING OF UREA-TREATED 

VERTUS UNTREATED RICE STRAW 




SRI LANK4 

Abstract: An experiment was conducted to examine the changes in feed 

mtake, rumen parameters, blood metabolites and body weight garn of indigenous 

buffalo heifers in response to supplementary feeding of urea-treated versus 

untreated rice straw Twelve indigenous buffalo heifers were allotted to two 

groups (n=6/group) balanced by body weight (89.0 * 8.9 kg) and age (12.0 * 

0.5 months). During day time, all the heifers were offered "Guinea A" grass 

(Panicum mcmmum) ad lib~tum. At night, 4% urea-treated straw and untreated 

straw were offered to the treatment group and the control group, respectively. 

The group feed rntakes of Gulnea grass and straw were recorded daily 

Representative samples of Guinea grass, straw and refusals were obta~ned 

periodically, for proximate analysis. Individual body weights were recorded 

monthly. Rumen samples were obtained every 4'h week to determine rumen pH 

and rumen ammonia-N (NH,-N). Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and betahydroxybutyrate 

(J3HB) were determined on the blood samples obtained on the 

same day. Urea treatment improved (pr0.01) crude protein content of rice 

straw. The heifers on the treatment group had greater rntake of straw dry matter 

(p~0.01), total dry matter (pi0.01), dietary nitrogen (prO.O1) and dietary energy 

(ps0.01) compared to the control group. Rumen ammonia content was higher 

(ph0.05) in the treatment group animals. Rumen pH, circulating BHB and 

BUN were not different between the groups. But trends in rumen NH,-N and 

BUN of the two groups suggested better utilization of available dietary protern 

by the treatment group, which resulted m higher (pg0.05) body weight garn 

compared to the control group. The results suggest that supplementary feeding 

of urea-treated straw instead of untreated straw improved feed intake, protein 

nutrition, nitrogen utilization and growth performance in local buffalo heifers. 

Keywords: Supplementary feeding, urea-treated straw, water buffalo, blood 

metabolites, body weight gain

Responses to feeding of urea treated straw 

The majority ofthe water buffaloes in Sri Lanka are subjected to 

poor and fluctuating planes of nutrition during the course of the year, as 

they are reared under natural grazing management with no supplementary 

feeding. The level of nutrition is a major determinant of the performance 

of ruminants (Grass et al., 1982). Improvement of protein nutrition may 

accelerate the growth performance in buffaloes, and the changes in 

nutritional status would be reflected in rumen characteristics and 

circulating metabolites (Lee et al., 1978). Urea treatment of rice straw 

has been shown to improve protein supply to the animal (Misaaki et al., 

1992; Saadullah et al., 1981). Traditionally, untreated rice straw is 

offered as a dry season feed to buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Urea treatment is 

a simple processing method, which can be adopted by the rural farmers. 

Hence, in this experiment urea treatment of rice straw was chosen as a 

suptable method of improving protein nutrition for buffaloes with the 

objective of examining the responses in feed intake, rumen parameters, 

blood metabolites and body weight changes of indigenous buffalo heifers 

to supplementary feeding of urea treated rice straw instead of untreated 

straw. 


The study was conducted at the Department of Animal Science, 

Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya using twelve (12) 

indigenous buffalo heifers. The animals were divided into two groups 

(n=6/group) balanced by age (12.0 * 0.52 m) and body weight (89.0 i 

8.9 kg). 

Medium quality Guinea A grass (Panicum maximum) was 

offered ad libitum to all the heifers fiom 0800 hr to 1600 hr. At 1600 hr, 

one group (treatment) was offered urea treated rice straw (4% urea treated 

straw ensiled for 7 d), while the other group (control) was offered 

untred rice straw. Except for this difference all the other management 

practices were identical for both groups throughout the 40 wk 

experimental period. Group feed intakes of grass (G) and straw were 

recorded daily. Representative samples of G, urea treated straw (UTS), 

untreated straw (S) and rhsals were collected biweekly to determine the


dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), and nitrogen content of the feeds 

and rehsals, using the standard analflcal. methods (A.O. A.C., 1 980). 

Rumen liquor samples were obtained from individual animals 3 hr post- 

feeding using a mouth tube, every 8" wk for the determination of rumen 

ammonia (Markham, 1942) and rumen pH. Jugular vein blood samples 

were collected at the same time &om individual animals to determine 

blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and beta-hydroxy butyrate (BHB). These 

metabolites were analyzed using the Nutritional Metabolite Kits of the 

International Atomic Energy Authority (IAEA). Individual body weights 

were obtained monthly at 0800 hr using an electronic weighing balance 

(RUDDWEIGH Model: ISM-2 S). The data were subjected to analysis 

of variance procedures. 


Proximate composition: The dry matter content of straw was higher 

(p


Table 1. Proximate composition of the grass (G), untreated straw (S) 

and urea-treated straw (UTS) fed to heifers. 

G S UTS 

Dry matter (%) 28.6 * 5.2. 67.8 A 4.6 67.7 * 6.2 

Organic matbr+ 88.5 + 4.0 90.0 * 1.8 89.3 * 2.6 

Crude protein' 7.9 * 0.44" 5.6 A 0.3 9.1 * 0.2" 

*(PrO.O5) **(Pr0.01) +as 96 ofDM 

Energy intake: The daily metabolizable energy (ME) intake of the two 

groups Qable 2) was estimated based on the DMI and ME content of the 

feed (Ibrahirn et al., 1987; Ravindran et al., 1987). Grass ME intake was 

not different between the groups, because the grass DMI was not 

different. But the treatment group had a higher (ps0.01) total ME intake 

due to the higher intake (pi0.01) of treated straw ME (Table 2). The 

results suggest that the beneficial effects on energy intake was brought 

about by improved CP content via the effects on DMI and digestibility. 

Based on the established values on nutritional requirements for buffaloes 

(Kearl, 1982), and the observed body weight gain in the two groups of 

heifers on this experiment (212 vs 279 g/d), the daily ME requirements 

per kg body weight of the two groups were estimated to be 54.6 Kcal 

(control) and 62.8 Kcal (treatment) respectively. The energy intake 

(Table 2) of the treatment group (66.1 Kcal) exceeded its requirement, 

indicating that sufficient energy was available to animals in this group. 

But the energy intake (54.9 Kcal) and requirement of the control group 

(54.6 Kcal) were almost equal. Thus, any slight reduction in DM might 

have caused minor energy stress in this group. The circulating BHB 

serves as an indicator of energy stress in ruminants (Lee et aL, 1978). 

The above observations could be hrther confirmed by examining the 

circulating BHB values of the two groups. The ME Intake values of the 

two groups reiterated the beneficial effects of using UTS instead of S as 

a supplementary feed for buffalo. 

Nitrogen intake: The nitrogen intake (NI) of the two groups (Table 2) 

were estimated based on the DMI and the N content of the feed. The 

grass NI was not different between the two groups because the grass 

DM1 of the two groups were simijar (Table 2). However, the treatment 

group had a greater (ps0.05) total NI, due to a greater straw NI by this

E.RK. Perera and A.N.F. Perera 

Table 2. Daily intake of dry matter, energy and nitrogen by the two 

groups of buffalo heifers. 

Group fed Group fed 

Untreated Straw Treated Straw 

Dry Matter Intake 

(g/lrgBW) 

Grass 27.1 + 1.9 26.4 + 2.1 

Straw 5.1 * 1.4' 11.0 i 2. lb 

Total 32.1 3.0a 36.5 * 3.2 

Energy Intake 

@cd kg BW) 

Grass 46.2 & 13.1 44.8 i 11.1 

Straw 8.0 i 0.6= 19.3 i 5.gb 

Total 54.9 9.6' 66.1 * 11.2~ 

Nitrogen Intake 

(g/ kg BW) 

Grass 4.56 + 0.24 4.41 i 0.22 

Straw 

Total 

5.13 i0.11" 

5.07 * 0.21' 

2.10 i 0.24~ 

6.45 i 0.21b 

W~thin a row, means with dissimilar superscripts are significantly different (p h 0.0 1). 

group (Table 2). The results suggest that supplementary feeding of UTS 

was successll in improving the NI of heifers. Higher intake of ruminally 

degradable nitrogen (N) helps to maintain an optimum ammonia 

concentration in the rumen which favours increased number and activity 

of rurnen microflora (Orskov, 1982) required for better hgestibility of the 

roughage. However, higher intake of N does not necessarily guarantee 

favourable results, if most of the ammonia N that disappears fiom the 

rumen is excreted in the urine as urea, in an attempt to prevent rumen 

NH,-N toxicity. This is especially true, when poor quality roughage 

treated or supplemented with urea is given with inadequate levels of 

available energy. As indicated previously, the energy intake of the 

treatment group exceeded its energy requirement. Thus, such elimination 

ofN in urine might not have taken place in this group. Since BUN serves 

as an indicator of N elimination in the urine, this observation could 

further be confirmed by examining the BUN levels of the twogroups. 

Rumen pH: Rumen pH of the two groups were not significantly different 

(p > 0.05) although the treatment group. had slightly higher rumen pH 

(Table 3). The rumen pH should be maintained at around 6 for optimal


microbial protein synthesis. Generally, rumen pH is higher when UTS 

is fed to ruminants (Masaalu et at., 1992) due to NH, generating 

transformational processes taking place in the rumen. Rumen pK is a 

function of the rate of NH, production and the buffering capacity of the 

rumen. In this experiment, the rumen pH was not significantly elevated 

in response to supplementary feeding of LITS instead of S. This 

observation points to the existence of a more efficient buffering capacity 

in the rumen of the treatment animals. 

Rumen ammonia (NH3-N): As expected, the rumen NH,-N content in 

heifers of the treatment group was greater (p10.05) than that of the 

control group (Table 3). Nevertheless, the rumen NH,-N contents of both 

groups were lower than that required by the rumen microbes (80 mg NA) 

for optimal microbial protein synthesis (Hoover, 1986). An optimum 

ammonia concentration in the rumen favours increased number and 

activity of rumen rnicroflora (Orskov, 1982) required for better 

digestibility of the roughage. Since the rumen NH,-N levels of the 

experimental heifers were less than optimal, the digestibility and 

utilization of roughage might not have been optimal. But, the greater ME 

and CP intake (Table 2) as well as the higher rumen NH,-N (Table 3) 

content of the treatment group heifers, as a result of supplementary 

feedtng of UTS, might have contributed to an improvement of microbial 

activity in the rumen and greater nitrogen utilization by this group. This 

hypothesis could be cpnlirmed by comparing the BUN concentrations 

and body weight gains of the two groups of heifers. 

Beta-hydroxybutyrate pH): Circulating BHB did not vary 

significantly during the experiment. Mean BHB of the treatment group 

was not different @ > 0.05) from that of the control (Table 3). 

Circulating BHB serves as an indicator of the energy status of animals, 

reflecting the balance between fat mobilization and ketone body 

utdizatton. Under conditions of inadequate carbohydrate intake, andlor 

acetonaemia BHB is increased (Lee et d., 1 978). Reference BHB values 

for indigenous buffalo have not yet been established. But the observed 

BHB values (Table 3) were comparable to the reference values established 

for well-fed non-lactating cattle and sheep (IAEA, 1993). 

Moreover, the results of another study by the authors (unpublished) 

indicated the BHB values of well-fed buffaloes were between 0.19 and 

0.28 mmd. Observed BHB values of both the groups were within that 

range (Table 3), cmfumhg the hypothesis made previously regarding the


non-existence of energy stress in the heifers during the experimental 

period. 

Table 3. Rumen parameters and blood metabolites of the two 

groups of buffalo heifers. 

Control Treatment 

Blood Metabolites 

BUN (mmoY1) 7.23 * 1.77 6.49 * 1.57 

BHB (mmoY1) 0.24 * 0.06 0.20 i 0.04 

W~thin a row, means with dissimilar snpemapts are sigdicantly different (p 

0.05). Mean BUN reflects the balance between ruminally digestible 

protein and fermentable metabolizable energy in the rumen. For proper 

microbial hction the above ratio is veIy important. The BUN increases 

under conditions of excess protein intake, poor quality dietary protein, 

ine£Ecient protein utilization, carbohydrate deficiency or renal failure. As 

evidenced by the proximate composition of the diet (Table I), the 

nitrogen intake (Table 2) and rumen parameters (Table 3), the control 

animals did not receive excess protein. The ME intake (Table 2) and 

BHB values (Table 3) suggest that they were not subjected to severe 

energy stress. There was no evidence of renal failure in these heifers. 

Hence, the observation that more than 80% of the control samples 

contained higher BUN could be due to poor utilization of available 

nitrogen by the control animals. 

Body Weight Gain (BWG): During the 40 wk experimental period the 

mean BW of the control group animals increased fiom 89.8 * 8.9 to 

149.4 * 8.1 kg, while that of the treatment group increased fiom 89.5 * 

11.5 to 180.3 * 11.2 kg. The heifers fed LTS showed hgher (pr0.05) 

daily BWG (21228 * 4.12 vs 279.28& 6.78 g), and as a result a higher 

total BWG (59.6 * 6.31 vs 80.0 * 7.01 kg). These BWG were


comparable to the BWG reported by Wongsrikeao and Wanapat (1 984). 

for buffalo heifers fed urea treated straw. 

The results suggest that supplementary feeding of urea-treated 

straw instead of untreated straw improved protein nutrition, nitrogen 

utilization and growth performance of indigenous water buffaloes in Sri 

Lanka. 


The authors are grate11 to the Swedish Agency for Research Co- 

operation with Developing Countries, for the funding of the research and 

the ~&al Resources, Energy and Science Authority (NARESA) of Sri 

Lanka for administering the funds. 

References 

A.O.AC. (1980) Oficial Methods ofAnalysh (13 Ed.) Association of Official 

Analytical Chemist, Washington, D.C. 

Orass, J.A, Hansen, P.J., Rutledge, J.J. and Hauser, E.R (1982) Genotype1 

environment interactions on reproductive traits of bovine females. I. 

Age at puberty as influenced by breed, breed of sire, dietary regime 

and season. J. Anim. Sci. 55, 1441-1457 

Hoover, W.H. (1986) Chemical factors involved in ruminal fibre digestion. J. 

Daily Sci. 69,2755-2766 

IAEA (1993) Nutritional Metabolite Kit Protocols. Joint FAO/IAEA 

Programme, Animal Production Unit, IAEA. Vienna. 

Ibrahim, M.N.M., Ketelaar, RS., Tamminga, S., Zernmelink, G. and van 

der Meer, J. (1987) Nutritive value of some commonly available 

ruminant feeds in Sri Lanka. Inst. for Livest. Feed. and Nutr. 

Res.(I WO), Lelystad, The Netherlands. Rpt. 18 1,34 

Kearl, L.C. (1982) Nutrient requirements of ruminants in developing countries. 

International Feedstuffs Institute, Utah State Institute, USA. 

Lee, AJ., Twardock, AR, Bubar, RH., Hall J.E. and Davis, C.L. (1978) 

Blood Metabolic profiles: Their use and relation to nutritional status of 

dairy wws. J. Dairy Sci. 61,1652-1670 

Markham, R (1942) A steam distillation apparatus suitable for microkejldhal 

analysis. Biochem. J. 36,790


Masaaki, N., Perera, N., Meiji, 0. and Norihito,Y. (1992) Effect of molasses on 

utihtion of urea treated straw. Res. Bull. Obihiro. Univ. 17,341 -347 

Orskov, E-R (1982) Dynamics of nitrogen in the rumen. In: Protein Nutrition 

in Ruminants. E.R. Orskov (Ed.) Academic Press. pp 41-44 

Ravindran, V., Perera, HG.D. and Ravindran, S. (1987) In vitro digestibility of 

some Sri Lankan forage species based on rumen inocula from goats, 

cattle and bsaloes. Proc. Sri Lanka Associationfor Advancement of 

Science 4565 

Saadullah, M., Haque, 'M. and Dolberg, F. (1981) Effectiveness of 

ammoniiication through urea in improving the feeding value of rice 

straw in mminants. Trop. Anim. Prod. 6,30-36 

Verma, M.L. (1984) Urea treatment of straw for higher milk production. 

Asian Livestock 9,lO- 1 1 

Wongsrikeao, W. and Wanapat, M. (1984) The effe~ts of urea treatment 

of rice straw on the intake and live weight gain of buffaloes. Proc. 4th 

Ann. Workshop of the Aust. Asian Fibrous Agricultural Residues 

Research Nen~ork. 

pp 81-84

APPROPRIATE NUTRITIONAL PACKAGES FOR 

SMALL HOLDER BUFFALO PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 

IN ASIA 

S.K. Ranjhan 

Consultant, Buflalo Rearing Project, Hind Agro Industries Ltd. 

Friendr Colony, New Delhz, 

mDIA 

INTRODUCTION 

In Asian agriculture, livestock especially buffaloes play an 

important role in farmer's~economy as an integral part of the farming 

system, whether it is a mixed, arable, specialized farming, backyard or 

commercial animal production system. The farming systems of South 

and South East Asian farmers consists of a family, the crop and the 

livestock. Therefore, in rural project planning, the livestock sector has to 

be given due importance since it provides not only draught power to the 

farmer but also additional income. It provides for the use of idle labour 

between sowing and harvesting of crops, and thereby improves and 

develops the economic conditions of the small and marginal farmers. 

About 97% of the world buffalo population is found in Asia. 

Rverine buffaloes (2n=50) are found in India and to the west up to 

Europe (Indian subcontinent, Middle East, Italy, southern Europe and 

Russia). Many breeds (Murrah, Nili Ravi , Surti, Mehsana, Jaffarabadi, 

Nagpuri, Bahadawari, etc.) famous for milk production are to be found 

in drier regions of these countries. Swamp buffaloes (21148) on the 

other hand, are found in eastern parts of India extending Mher to the 

east up to the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Laos, Pacific Islands, 

China etc. The low milk producing swamp buffaloes are predominantly 

found in paddy growing areas, with high rainfall.

Nutritional packages in bufalo productron 

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 

The predominant livestock production system in most Asian 

countries is the traditional small scale farming involving 1-3 bovines 

(cattle1 bdEdoes). The animals are raised by the small holders primarily 

for draught power fm his small land holding (1- 3 ha) and secondly, for 

an additional incame through rmlk produced by these animals. When the 

animals are too old for work or have decreased their milk production, they 

are slaughtered. 

In Asia, the feed resources for ruminants are crop residues 

(cellulosic wastes), natural grasses (available through grazing) and agro- 

industrial by-products. Generally, ruminants obtain the major nutrient 

requirements through grazing in natural grasslands. The pattern of 

productian on range gradng in terms ofgrowth, draught and milk is fairly 

good during the wet season coinciding with herbage growth. This is 

followed by a variable decline in production during the dry periods when 

herbage growth is aBected. To sustain optimum production, crop 

residues and other agro-industrial by-products, concentrates and the like 

are given as feed supplements during the lean periods depending on their 

availability. In recent years, the cost of basic ingredients has increased 

considerably. Thus it has become difficult for many Asian countries to 

use animal feed ingredients (cakes, fish meal, corn etc.) for economic 

livestock production. Because of this, the use of agreindustrial by- 

products locally available as livestock feed is increasing at a rapid rate. 

This paper discusses the strategtes for their use in buffalo production with 

special reference to draught, meat and milk production. 

Cellulosic Wastes 

FEED RESOURCES 

In Asia, large quantities of by-products fiom farm and 

agricultural processes are available (Table 1). Cereal straws such as rice, 

maize, wheat, sorghum constitute the major feed resources available for

S.K. Ranjhan 

livestock feeding during the dry season. Paddy straw is by far the largest 

fibrous residue resource available for "on farm" feeding in Asia. 

Table 1. Potential supply of roughages fiom some crop by-products in 

. .. 

South and Southeast Asia (Thousand metric tonnes). 

International Southeast Indian Sub- Total 

Feed No. Asia' continent 

Rice, hulls 1-08-075 11,865 17,000 28,865 

Rice, straw 1-03-925 74,163 114,500 188,663 

hhk, aerial 1-12-179 7,100 15,500 22,600 

Sorghum 1-04-304 2,142 33,500 35,642 

Cassava 1-10-302 155 n.a 

Sugarcane bagasse 1-10-768 8,126 6,264 14,390 

Sugarcane tops 2-04-692 10,535 8,600 19,135 

Palm press fibre 2-04-686 10,535 n.a 

Peanut aerial 1-03-623 844 n.a 

Pineapple, process 4-03-722 48 n.a 

residue dehydrated 

Pineapple, process 4-26-968 854 n.a 

residue 

Wheat, straw 1-05-175 67,000 67,000 

(incl, barley) 

-. 

'From Khajaren and Khajaren (1980), 2Calculated from the FA0 production figures of 

1979, n.a.= not available 

A considerable amount of literature is available regarding the 

characteristics of cellulosic wastes. These have been discussed at many 

international seminars, workshops and congresses. Reviews of these 

papers (Ranjhan, 1977; Ibrahim, 1981 ; Doyle et al., 1985) indicate that 

crop residues have both physical and chemical constraints limiting their 

use for optimum animal production. 

The physical limitation which results in low voluntary intake (1.5 

- 2.0%) is governed by the amount ofmaterial in the reticulo-rumen, their 

rates of digestion and passage of kgesta. Therefore, mechanical 

processes associated with kgestion namely, particle size, balance of 

nutrients and rates ofmicrobial fermentation are important to increase the 

level of intake. The digestibility of the dry matter is between 37 - 43% 

with 0% digestible crude protein and 43% TDN.

Nutritional packages in buflalo production 

The chemical limitation of cereal straw is that they are poor in 

energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. There is considerable variation 

in the chemical composition which is affected by variety, fertilizer 

application, stage of harvesting and post harvest management. Lignin 

and silica tend to limit the digestibility of rice straw. Leguminous 

straws/residues (peanut, bean, cajanus, etc.) are rich in protein ranging 

fiom 5-9% and are more palatable. 

Utilization of Crop Residues 

Cereal straws (rice, maize, etc.) are the main feed resource for 

buffaloes in Asia specially in the Indian subcontinent, because of the 

shortage of green fodder during the djl season. At present, the main use 

of cellulosic wastes in buffalo feeding for growth (meat) and milk 

production is narmdly as a basal feed in different proportions along with 

forage crops (green grasslgrazing ) and concentrate feeds (brans, palm 

kernel, etc.). When given in high proportions in diets either for 

maintenance, growth, or milk production, animals lose production mainly 

due to low voluntary feed intake. This is further confounded by low 

digestibility and inadequate supply of protein, minerals and vitamins. 

Normally cereal straws are not given as the sole feed. By 

experience, farmers have learnt that given alone, these would affect the 

performance of the+,yimals. In a number of experiments, straws have 

been fed solely (1 00%) to animals. When fed singly all their limitations 

in terms of physical and chemical characteristic are manifested in the 

animal's performance as they are consumed in amounts insufficient to 

meet the energy and protein requirements of adult and producing animals 

(Ranjhan, 1977). Mature swamp buffaloes fed straw, lost 80-1 00 g daily 

(Castillo et al., 1982; Cheva-isarakul and Cheva-isarakul, 1984; 

Wanapat et al., 1982). 

Legminous stradresidues fed alone maintain live weights and 

also sustain limited production. Residual fodder like cowpea, &er

S,K. Ranjhan 

removal of pods can sustain a growth rate of 400-450 g/d in calves when 

fed for 120 days (Ranjhan, 1977). 

Both the level afintake,and the digestibility of the straws can be 

increased by providing supplementary nutrients. These supplementary 

feeds provide adequate nutrients tb rumen microbes for better 

fermentation of the cellulosic materials. These nutrients can be provided 

by supplementation with fermentable nitrogen in the form of urea, 

ammoniated straw or through supplementary forages (grasses) or 

concentrated by-products. Under such situations, the responses in 

growth and milk production will depend on the levels of energy, protein. 

vitamins and mnerals that would be available to the host animals. 

SUGAR CANE TOPS 

In many Asian countries, sugar cane is extensively grown in the 

irrigated areas. Sugar cane tops are available as a feed for buffaloes. 

There is a potential availability d h t 20 miltion tonnes annually. Tops 

are very palatable and a rich source of energy. When fed alone, 

supplementation of protein is necessary as they are deficient. 

GREEN FODDER 

In imgated areas green fodders like maize, cowpea, cajanus, etc. 

can be grown and are excellent feeds for buffaloes. Besides cultivated 

green fodders, green grasses are also available naturallylgrown for 

feeding buffaloes. These are cenchrus, panicum, para, stylo, etc. 

AGRO-INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS 

Few, agreindustrial by-products including non-conventional 

feeds ,(NCF) are available fiom the millin~oil extraction industries in 

Asia which can fom part of livestock feeding systems. They are: (a)

Nutritional packages in buffalo production 

energy rich supplements like molasses fkom sugar cane, pineapple wastes 

and cassava by-products; (b) protein rich supplements like oil cakes 

(copra meal, palm oil kernel meal, etc.) and (c) miscellaneous by-products 

(rice bran and rubber seeds) which supply energy and protein. 

MOLASSES 

Molasses, a by-product of the sugar industry, contains about 35- 

50% sugar depending on the quality. Molasses is used for production of 

oxalic acid, lactic acid, butanol, acetone, glycerol, yeast, mono-sodium- 

glutamate and the like. Molasses has been used also as an inexpensive 

source of energy in the ration of farm animals. 

Molasses has been used mainly in animal feeding at 5-1 0% level. 

These levels are used (a) as a carrier for urea impregnation of poor quality 

roughages like paddy straw and bagasse, (b) as a binder for commercial 

pelleted feeds for the enrichment and economic feeding of livestock and 

(c) in the production of urea-molasses-mineral blocks to supply energy, 

protein and mineral to supplement rations deficient in these nutrients. 

Liquid urea molasses feeding has also been adopted in few countries such 

as Cuba. 

APPROPRIATE NCTTRITIONAL PACKAGES 

FOR.SMALL HOLDER BUFFALO PRODUCTION 

Ruminants in general and buffaloes in particular in Asia are fed 

cellulosic wastes (straws and stovers) in variable proportions depending 

on the season and type of animal. These cellulosic wastes are deficient in 

protein, energy, minerals and vitamins which restrict their intake and 

digestibility. The most practical and traditional method is to feed 

straws/stover supplemented with green fodder available from road side 

grazing, grasses from community grazing grounds, tree leaves and 

cultivated forages (maize, cowpea, and cajanus) in different proportions 

depending on the availability of green fodders. Examples of rations based

S.K. Ranjhan 

on the above feed resources for growth, milk production and work are 

presented in Tables 2,3, and 4 respectively. 

Table 2. Feeding systems based on straws for meat production. 

1. For bull calves, 200 kg body weight (cattle and buffaloes ) 

Growth Ration 550 glday 

Qty DM. , DCP TDN ME Ca P 

(Kg) W) (Kg) (Kg) Weal) (g) (g) 

'A Paddy straw1 wheat straw1 4.0 3.6 0.00 1.6 5.60 8.0 2.0 

stover (0,40, 1.4 McaVkg) 

~oncdtrate' mixture (2.5 2.0 1.8 0.32 1.4 5.00 4.0 10.0 

Mc*g) 

Green grass (1.5, 10, 2.0 0.4 0.03 0.2 0.80 1.2 1.0 

Total 8.0 5.8 0.35 3.2 11.4 13.2 13.0 

'B. Paddy straw1 wheat straw1 2 1.8 0.00 0.8 2.8 4.0 1.0 

stover 

Concentrate mixture 0.9 0.16 0.7 2.5 2.0 5.0 

Total 28 5.2 0.64 3.5 12.1 56.0 15.6 

"C. Paddy straw 3 2.7 0.00 1.7 4.3 6.0 1.7 

Grazing , 5 1.0 0.05 0.7 2.5 2.9 2.4 

Total 18 6.2 0.35 3.6 7.8 13.2 11.1 

'Concentrate mixture consists of the locally available oil cake (copra meal, sesame cake, 

groundnot cake, cottonseed cake, etc.), bran (rice, wheat, corn etc.), chunnies, ponltry manure, 

molasses, etc. to supply 15-16 % crude protein and 65-70% TDN. 

* Most common on the organkd farms 

" Most common with the fanners


Table 3. Feeding systems based on straws for milk production. 

2. For lactating cattle/buffaloes, 450 kg B.W. and 10 litres of milk. 

Qty DM DCP TDN ME Ca P 

m) (Kg) &) rn) (Kcal) (g) (g) 

k Chaffed straw 6.0 5.4 0.0 2.4 8.4 12 3.0 

Concentrate mixture 6.0 5.4 0.9 4.4 5.6 12 30 

(copra meal, rice bran, 

corn etc.) 

Total 12 10.8 0.9 6.8 24 24 33 

B. Chaffed straw + 1.5kg concentrate mixture for maintenance is given. Thereafter for every 3kg 

milk production in cattle and 2kg of milk in buffdo, lkg concentrate mixture is fed 

3. For dry animals, 400-500 kg B.W. 

*A Paddy straw/stover/wheat 5.0 4.5 0.00 2.00 7.00 10.0 '2.5 

straw 

Concentrate mixture 1.5 1.3 0.22 1.05 3.05 3.0 7.5 

Green grass (grazing1 out 5.0 1.2 0.05 0.70 2.5 2.9 2.4 

Total 11.5 7.0 0.27 3.75 12.55 15.9 12.4 

'Concentrate mixhue consists of the locally available oil cake (copra meal, sesame cake, 

pmdnut cake, cotton4 cake, etc.), bran (rice, wheat, corn etc.), chunuies, poultry manure, 


* Most common on the organized farms 

.* Most common with the farmers

Table 4. Feeding systems based on straws for draught. 

S.K. Ranjhan 

4. For working animals, bullocks, cattle and buffaloes, 450 kg - medium work 

of 4-6 hr. 

Qty DM DCP TDN ME Ca P 

(Kg) (Kg) (Kg) rn) Wall (g) (g) 

*A Paddy straw/wheat!stover 5.0 4.5 0.00 2.00 7.00 10.0 25 

Concentrate' mixture 1.0 0.9 0.15 0.75 2.70 2.0 5.0 

(GNC/ copra meal, rice1 

wheat bran, molasses) 

Green grass (grazing1 10 2.4 0.10 1.40 5.00 5.8 4.8 

tethering1 cut and carry) 

Total 16 7.8 0.25 4.15 14.7 17.8 12.3 

'B. Paddy straw1 wheat strew1 5 4.5 0.00 2.00 7.0 10.0 2.5 

stover 

Mixed green grass available 10-15 3.6 0.15 2.10 7.5 7.7 7.2 

as grazing or cut and carry -- 

Total 13-18 8-1 0.15 4.10 14.5 17.7 9.7 

(Not a growth ration but commonly practised - growth rate only 120- 200g) 

"C. Paddy straw/ wheat straw 5.0 4.5 0.00 2.0 7.0 10.0 2.0 

Grazing1 tethering 10.0 2.4 0.10 0.4 5.0 5.8 4.8 

GNCI bran 0.8 0.7 0.32 0.6 2.2 1.0 4.0 

-- 

Total 15.8 7.6 0.42 4.0 14.2 16.8 11.3 

'Concentrate mixture consists of the locally available ail cake (copra meal, sesame cake, 

groundnut cake, cotton& cake, etc.), bran (rice, whe'at, corn etc.), chunnies, poultry manure, 


* Most common on the organized farms 

** Most common with the farmers 

Straws are either fed dried and long (in many South Asian Countries) 

or chaffed and soaked (India). Similarly, the concentrate mixture is fed dry 

or soaked overnight and prepared as 'sani' by mixing the soaked straw with 

soaked, cooked concentrate mixture and fed to the animals (India).


With leguminous green forages (ipil ipil, cowpea) the ratio of straw 

to green is 3: 1 for maintenance and 1 : 1 for yearling growing buffalo calves on 

dry matter basis, growing at a rate of 300-400 g/head per day. Any reduction 

in the availability of green forage would aEect production. 

For.bu£€.aloes at a production level of 4-5 litres of milk, leguminous 

fodders and straw are required in a ratio of 1 :1 on dry matter basis. When 

consumed at the rate of 2.5-2.7% of the body weight, the protein and enerm 

requirements for 4-5 litres milk would be satisfied. 

Supplementation with Concentrates 

Another strategy in feeding cellulosic wastes .to the buffaloes for 

growth and milk production is the feeding of by-product concentrates. This 

is commonly practised in many developing countries of Asia such as India, 

the Philippines, Indonesia and Pakistan. The by-product concentrates 

commonly available are copra meal, palm oil kernel cake, rice bran, cassava 

chips, rubber seed meal, etc. 

The by-product concentrate mixtures prepared and fed at a level 1.5 

kg along with crop residues will meet the requirements for maintenance. 


1. Straws (mostly rice followed by wheat) still constitute a major 

component of the ruminant diet in many countries of the Indian 

subcontinent and a few Southeast Asian countries. 

2. For improving their nutritive value, supplementation with 

grassesltree leavesflegumes and concentrates have become traditional 

feeding practices and are adopted by the fanners. The introduction 

of new technology of supplementing the straw with urea-molasses 

impregnation andlor feeding with urea-molasses blocks in the 

villages need extension efforts by the national governments as has 

been done in China

een done in China. 

S.K. Ranjhan 

3. Feeding straw mixed with green leguminous fodder/tree leaves like 

ipil-ipil, glyricidia, erithrina, etc., in ratios of 75:25 and 50: 50 are 

good maintenance and growMactation rations, respectively, which 

can be extended in the villages. 

References 

Castillo, L.S., Roxas, D.B., Chavez, MA, Momongan,V.G. and Ranjhan S.K. 

(1982) Effect of chopping and soaking rice straw on their voluntary intake 

by carabaos. Second Austro-Asian Anim. Prod. Congress, PICC, Manila, 

November, 1982. 

Cheva-karakul, B. and Cheva-isarakul, B. (1984) Comparison of the intake and 

digestibility of dserent crop residues by sheep, cattle and buffaloes. In: 

The Utilization ofFibres Agricultural Residues as Animal Feeds. Ed. P.T. 

Doyle, school of Agriculture and Forestry. University of Melbourne, 

Australia. pp 88-97. 

Doyle, P.T., Devendra, C. and Pearce, G.R. (1985) Rice Straw -as a Feed for 

Ruminants. Int. Development Programme of Australian Universities and 

Colleges, Canberra, Australia. 

Ibrahim, M.N.M. (1981) Physical, chemical, physio - chemical and biological 

treatment of crop residues. In: The Utilization of Fibrous agricultural 

Residues. Ed. G.R Pearce, Australian ~ovenunent Publishing Service. 

Canberra. pp 53-68. 

Jackson. M.G. (1977) FA0 Hqs, Rome. 

Khajarem, S. and Khajarem, J. (1980) Proceeding of the International Workshop 

on "Studies on Feed Composition, Data Documentation and Feeding 

Systems in the APHCA Region, P.86. 

Ranjhan, S.K. (1977) Animal Nutrition and Feeding Practices in India. Vikas 

Publ. House, New Deh. 

Wanapat, M. P r d S., Chanthai, S. and Sivapragon, A. (1982) Effects on rice 

straw Utilization of treatment with ammonia released from urea and or 

supplementation with Cassava chips. In: The utilization of Fibrous 

Agricultural Residues as Animal Feeds. Ed. P.T. Doyle, University of 

Melbourne Printing Service, Victoria, Australia.

STUDY OF THE GRAZING BEHAVIOUR AND 

FORAGE UTILIZATION OF FREE RANGE BUFFALO 

HERDS 

H. Peiris and A. Perera 

Veterinary Research Institute, 

Gannonnua, Peradeniya, 

SRl LANU 

Abstract: A study was conducted to investigate the grazing behaviour of free 

range buffalo herds in relation to the forage quality. Four experiments were 

conducted under field conditions using twenty four buffaloes, covering both dry 

and wet seasons of the year and their behaviour in relation to the forage quality 

was monitored over a twenty four hour period in each study. Results revealed 

that animals grazing natural forages under coconut spent sigdcantly (P

Study of grazing behaviour and forage utilization 

availability for pasture cultivation. As a result, these animals walk rather 

long &stances for grazing to meet their nutritional needs. In general, 

these animals derive their feed fiom natural herbage grown along the road 

sides, fallowed paddy fields and in coconut plantations. Therefore under 

the present situation, fiee range buffaloes are totally dependent on the 

natural herbage. Since supplementary feeding is not a common practice 

under small hdder systems, it is very ~mportant to evaluate the nutritional 

status of the natural herbage and to study the grazing behavlour of fiee 

range buffaloes in relation to the herbage quality. 


This experiment was carried out at the bullhlo research farm, 

~aran~alla located in the dry-intermediate zone of Sri Lanka. Two half 

an acre grazing fields with natural herbage and cultivated with B. 

milIiformis pasture under coconut were selected for the behaviour study 

and these fields were fenced off separately in order to restrict the 

movements of the animals during the observation period. Each 

experimental site had natural facillities for wallowing and drinking. The 

B. millIformis pasture field was included in the present study with a view 

to comparing the behaviour pattern under improved pasture. 

Twenty four buffaloes (12 males and 12 females), ,with body 

weights ranging fiom 160 - 180 kg were selected and an equal number of 

males and females were randomly allocated into two experimental sites. 

Each animal was tagged with a luminous number to enable identification 

in the dark during the behavioural study. The movements and the 

behaviour of each animal were recorded over a period of 24 hours (fiom 

8 am to 8 am on the following day). The two experiments were carried 

out concurrently and four such behavioural studies (two in the dry season 

and two in the wet season) were carried out during two consecutive 

years. 

A separate record sheet was maintained for each animal and their 

behaviour and movements such as time spent on grazing, walking,


ruminating etc. were recorded against time. Herbage samples &om both 

experimental sites were taken before and after each grazing period using 

a 1x1 metre quadrat for determination of the botanical and chemical 

composition. A representative sub-sample was taken before and after 

grazing and separated for identification of different species. A 

representative sub-sample was taken and dried at 70" C for 48 hours for 

determinabon of dry matter (DM). The dned material was then ground 

to pass through a 2 mm screen and used-for determination of crude 

protein (CP) according to AOAC (1 960), fibre wan Soest, 1963) and 

mineral analysis (wet digestion). Data were analysed according to 2x2 

factorial design discribed by Steel and Tome, (1960). 


Table 1 shows the behavioural pattern of buffaloes during the 

wet and dry season under free range conditions. Results revealed that 

animals spent sigdcantly (P4.01) more time on grazing during the wet 

season when compared with the dry season. However, animals on B. 

millijormis pasture spent more time grazing and less time resting and 

ruminating than those grazing native pastures. 

Tables 2 and 3 show the nutritive value of herbage sampled 

during the dry and wet seasons of the year. Results indicate that the 

native pastures contain significantly higher lignin and lower calcium and 

phosphorus contents when compared with B. milliformis pasture. 

The results suggest that animals spent more time ruminating 

when the herbage contains a higher lignin &action. This shows that these 

animals have to spend more time breaking down the forage fraction in the 

rumen and as a result animals have to utilize more energy for digestion of 

low quality natural forages than the B. milliformis pastures. On the other 

hand, animals on natural pastures spent more time on walking and less 

time on grazing suggesbng that these animals were more selective when 

grazing natural pastures when compared to B. millijormis pastures. This 

selectivity is probably associated with the botanical composition of the


herbage grazed by the animals (Table 4 and 5), since the percentage of 

weeds present in natural pastures was significantly higher than that in B. 

millifomis. 

Table 1. Behaviour of fiee range buffaloes during the wet and dry 

seasons over a 24-hour period. 

% Time spent on 

Forage Grazing Walking Resting Ruminating Number of 

*(%resting) Drinks UR DF 

Wet Season 

Native grass 29.8 3.7 63.4 42.8 3 2 3 

Brachiaria grass 6 1.1 1.1 37.1 14.1 4 2 4 

Dry Season 

Native grass 10.6 1.2 88.2 78.8 6 1 2 

Brachiaria grass 34.2 0.5 65.3 57.8 5 1 2 

LSD (0.01) 10.3 0.8 9.6 5.9 0.5 - 

j UR - urination; DF - defeacation 

*the value expressed as a percentage of resting time. 

Table 2. The organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), acid detergent 

fibre(ADF) and total ash content of herbage grazed. 

OM % CP % ADF % Lignin % Total Ash 

Wet Season 

Native grass 93.2 4.7 43.8 7.8 7.2 

Brachiaria grass 92.2 6.9 41.6 5.6 9.8 

Dry Season 

Native grass 73.1 2.9 56.8 9.2 64.5 

Brachiaria grass 78.9 4.1 55.7 8.9 55.3 

LSD (0.01) 3.7 0.9 5.6 1.9 1.1


Table 3. The mineral composition of herbage grazed by buffaloes. 

Ca P Cu Zn Mg 

(mglg) (Wg) W g ) @pm/g) @pm/g) 

Wet Season 

Native grass 1.49 0.98 5.92 46.92 1.99 

Brachialia grass 2.74 1.17 8.35 44.93 2.49 

Dry Season 

Native grass 

Brachiaria grass 

LSD (0.01) 

Table 4. Botanical composition of native grazing field. 

Species % Composition in terms of DM 

Wet season Dry season 

Grass 60 45 

Axonopus afhnis 54 3 0 

Pogonatherum crinitum 03 07 

Chrysopogom aciculatus 03 08 

Weeds 40 55 

Urena lobotes 12 15 

Bewila 10 15 

Desmodium triflorum 04 05 

Mimosa pudica 04 05 

Anamirta cocculus 04 05 

Phy llanslius debilis 04 05 

Desmodium heterophyllum 02 05


Table 5. Botanical composition of B. miIIiformis grazing field. 

Species % Composition in terns of DM 

Wet season Dry seson 

Weeds 15 30 

Alysicarpus vaginalis 02 06 

Desmodium triflorum 04 06 

Mimosa pudica 09 18 

The behaviour pattern of &ee range buffaloes has a high 

correlation with the quaLity of herbage. The regression equation related 

to time spent on grazing and the nitrogen content of the herbage shows 

the following association (r=0.96). 

Y = '0.012 X + 0.012 

Where Y is the time spent on grazing and 

X is the nitrogen content of herbage. 

A similar high correlation (~0.92) was observed between the resting 

time of fiee range animals and the lignin content of the herbage grazed by 

the animals. The regression equation relating to the above parameters is 

given below. 

Y = 0.072 X + 3.29 

Where Y is the resting time and 

X is the lignin content of the herbage. 

The present study susests that there is a positive relationship between 

the quality of pasture and the behaviour of animals under fiee range 

conditions. Furthermore, this relationship could be used in the evaluation 

of forage species under field condition.


In conclusion, the present study provides some information on 

the relationship between animal behaviour and the quality of the forages 

eaten by fiee range buffaloes reared in coconut plantations. Since thts 

management system is very common among small holder livestock 

farmers in the coconut triangle of Sri Lanka, the animals reared under 

these condttions do not get su£licient good quality feeds to meet their 

nutritional needs. They spend more time selecting feed whlch obviously 

is an inefficient way of utilizing their energy. Therefore one could not 

expect to observe any better performances fiom animals reared under 

such management conditions. The introduction of a suitable 

supplementary feeding system for buffaloes reared under fiee range would 

be an advantage. 


The authors wish to thank Dr.M.C.L.De Alwis, Additional 

Director of the Department of hmal Production & Health, Peradeniya 

and Dr. H. Abeygunawardena of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine for 

providing the facilities at the Buffalo Research Farm at Narangalla and 

the SARECNARESA Buffalo Research Programme for financial 

support. 

References 

AOAC (1960) Oficial Methods of Analysis, 10th edition, ed. W. Horwitz. 

Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, Washington D. C., 

pp.832. 

Steel, R.G.D. and Torrie, J.H. (1960) Principles and Procedures of Statistzcs. 

McGraw - Hill Book Company, New York. pp 48 1. 

Perera, B.M.A.O., Ranawana, S.S.E., Fernando, S.T., Jalatge, E., Kuruwita, 

V.Y., De Alwis, M.C.L. and Weilgama, D.J. (1991) The Sri Lanka 

Water Buffalo. Science Education Series. No 31, NARESA, 

Colombo. 

Van Soest, P.J. (1963) Use of detergents in the analysis of fibrous feeds 11. 

J. Assoc. Agr~c. Chem. 46,829.

TEE NWTRITIONAL STATUS OF INDIGENOUS 

BUFFALOES WITH RESPECT TO SELECTED 

MICRONUTRIENTS 

S.S.E. Ranawana, J. Dharmawardana, A.W.A.S. Abeysekara, 

A.A. J. Rajaratne, G.D. J.K. Gunaratne and E.M.C. Ekanayake 

Veterinary Research Institute. 

Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, 

SRI LANKA 

Abstract: An earlier survey of the mineral status of buffaloes on 

smallholdings in Sri Lanka based on analysis of blood taken in a single visit 

revealed inadequacies of several essential minerals. The present follow-up 

investigation was desgned to study these minerals in more depth and to include 

the fat-soluble vitamins A and E which, according to other available evidence, 

are likely candidates for deficiencies. Ancillary information was also collected 

so as to relate the stittus to indices of production and health. 

Five locations representative of the main buffalo production systems, 

namely, Rambukkana, KuliyapitiyaJPannala, Mihintale, Tisssamaharama and 

Thanamalwila were visited and up to 10 farmers were selected fiom each area. 

From each herd, one cow and its calfwere chosen for the study. The visits were 

planned to coincide with a major ohange in the annual calendar of buffalo 

management; for example, in Rambukkana, they were visited just after paddy 

was planted, after harvest and just before the cultivation season so as to 

wmplete an annual cycle.. Apart from taking blood samples, observations were 

made at mtervals on other ancillary information, particularly in relation to feed 

availability. 

Altogether 33 field visits were made over a period of 24 months, of 

which 18 were in dry seasons and 15 during wet. Feed availability was found 

to be limited at 7 visits but adequate at other times. A total of 365 blood samples 

were collected, of which 186 were fiom calves and the balance from cows. 

Most of the blood samples have been analysed for PCV, haemoglobin and for 

the selenium enzyme,. glutathione peroxidase. Analysis of plasma for the 

different minerals and vitamins is not yet complete;

Nutritional status of selected micronutrients . 

Measurements of chest guth showed that in the dry zone locations of 

Mlhintale and Tissamaharama/Thanamalwila, the animals lost weight in 

August/September. Haematocrit values, an index of general body condition, 

were also low in cows at Tissamaharama duritlg this time. Values for PCV were 

below normal in many of the calves at Mihintale. Activity levels of the enzyme 

glutathione peroxidase were inadequate in only 9 out of 159 measured; of these 

7 were calves. 

Examination of the animals revealed abnormalities in the skin and coat 

in 60% of the calves and 40% of the cows. The lesions on the calves consisted 

mady of excessive hair growth or dry, scaly skin. In cows, abnormalities 

manifested themselves mainly as a dry and scaly skin, often with a rash. A 

sigdicant number also had depigmentation of hair, particularly on the face. 

Once the plasma analyses are completed, the status for the different 

micronutrients will be related to these &dings. 

Keywords: Buffalo, nutrition, micronutrients

' 

Session HI- Nutrition and Feeding 


Q: C. Chantalakhana - The term strategies means not only nutritional. I 

think you have already presented excellent data on nutritional 

improvement of fibrous feeds. In my experience, when one talks of 

strategies in nutrition other dimensions like collection of fibrous residues, 

transport and storage could be included. I would like to hear your views, 

Dr. Thu on strategies of utilization of byproducts. Generally, when there 

is a greater demand for one byproduct like rice straw, the cost may 

increase and it would not be economical to use such products. Then there 

is also competition for its use in other industries, for example, the use of 

rice straw in the production of paper pulps etc. Thailand exports dried 

sugar cane tops to Japan and the cost in Thailand is high. 

A: N V. Thu - Rice straw is collected, chopped .and stored by .the 

farmers for feeding of animals. However, if it is left in the field, it will go 

waste. It is very diflicult to collect and store good rice straw during rainy 

season. In Vietnam, studies have been done on methods of storage. 

Q: T.N. Jayatilake - One of your transparencies shows that the overall 

utilization of fibrous feed residues by farmers is disappointing. Can you 

elaborate on this? 

A: N.V. Thu - In Vietnam there in ample rice straw available, but the 

farmers let it go waste and as a result there is even pollution of canals. 

The farmers generally keep buffaloes for work in Vietnam. They do not 

benefit fiom feedmg urea treated rice straw. We did research on treated 

straw for a long time but this is not being used in the field. 

Q: C. Devendra - Sri Lanka has a good track record of nutrition research 

on utilization affibrous residues. Has the time come to shift the emphasis 

away fiom the laboratory to the farm? Ideally, the emphasis should now 

be 80% research at farm level and 20% at the laboratory level. Are you 

going to continue to pursue fundamental research which really will not 

cater to the needs of poor farmers? The second question is, if there are 

problems at farm level, I think we must address these. Is there lack of 

understanding on such problems or are there some faults in project 

design? I like to get some feedback. 

A: A.N.F. Perera - We have been doing a lot of fundamental research. 

The university has limited resources to go out and work with farmers. 

Extension is not a function of the University. We collaborate with 

Department of Animal Production and Health and National Livestock 

Development Board who have a strong linkage with the farmers.

Session 111 - ~utrition and feeding 

Q: H. Abeygunawardena - I would like to know what are the feeding 

systems easily applicable to the farmers? What is the optimum level of 

feeding rice straw and ipil-ipil for different genotypes and dfferent 

production systems? Can these be incorporated into feeding packages 

that can be extended to a poor farmer? 

A: S.K. Ranjhan - I entirely agree with Dr. Devendra because we have 

conducted so many research studies. However, we have not conducted 

on-farm research so as to get participation of the farmers. If the farmer 

participates in the trials, then he will readily accept those technologies. 

Otherwise the technologies that we generate in the institutes or the 

universities m y not be accepted because the farmer has not participated 

in those trials. 

Q: D.K. Singh - In India 39,000 on-farm trials have been conducted. The 

farmers recognize that there is a marginal benefit. As long as trials are 

conducted and funded by someone else, farmers are ready to accept on- 

farm trials. But when we checked subsequently after the trials have 

ended, the farmers have discontinued to use the technologies. 

Q: K.K. Pathirana - It would have been more useful if you had looked at 

the changes in body weight. We are indiscriminately using the terms 

'urea treatment' and 'urea supplementation' and actually what you have 

done in your study is supplementation. In urea treatment a high 

concentration of urea is used to affect a change in the chemical nature of 

the roughage. 

A: R. Sivakanesan - In fact, one of the tables present a decline in body 

weight. In both the control and urea supplemented groups we observed 

a decline in body weight, post-calving when compared to the precalving 

situation. The supplemented group had a lesser decline in body weight 

even though it was not statistically significant. 

Q: I.D. Silva - Could not the normal BUN level indicate the normal 

kidney fbnction? What is the normal BUN level in buffalo? 

- A: E.R.K. Perera - Normal levels are not known for buffaloes but these 

levels are comparable with those established for cattle. 

Q: C. Devendra - Is Sri Lanka ready to address the problem of feeding 

domestic ruminants throughout the year? How can we shift the emphasis 

to on-farm trials so that we could adopt the research findngs to the farms.

Discussion 

A: S.K. Ranjhan - I agree with Dr.Devendra. First, we have to study 

what are the feeding systems in Sri Lanka with regard to different agro- 

climatic zones. What are the constraints and how with the known 

technologies could one intervene to obtain optimum results with 

minimum inputs? Then conduct on-farm trials and see the results where 

the fmer is participating. If the farmer gets any benefit out of it then he 

will go for it. We have as yet not developed the appropriate technologies 

to suit different agro-emlogical zones. It is high time that we thrnk of our 

fbture approach towarcls nutrition research. 

Q: B.MAO. Perera- I wonder whether a nutritionist could comment on 

this? 

A: M.N.M. Ibrahim - I thnk what we have been adopting was a lab to 

land technology. During the last four-five years, there has been resource 

based studies in Sri Lanka but in my opinion what is lacking is that we 

have not looked into what is needed in the field. On the other hand, we 

have ample technologies and what we should do is to comprehensively 

review the data that are available. If we identifi the needs of the fanners, 

then we wdl have tailor-made kits for farmers. However, we should test 

these on farms. 

Comment: J.A. de S. Siriwardene - There is a communication gap 

between the researcher, extension worker and the farmer. We know that 

farmers need to feed during the dry season and farmers are demanding 

information on how to feed their animals during the dry season. We have 

developed very good technologies. I think there is something missing in 

the Idage between the researcher and the farmer. With regard to straw 

feeding, straw is available in the fields which are located at a distance 

fiom the homestead. During the harvesting season farmers are busy and 

they are not able to spend time in collecting, transporting or storing 

straw. 

Comment: Sujatha Premaratne - Our buffalo h ers keep buffaloes as 

a source of supplementary income. They do not use treated straw as it is 

expensive and they are not prepared to spend time on such activities. 

Urea supplementation is possible at 2% level. What we should be doing 

is to use fodders that are fieely available even in the dry zone as feed 

supplements. 

Comment: A.N.F. Perera - I have a different opinion. No matter how 

good the research and extension services are, if the farmer is not ready to 

accept it., even with most appropriate technologies available, it will not be 

possible to convince the farmer. We know that some dairy farmers ask 

285

Session 111 - Nutrition and feeding 

for help but some are not willing to accept it, even if you go to their 

doorstep. 

Comment: H. Abeygunawardena - It is clear fiom the discussion that 

we have failed to transmit new technologies to Sri Lankan farmers. 

Probably this could be atbibuted to awrong approach. In the light of this 

experience, in our program what we have been doing is to work through 

the existing extension network and provide continuing education with the 

hope of effectively disseminating our extension message to the farmers. 

I would like to invite all the nutritionists present here to work with us to 

carry out on-farm trials in the Mahaweli area, during next three years. 

Comment: N.H. Shah - The linkage between researcher and extension 

worker is not there in most of the developing countries. In Palustan we 

are trymg to establish proper linkages between the researcher, extension 

worker and the farmer. We have to recopze that there are different 

types of farmers. Subsistence farmers are very often reluctant to adopt 

new technologies. 

Comment: C. Devendra - Clearly a methodological approach that will 

distinctly deliver technologies to farmers is missing. Somehow there is 

a failure to address how research can be driven over time, that can be 

translated and delivered. Need for solidarity of different disciplines is 

required and this could be addressed by adopting agricultural system 

based education. 

Comment: N.H. Shah - Basic research is required to understand the 

buffalo properly and this type of research should be carried out under 

controlled conditions. 

Q: N.H. Shah - India is the leading country in upgrading buffalo. Is India 

doing anything regarding conservation of germ-plasm? 

A: S.K. Ranjhan - We are a part of the FA0 project that is aimed at 

preservation of indigenous breeds. 

Q: C. Chantalakhana - In China farmers adopted new technology of 

treated straw widely. Use of treated straw increased fiom 3 thousand to 

11 million metric tonnes over the years. Could you give reasons for this 

fast adoption of technology? 

A: S.K. Ranj han - I think it was started under a UNDP project and 

farmers have found it to be useful and also being a sociahst country it 

would have been little easier to transfer the technology. 

286

Discussion 

Q: S.S.E. Ranawana - In India about 60% of forage fed to ruminants 

consist of crop residues. Is the figure right? Is that based on energy or 

weight? 

A: S.K. Ranjhan - It is based on production and consumption. 

However, these figures have been arrived at by doing random surveys. 

The quantities that are fed to animals depend on the physiological state 

of the animal also. 

Q: V. Momongen - Do the animals graze more during night time? 

A: H. Peiris: Yes, but I have not indicated it here. 

Q: N.U.Horadagoda - Did you look at the intestinal parasites in the 

calves you described in your paper? 

A: S.S.E. Ranawana - We did not look at the intestinal parasites. 

However, most of these animals had been dewormed and also these signs 

were seen in 50-60% of the animals. 

Q: R. Sivakanesan - On what basis did you conclude that the levels 

were deficient especially in the absence of norms? 

A: S.S.E. Kanawana - We used the values published for cattle. As we 

had a large sample, we could even use the survey to work out normal 

values.

THE IMPORTANCE OF REPRODUCTIVE 

EFFICIENCY IN SUCCESSFUL BUFFALO DAIRY 

FARMING 

S. N. H. Shah 

Center of Animal Biotechnology 

P.O.Box No.121, Veterinary Research Institute, Peshawar, 

PAKISTAN 

Abstract: The buffalo is an important dairy animal in third world countries. 

In India, Pakistan and Egypt, the buffalo is the principal dairy animal producing 

a high quantity of milk with a high fat percentage when compared to Zebu cows. 

The economy of milk production depends largely on the reproductive efficiency 

of the concerned animals. The financial loss caused by sub-optimal 

reproductive performance of dairy buffalo herds is an important issue for large 

and small fanners. Education of the farmers has a favourable effect (P

Improving reproduction in river type buflaloes 

P&stan, but they contribute 52% and 71% of the total milk production 

in the two countries respectively (Table 1). 

Table 1. Buffalo milk as a percentage of total milk production in lndia 

and Pakistan. 

Country Population Buffalo milk Reference 

(millions) (%I 

Cattle Buffalo 

In&a 

Pakistan 

Pronk, 1992 

Shah, 1991 

In Pakistan buffaloes are kept only for milk production. Peri- 

urban commercial milk production has developed rapidly in response to 

growing urban milk demand, and also because of difficulties of collecting 

and transporting fluid milk fiom rural production areas. The trend in 

mitk production during the past several years has been strongly in favour 

of buffaloes, mainly because of the consumer preference for buffalo milk. 

In Pakistan about 71% of the total milk is produced by buffaloes. 

Seventy percent of the total 13 million buffalo population is owned by 

landless and smd farmers with land holdings ranging fiom 0.5 to 5.5 

hectares. The average number of buffaloes per household is 2 to 3 

animals. Some commercial buffalo production units of 20 to 200 heads 

have been established, and many others are under consideration. At the 

start most of them have a high percentage of female buffaloes in 

production, but wth time this percentage declines due to reproductive 

failures, resulting in a considerable share of the total feed being consumed 

by dry buffaloes and their progeny. 

The average milk yield of first three lactations of regstered and 

recorded Nili-Ravi dairy buffaloes at four Government livestock farms 

ranged fiom 1602 to 4353 kg, while the yield of rural buffaloes which

S. N. H. Shah 

have been registered, identified and production recorded under the 

program titled "Studies required for development of progeny tested bulls 

to improve milk production in Punjab" ranged from 1618 to 4535 kg. 

The average milk yield of 1243 rural buffaloes recorded in 17 villages was 

found to be 2061 kg (Shah, 1991), and that of buffalo dairy fanns under 

the Herd Health Program of the Center of Animal Biotechnology was 7.5 

litres per buffalo per day (Shah, 1994). 

Nili-Ravi and Kundi are the two important breeds of dairy 

buffalo in Pakistan. About four decades back, the Nili and Ravi were 

considered two separate breeds as described by Indian Imperial Council 

of Agricultural Research (1 941) and they derived their names from the 

Blue (Nili) water of the Sutlej River and the Valley of the Ravi River, 

respectively. However due to fiequent movements of men and animals 

both breeds lost their distinctive attributes and experts decided to group 

Nili and Ravi strains as one breed under the common name Nili-Ravi. 

The Kundi breed derives its name ffom the shape of its horns. A 

typical' specimen of this breed would possess horns in the shape of a 

curve, thick at the base and pointed at the tip forming a well-shaped ring 

called "Kundi". It was first briefly described as Kun& by Ware (1942). 

Ulvi (1927) described these animals as Murrah-Sindhi buffaloes. They 

closely resemble the Murrah and are considered a geographical type of 

the same. 

REPRODUCTION 

- 

It is noted that average calving intervals are usually htgh (from 

471 to 585 days) in many countries where buffaloes are reared (Shah, 

1990). The losses due to prolonged calving intervals are summarized as 

follows. loss of* excessive additional feed costs, delay in replacement 

of stock, disinterest of the farmer in open and dry buffaloes resulting in 

further' deterioration of the atumals, culling of potentially productive 

animals, and the fact that the farmer is compelled to sell the animal at a 

low price.

Improving reproduction in river type buffaloes 

Shah et al. (1 989) observed that on average a buffalo is able to 

complete 4.8 lactations. However, as only 17.2% of the buffaloes have 

calving intervals of less than 400 days, only thts limited number of 

buffaloes can complete 6 lactations during their lifetime. It is a 

tremendous loss to the herd's economy. Shah et al. (1991) observed that 

in Nili-Ravi bu&loes the annual milk yield decreased by an average of 2 

kg per day when the calving kterval increased fiom 365 to 635 days. 

They recommended that initiation of fertility control programs should be 

a high priority by the Veterinary services of the country. 

A survey was conducted in 100 Livestock farms of cattle and 

buffalo in 13 villages of Dera Ismial'Khan district to investigate the status 

of farmer education, land utilization pattern, herd size and composition, 

nutrition of the animals, reproductive management and fertility problems 

(Shah, 1995). There were 366 cattle and 477 buffaloes in these farms. 

Among the cattle population, 60% were of local non-descriptive type, 

while among the buffaloes Nili-Ravi was the predominant breed. 

Majority ofthe farmers (61%) used their own land for fodder cultivation 

ranging fiom 0.5 to 6.25 acres. 

Farmer education had a favourable effect (P4.05) on 

reproductivehealth management. The following criteria were used for 

assessing the reproductive management practised by farmers in the 

project area; heat detection methods; time of detection; correct mating 

time, preference for restricted mating in suitable seasons, culling and 

herd replacement practices; and keeping of reproductive records. 

Based on the above information the management was divided 

into the following three categories: Good (70-100% successful 

adaptation of the above parameters); Fair (50-70% successful 

adaptation); and Poor (below 50% successful adaptation). 

Good, fa^ and poor categories ofreproductive management were 

found in 22, 45, and 33% of the farmers, respectively. These 

management practices had significant effects on the incidence of 

anoestrus in both cows (X0.05) and buffaloes (P

HERD HEALTH PROGRAMME (HHP) 

S. N. H. Shah 

A Herd Health Programme @lW) which is unique in Palustan 

has been initiated in the North-West Frontier Province by the Center of 

Animal Biotechnology (CAB), Veterinary Research Institute, Peshawar 

in March 1992. The programme has been designed to provide Veterinary 

and advisory services to the registered farmers for solving problems in 

health and reproduction. 

The programme is mainly focussed on fertility control. In the 

HHP more emphasis is placed on preventive medicine such as regular 

vaccination, fertility control, nutrition and management. Non-pregnant 

animals are identifled by examination per rectum and treated to get them 

pregnant within 60 days of the previous parturition. Fertility 

management is supported by the milk progesterone EIA test. All the 

animals are ear tagged and record cards are maintained at CAB with 

information on the reproduction, health and production of each milking 

animal. A chart for reproduction and health data and a register for milk 

production printed in Urdu language are supplied to the farmers for 

keeping records of their animals. 

In the first year dthe programme, fertility status of the registered 

farms was judged by the following formula recommended by Shah et al. 

(1 989): 

Where: F.S. = Fertility status 

FSCR = First service conception rate 

NC = No. of services per conception 

PC = Parturition to conception 

interval

Improving reproduction in river type buffaloes 

Normally values ranged fiom 0 to 95. Farms having the ideal 

level of reproductive efficiency will have a value of 95. We observed that 

only three f ms had ideal values. Overall average F.S. of all regstered 

herds was 30. This indicates that reproductive status ~f the buffalo dairy 

farms registered under HHP was very low. The data is under analysis but 

prehnary results indcated that after adoption of the HHP average F.S. 

increased to 50 and average calving interval of regstered farms decreased 

fiom 5 1 7 to 480 days. 

References 

Indian Imperial Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) (1941) A brief 

survey of some of the important breeds of cattle in India. Part 11. Prize 

winners at the first All-India Cattle Show, Delhi. Miscellaneous 

Bulletln No. 24. 

Pronk, F. (1992) Trends in livestock dalry production and polic~es in Asia. In: 

International Workshop on Livestock Production in Rural 

Development, LAC Wagenitlgen, The Netherlands. pp 82-93. 

Shah, N.H. (1995) A Study on fertility problems in small village herds of cattle 

and buffaloes in D.I. Khan District. MSc Thes~, Department of 

Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary 

Sciences, NWFP Agriculture University, Peshawar, Pakistan. 

Shah, S.K. (1991) BuSfaloes of Pakistan. Pakistan Agriculture Research 

Council, Islamabad, Palustan. 

Shah, S.N.H. (1994) Annual Progress Report of Center ofAnimal 

Biotechnology, P.O.Box No. 121, Peshawar, Pakistan. 

Shah, S.N.H., Dijkhuizen, A.A., Willemse, AH. and van de Wiel, D.F.M. 

(1991) Economic aspects of reproductive failure in dairy buffaloes of 

Pakistan. Preventive Veterznaiy Mediclne 11, 147- 155. 

Shah, S.N.H., Willemse, AH., van de Wiel, D.F.M. and Engel, B. (1989) 

Influence of season and parity on several reproductive parameters of 

Nih-Ravi buffaloes. Animal Reproduction Science 21,177- 190. 

Shah, S.N.H. (1990) Prolonged calving intervals in the buffalo. PhD Thesis, 

Utrecht University, The Netherlands. 

Ulvi, A.M. (1927) Murrah Buffaloes in Sind. Bombay Department of 

Agrrculture Bulletin 134,6.

S. N. H. Shah 

Ware, F. (1942) A further survey of some important breeds of cattle and 

buffaloes in India Delhi Imperial Council of Agriculture Research, 

Miscellaneous Bulletin 54,16.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF REPRODUCTION AND 

PRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS 

SWAMP AND EXOTIC RIVER BUFFALOES 

IN SRI LANKA 

H. Abeygunawardena, W.D. Abayawansa and B.M. A.O. Perera 

Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary 

Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, 

SRl LANU 

Abstract: The muhpurpose, indigenous swamp buffalo (Lanka buffalo) forms 

an integral component of nual crop-Livestock production systems. With a view 

to increasing the dairy characteristics of the indigenous buffalo population, 

exotic river buffaloes were imported into the country from time to time. They 

are maintained in state livestock fanns and the progeny, primarily males, are 

issued to small holders for upgrading their indigenous animals. A retrospective 

'study wis undertaken by analyzing farm records to assess the reproductive and 

productive performance of the three main exotic river types, Surti (S), Murrah 

(M), and Nili-Ravi (N) with those of the Lanka (L) buffalo. The mean values 

recorded for S, M, N and L respectively were: birth weight (kg) 27.1,27.6,30.1 

and 17.9; prepubertal growth rate (kg/d) 0.25,0.46,0.52 and 0.16; age at fist 

calving (months) 51.8,55.0,52.1 and 44.9 and calving interval (days) 482,5 10, 

491 and 507. S, M and L showed a clear seasonal calving pattern with 69%, 

68% and 68% of calvings respectively occurring during the period September 

to January. The mean lactation yield (litres) and lactation length (days) 

respectively were: 1003 and 267 in S; 1052 and 287 in M, and 1761 and 309 in 

N. In conclusion, all three exotic river type buffaloes maintained in large farms 

performed below the expected levels for he genotype in milk production as well 

as in reproduction Ofthe three exotic breeds, N showed hlgher (P

Reproduction and productive characteristics of buffaloes 

INTRODUCTION 

Domestic water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) are widely 

distributed in Asia They are multipurpose agricultural animals and serve 

as a major source of milk, meat and farm power (Cockrill, 1974). In Sri 

Lanka, the buffalo population is estimated to be about 0.8 million and 

over 99% of them are of the indigenous (Lanka) type (de Silva et al., 

1985). They are reared primarily by subsistence farmers, managed 

extensively with minimum inputs (Kumaratilake and Buvanendran, 

1979; de Silva et al., 1985) and account for nearly one fourth of the milk 

collected by the organized milk collecting network wnistry of 

Agricultural Development and Research, 1991192). 

In order to improve the productivity of Lanka buffaloes, whose 

milk production level is only about 384 litres per lactation (Kumaratilake 

and Buvanendran, 1979), three breeds of exotic river type buffaloes were 

imported to the country fiom time to time for cross-breeding programmes 

(Ministry of Rural lndusbial Development, 1986187). These animals 

were kept in state owned livestock farms and maintained as nucleus 

herds. 

The objectives of this study were to compare the calving pattern, 

calving .interval, birth weight, prepubertal growth rate, age at first 

calving, calving to first service period, lactation yleld and lactation length 

of Surti, Murrah, Nili-Ravi and Lanka buffaloes maintained on 

institutional farms in Sri Lanka. 

MATERZALS AND METHODS 

Four livestock farms (Melsiripura, Nikaweratiya and Narangalla 

in the Kurunegala district and Kotaliya in the Polonnaruwa district) 

maintained under the National Livestock Development Board (NLDB) 

were visited. The dates of calvings and services, birth weights, body 

weights of calves during the prepubertal period, lactation yields and 

lactation lengths for each calving were collected for Surti (1 980 to 1993)

H. Abeygunawardena et a1. 

£ran Melsiripura, for Murrah (1975 to 1993) &om Kotaliya, for Nili-Ravi 

(1 991 to 1993) from Nikaweratiya and for Lanka buffaloes (1 980 to 

1993) fiom Narangalla. AU the Surti, Murrah and Lanka buffaloes were 

locally bred, while the Nili-Ravi were imported. All animals were grazed 

during the day with stud bulls present in the herd, and paddocked at 

night. All exotic breeds were routinely milked whle the indgenous 

animals were under free suckling. 

Data analysis was done using the computer software package, 

Quattfo Pro. The simple arithmetic mean, standard deviation and 

percentiles for variables were calculated. Comparison of means for 

variables among the four buffalo breeds was performed using ANOVA. 

RESULTS 

Calving pattern: Surti, Murrah and Lanka buffaloes showed a clear 

seasonal variation in calvings with the majority occumng from 

September to January (69%, 68% and 68.5% respectively). The calving 

pattern for Lanka buffaloes and the rainfall at the location are shown in 

Figure 1. Calving commenced with onset of North-East monsoon rains 

in September and peak calvings occurred during the period November- 

December. Nili-Ravi buffaloes did not show a clear seasonal pattern in 

calvings but showed year to year variation; in 1991 the majority of 

calvings occurred fiom July to September, in 1992 fiom February to 

March, and in 1993 throughout the year. 

Calving interval: The average calving intervals are given in Table 1. 

They ranged fiom 318 to 1604 days for Surti, 308 to 1604 days for 

Murrah, 3 1 1 to 1061 days for Nili-Ravi and 323 to 1 1 17 days for Lanka 

buffaloes. There was no difference between the breeds (P>0.05). A 

significant proportion of calving intervals were over 500 days for all 

breeds (Table 2).

Reproduction and productive character~tics of buffaloes 

Number of calvings I + Rainfall (mm) 

200 I 

150 

100 

50 

0 0 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

250 

200 

150 

100 

Month 

Figure 1. Monthly calving pattern in Lanka buffaloes and rainfall at the 

Narangalla Buffalo Research Station. 

Table 1. Estimates of reproductive and productive parameters ~f Surti, 

Murrah, Nili-Ravi and Lanka buffaloes. 

Parameter Surti Murrab Nili-Ravi La* 

B M weight (kg) 27.1M.0 , 27.6k2.7 30.16.1 17.9zt2.8 

ptepubrtal growth 

rate Org/day) 

0.25a.13 0.46a.74 0.5~0.34 0.16a.18 

Age at first calving 51.W11.2 55.M.O 52.139.6 44.9~k5.1 

(months) 

Calving to first service 

(days) 

14-79.4 177*83.2 137M.7 - 

Calving interval (days) 

Lactation yield (litres) 

Lactation length (days) 

482157.7 51W183.6 

1003f391 1052k4% 

267*72.0 287392.0 

491k126.0 507*158 

17613~581 - 

309497.3 - 

50


Table 2. Distribution of calving intervals (CI) in Surti, Murrah, Nili- 

Ravi and Lanka buffaloes. 

CI SUrti Murrah Nili-Ravi Lanka 

pays) No. % No. 

% No. % No. Yo 

Birth weight: The average birth weights of different breeds are presented 

in Table 1. The weights were different among the breeds (Pc0.05) with 

the highest weight recorded in Nili-Ravi buffaloes and the lowest in 

Lanka buffaloes. No difference (PN.05) was found between the birth 

weights of Murrah and Surti calves. 

Prepubertal growth rate: The average growth rates are gven in Table 

1. They were different (P

Reproduction and productive characterfitics of buffaloes 

Age atJirst calving: The average ages at first calving for different breeds 

are given in Table 1. There was no difference (PX.05) in the age at first 

calving among Surti, Murrah and Nili-Ravi breeds but it was lower 

(W0.05) in Lanka buffaloes. The majority of Surti, Murrah and 

Ravi buffaloes calved first when they were over 48 months old but the 

majority of Lanka buffaloes calved before 48 months (Table 4). The 

coefficient of variation for the age at first calving was lowest in Lanka 

buffaloes compared to that for other breeds. 

Table 4. Distribution of age at first calving in Sul-ti, Murrah, Nili-Ravi 

and Lanka buffaloes. 

Age Suai Murrah Nili-Ravi Lanka 

(months) No. % No. % No. % No. Yo 

Calving tocfirst sewice period: The average intervals fiom calving to 

fist service are given in Table 1. Majority (43.8%) of Nili-Ravi animals 

were served first bebe 100 days after calving, while the majority of Surti 

and Mmah animals were wed k t at 100 to 200 days (Table 5). Dates 

of services were not available for Lanka buffaloes. 

Table 5. Distribution ofinte~als fiom calving to first service in Surti, 

Murrah and Nili-Ravi buffaloes. 

Interval Surti Murrah Nili-Ravi 

(days) No. % No. Yo No. Yo 

400 11 26.2 3 13.6 39 43.8 

100 -200 22 52.4 11 50.0 27 30.3 

200 -300 6 14.3 7 31.8 17 19.1 

>300 3 7.1 1 4.5 6 6.7


Table 6. Percentage distribution of lactation yield (litres) in Surti, 

Murrah and Nili-Ravi buffaloes. 

Yield (litres) Surti (%) Murrah (%) IVili-Ravi (%) 

400 2.8 3.7 2.9 

100 - 500 10.1 10.8 1.5 

500 - 1000 36.2 35.5 7.6 

1000 - 2000 50.5 47.4 57.3 

2000 - 3000 0.5 2.2 29.0 

>3000 -- 0.5 2.3 

Lactation yield and length: The lactation yields for Surti, Murrah and 

Nili-Ravi buffaloes are given in Table 6. In Nili-Ravi buffaloes, 29% of 

lactation yields were above 2000 litres per lactation, whereas in Murrah 

and Surti, the percentage of lactation yields above this level were 2.2% 

and O.5%, respectively. There were variations in the lactation yield 

within a breed as well as among the breeds and the variation was high in 

~ili:~avi. 

As shown in Table 1, the lactation length was different (P

Reproduction and productive characterhtics of buffaloes 

onset of past-parturn ovarian activity and subsequent conception, as the 

primary fktm responsible for this seasonality (Perera et d, 1984). The 

pasture and fodder availability is strongly related to the seasonal rainfall 

in all locations of the present study where the precipitation occurs 

through the North-East monsoon rains during September to December 

each ye?. Althctugh seasonal rainfall occurs at Nikaweratiya, the lack of 

clear seasonality in Nili-Ravi buffaloes may be due to several reasons. 

They were imported animals and were therefore given optimum 

management conditions which ensured year around adequate levels of 

nutrition. Furthermore, they were imported as pregnant animals and 

.would therefore be out of synchrony with the local seasonal trends. It 

would be interesting to study whether, with time, hs herd will eventually 

synchronize its conceptions, and consequently its calvings, with the 

seasonal rainfall. 

The birth weight and growth rate of farm animals are traits with 

high heritability and repeatability (Gianola and Tyler, 1973). This 

implies that the values of these traits depend primarily on genetic 

composition and selection intensity. In the current study, it is seen that 

the lowest birth weight and growth rate were in Lanka buffaloes which 

have been maintained over the years as closed herds without selection for 

reproduction and production traits. The birth weights of Surti and 

Murrah animals were lower than values reported for animals maintained 

in the Indian subcontinent (Johari and Bhat, 1979; Dobson and 

~amon~atana, 1986). This could well be due to lack of introduction of 

genetic material to.the nucleus herd periodically and also due to lack of 

selection for these traits. The birth weight and growth rate of Nili-Ravi 

buffaloes were highest among the exotic breeds. This could be due to the 

fact that they were recently introduced &om Pakistan, with a degree of 

selection imposed prior to importation. 

The growth rate of Murrah buffaloes in this study is also much 

lower than the values repded by Tilakaratne et al. (1 979) for this breed 

in Sri Lanka under experimental conditions with supplementary feeding. 

This suggests that the low growth rate is due to limitations of nutrient 

supply along with lack of selection for this trait.


The ages at first calving in all the breeds, except in Lanka 

buffaloes, were well over four years. Further, the values observed for 

exotic buffaloes maintained in state farms were longer than the values 

reported for the same breeds in the Indian subcontinent (Johari and Bhat, 

1979; h ut et al., 1974; Reddy and Mishra, 1980). This suggests that 

the exotic buffaloes maintained in state farms show delayed sexual 

maturity and hence later first calving. It has been shown that the age at 

puberty in buffaloes is related to the birth weight and growth rate 

(McCool et al., 1987) and it commonly occurs as the animal reaches two 

thirds of its mature body weight. As the Lanka animals are low in mature 

body weight they reach the critical body weight earlier than the exotic 

breeds. Hence the delay in puberty is conceivably due to poor growth 

rate among the exotic buffaloes, and partly due to poor management 

conditions in nucleus herds. 

The average calving interval among the four breeds was well over 

500 days and this was highly variable within the breed rather than 

between the breeds. The calving interval is a hnction of the calving to 

first oestrus interval, the number of services for conception and the 

gestation length. The gestation lengths of exotic and Lanka buffaloes are 

well aver 10 months (Perera et al., 1984) and sometimes as long as 330 

days. As such, they would not be able to maintain the ideal calving 

interval of one calfper year. Further, as their postpartum ovarian activity 

is significantly iduenced by seasonal availability of pasture and fodder 

every year, a proportion of buffalo cows calving down during the latter 

part of the calving seasan experience delay in the commencement of 

postpartum ovarian activity. This may be the reason for long calving 

intervals in all four breeds. Repeat breeding and other reproductive 

disorders are unlikely to be important factors, as previous studies have 

shown that buffaloes served by stud bulls conceived mostly at the first 

postpartum oestrus. 

The length of lactation of the three exotic breeds studied here are 

in agreement with an earlier report for Murrah buffaloes in Sri Lanka 

@yamahendran et al., 1980-81). The total lactation yield was greatest 

in N&Ravi, followed by Murrah, with Surti being the lowest. These

Reproduction and productive characteristics of buffaloes 

values were well below those reported for the same breeds in the Indian 

subcontinent (Gudi, 1971 ; Bhat et al., 1980; G111, 1980; Patel, 1980). 

The milk yield and the lactation length also are traits wth high 

heritability and repeatability and hence the low lactation yields are 

probably due to pmr genetic potential of the exotic breeds resulting from 

lack of selection for this trait. The total lactation yield reported for Lanka 

buffalo was about 364 kg (Wijeratne, 1962) and the low yeld is 

conceivably due to poor genetic potentral of this breed. 

In conclusion, this study showed that the exotic buffalo breeds, 

namely Murrah, Surti and Nili-Ravi maintained under state farm 

conditions perform below that expected for each genotype. In 

comparison, the Lanka buffalo is an extremely poor producer. 

Reproductive performance of all four breeds is low and characterized by 

delayed age at first calving, long calving intervals and seasonal calving 

pattern. 


We thank the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with 

Developing Countries (SAREC) for providing financial support for this 

study, and the International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, for technical 

assistance. We also thank the Managers and statr of the livestock farms 

at Kotaliya, Melsiripura, Nikaweratiya and Narangalla, and Mr. Janaka 

Herath and Miss. Ayesha Senarath Bandara for their assistance. 

References 

Bhat, P.N.; Bhat, P.P., Khan, B.V., Goswamy, U.B. and Singh, B. (1980) 

Animal genetic resources in India Proc. SABRA0 Workshop, Tropical 

Agricultural Research Centre, Japan. p 134. 

Cockrill, RW. (1974) The working buffalo. In: The Husbandty and Health of 

the Domestic Buffalo, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. pp 

3 13-328.

H. Abeygunawardena el al. 

de Silva, L.N.A, Perera, B.M.A.O., Tilakaratne, N. and Edqvist, L-E (1985) 


buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Monograph, Swedish University of 

Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden. 

Dobson, H. and Kamonapatana, M. (1986) A review of female cattle 

reproduction with special reference to a comparison between buffalo 

cows and zebu. J. Reprod. Fert. 77,l-36. 

Gianola, D. and Tyler, W.J. (1973) Iduence of birth weight and gestation 

period of Holstein-Friesian cattle. J. Daily Sci. 57,235-240. 

Gill, S.S. (1980) Buffalo improvement research. Its impact on socio economic 

conditions of milk producers. In: Summer Institute on Buflalo 

Management Systems. Eds. R.N. Pal and N.S.R Sam. Haryana 

Agncultural University, Hissar. pp 18-24 

Goonawardena, L.A., Tilakaratne, N. and Jalatge, E.F.A. (1983) A study of 

cahing hqucncy in the water buffalo. In: Current Development and 

Problems in Swamp Buffalo Producrlon. Ed. H. Shimizu, Utuversity 

of Tsukuba, Japan. pp 141-145. 

Gudi, A.K. (1971) Some observations on productive and reproductive 

characteristics of Meshana bcffaloes at Aarey milk colony, Bombay. 

Indian vet. J. 48,2 10-21 1. 

Jalatge, E.F.A. and Bwanendran, V. (1971) Studies on some production traits 

of Murrah buffaloes in Ceylon. 1. Characters associated with 

reproduction. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 3,114-124. 

Johari, D.C. and Bhat, P.N. (1 979) Effect of genetic and non-genetic factors on 

reproductive traits in Indian buffaloes. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 49, 1-6. 

Kumaratilake, W.L.J.S. and Buvanendran, V. (1979) A survey of production 

characteristics of indigenous buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Ceylon vet. J. 27, 

10-13. 

Lundstrom, K., Abeygunawardena, H.; de Silva, L.N.A. and Perera, B.M.A.O. 

(1982) Environment influence on calving interval and estimates of its 

repeatability in the Murrah buffalo in Sri Lanka Anrm. Reprod. Sci. 

5,99-109. 

McCool, C.J., Townsend, M.P., Wolfe, S.G. and Entwistle, K.M. (1987) 

Endocrinological studies on pregnancy, postpartum anoestrus and 

seasonal variation of ovarian activity in the Australian swamp buffalo 

cow. Buffalo J. 2,18 1- 194. 

Ministry of Agncultural Development and Research (1991192) Sri Lanka 

Livestock Statistics. Ministry of Agricultural Development and 

Research, Sri Lanka. 

Ministry of Rural Industrial Development (1986187) Sri Lanka Lzveslock 

Statsrics. Ministry of Rural Industrial Development, Sri Lanka.

Reproduction and productive characterirtics of buffaloes 

Patel, RK. (1980) Economics of dairying with buffaloes as dairy animals. In: 

Summer Institute on Bu-a10 Management Systems. Eds. RN. Pal and 

N. S.R Sastry. Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar. pp 29-82. 

Perera, B.M.A.O., de Silva, L.N.A. and Karunaratne, A.M. (1984) Studies on 

reproductive endocrinology and factors influencing fertility in dairy 

and draught buffaloes in Sri Lanka. In: Proceedings of the Final 

Research Co-ordination Meeting organized by the Joint FAOIIAEA 

Division. Manila, Philippines. 

Rajamahendran, R, Ravindran, V. and Kumaragunaratnam, S. (1980-81) A 

study on the performance of Murrah buffaloes at Polonnaruwa in Sri 

Lanka J. Nut. Agric. Soc. Ceylon 17-18,123-128. 

Raut, K.C., Smgh, S. and Choudhary, M.L. (1974) Some factors influencing the 

production of buffalo milk. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 44,7 13-7 16. 

Reddy, K.M. and Mishra, RR (1980) Effect of age at first calving on lactation 

components and calving distribution in Murrah buffalo. Indian J. 

Dairy Sci. 33,3. 

Tilakaratne, N., Matsukawa, T., Buvanendran, V. and Thangarajah, P. (1979) 

Growth, feed conversion and carcass characteristics of cattle and 

buffaloes feed grass and concentrates. Ceylon vet. J. 24,9- 12. 

Wijeratne, M.V.S. (1962) Some of the production statistics of the Ceylon 

buffalo. Ceylon vet. J. 10,48-49.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN SEMINAL AND 

TESTICULAR CHARACTERISTICS IN 

BUF'FAU) BULLS 

D. Gunarajasingaml, H. Abeygunawardenal, V.Y. Kuruwital, 

E.R.K. Perera2 and B.M. A. 0. Perera1 

'Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterina y 




SRILANKA 

Abstract: Studies were conducted in buffalo bulls (Bubalus bubalis) to 

determine whether seasonal factors influence testicular, endocrine and seminal 

characteristics. In study 1, three Nili-Ravi bulls maintained as semen donors at 

the Central Artificial Insemination Centre at Kundasale were used. Semen 

samples (n=132) were collected using an artificial vagina at weekly intervals for 

twelve months and evaluated for volume, colour, density, mass activity, motility 

and concentration. Monthly wllectiotls (~36) were used to study live and dead 

status (nigrosin-eosin stain), sperm morphology (unstained or stained with 

modified William's stain) and cells other than sperms (haematoxylin-eosin). 

The monthly average volume of semen ranged from 1.1 f 0.1 to 7.0 f 2.2 

dejaoulate (mean 2.9 * 1.9) and concentration fiom 607 k 186 to 2050 & 353 

million/ml (mean 1389 * 567). The colour of semen varied fiom cloudy to 

creamy and density fiom 2D to 4D. Mass activity and motility of sperms ranged 

fiom 2+ to 4+ and 70 to 90% respectively. Percentage dead sperms ranged fiom 

2 to 24 '(mean 8.2 * 5). Percentage of head, mid-piece and tail abnormalities 

were 3.3 f 1.8,3.2 * 1-6 and 7.0 * 4 respectively. Desquamated epithelial and 

spermatogonial line cells were also found (1 to 2 cells per microscopic field). 

Motility percentage showed sidcant monthly variation (P

Variations in testicular characteristics 

during the montbs of August and December respectively were 177.2 15-2 pm 

and 193-7 * 14-2 pm, and this difference was significant (P

D. Gunarajasingam er al. 

stall-fed with grass, fodder and concentrates. Splashing of water over the 

body was done once a day for 15 minutes as a substitute for wallowing. 

At this location, the rainfall ranged fiom 24.2 mm (August) to 325.1 rnm 

(December), the temperature fiom 18.7"C (February) to 3 1 .O°C (May) 

and the relative humidity &om 77 to 91 %. 

Semen collection: Semen samples were collected between 0800 - 0900 

hours at weekly intervals over a twelve month period using artificial 

vagina (AV). The AV was assembled and maintained at 42°C until used 

for cdlection. Prior to semen collection each bull was allowed three false 

mounts on a restrained male dummy. At the fourth mount semen was 

collected into the graduated collection tube attached to the AV which was 

covered with an insulator to prevent cold shock. Semen samples were 

maintained at 37°C in a water bath during the initial evaluation. The 

ejaculate obtained fiom each bull during the fourth week of each month 

was used for detailed evaluation. 

Semen evaluation: The volume of semen collected was hrectly read fiom 

the graduated collection tube and dour and density were visually judged. 

The colour was graded fiom transparent to thck creamy and density on 

a scale fiom D to 4D. Mass activity was assessed by placing a drop of 

semen on a warm slide (37°C) soon aRer collection and examining at 

xlOO magnification using a microscope fitted with a warm stage, set at 

37°C. The activity was graded on an ascending scale fiom 1+ to 4+. 

Percentage motility was assessed afber diluting 1-2 drops of fiesh semen 

in 2 ml af skimmed milk diluent. A drop of diluted semen was placed on 

a warm slide at 37"C, covered with a coverslip and examined under a 

phase hntrast microscope. Sperm concentration was estimated by 

adding 25 p1 semen to 4975 pl of sodium bicarbonate buffer (1:200 

dilution), charging this solubon in a Neubauef type counting chamber, 

and counting the sperms under phase contrast microscope at x400 

magnification. The concentration was expressed in millions per ml of 

semen.


For assessing live and dead sperms, a drop of fiesh semen was 

placed on a warm glass slide (37"C), 4 to 5 drops of nigrosin-eosin (NE) 

stain were added and incubated at the same temperature for 2 minutes. 

A thin smear was made, allowed to dry at room temperature and two 

hundred sperms were counted. Live and dead sperms were expressed as 

percentages. To detect head abnormalities modified William's stain was 

prepared by adding 10% carbol fuchsin solution and 10% eosin-I3 

solution in 10Yo ethyl al&d in a 1 : 1 ratio. A thm smear was made &on1 

a drop of fkesh semen, dried, immersed in 100% ethyl alcohol for 2 

minutes and allowed to dry in air. The slide was placed in William's stain 

for 8-10 minutes and then washed in distilled water and allowed to dry at 

room temperature. Two hundred sperms were counted and the head 

abnormalities were expressed as a percentage. For assessing acrosomal, 

mid-piece and tail abnormalities one to two drops of fresh semen was 

added to one ml of formal saline, a drop placed on a glass slide, covered 

with a cover slip and examined under a phase contrast microscope at 

xlOOO magnification. Two hundred sperms were counted and the 

different abnormalities were expressed as percentages. Cells other than 

sperms were counted after placing a drop of fiesh semen on a glass slide, 

making a thick smear, fixing the dried smear in graded concentrations of 

ethyl alcohol, staining with Ehrlich's haematoxylin for 20 minutes and 

counterstaining with 1% eosin Y. These were expressed as cells per 

microscopic field. 

Study II: Menthly Variations in Testicular Characteristics 

Animals and samples: Six indigenous (Lanka) buffalo bulls aged 3 - 4 

years raised at the Narangalla Buffalo Research Station located in the 

low-country intermediate-zone were used in this study. During dayhme 

they were allowed to graze on improved pasture in a coconut plantation 

and allowed to wallow in a pool of water. The bulls were randomly 

selected and castrated in two batches of three each in August and 

December, which corresponds to the driest and wettest seasons at this 

farm. The testes and epididyrmdes were collected and trimmed. Three 

samples af1.5 x 1.0 x 0.5 cm were obtained fiom the upper, central and

D. Gunarajasingam et al. 

lower parts of each testis and placed in Bouin's fluid for twelve hours. 

They were then stored in 70% ethyl alcohol until processed for histology. 

Using standard techniques, 5 pm sections were made and stained with 

haematoxylin and eosin-Y stains. Ten slides were prepared fiom each 

sample. 

Seminijerm tubular diameter (STD): Measurements were made using 

an ocular graticule with a linear scale consisting of 100 divisions. Using 

a calibrating scale it was determined that each division of the graticule 

corresponded to 6.50 pm when used at a magnification of x100. Two 

diameters were measured for each cross-section at right angles to each 

other, of 10 intact seminiferous tubules, fkom each of the three locations 

of the testis. 

Seminiferous epithelial cycle: One hundred seminiferous tubules were 

examined per testis from each of the three locations (upper = 33, central 

= 34 and lower = 33) at x 1000 magnification. Each cross section of the 

tubule was classiiied into its appropriate stage based on the cellular 

contents, according to the criteria described by Ortavant et al. (1 977). 

Statistical analysis: The Minitab computer software package was used 

for statistical analysis. 

Study 1 


The seminal characteristics of Nili-Ravi buffalo bulls are 

summarized in Table 1. The mean ejaculate volume of 2.97 ml is in 

agreement with that reported by Kumar et al. (1 993), but lower than that 

reported by Dixit et al. (1984) for Murrah bulls. In comparison, the 

volume of the ejaculate in cattle is higher, ranging fiom 1 to 15 ml

Variations in testicular characterbtics 

(Galloway and Norman, 1980). In the present study the overall monthly 

mean volumes of semen showed three peaks, during December (3.62 * 

3.20 rnl), June (3.43 * 2.06 ml) and July (3.44 2.1 1 ml). However, the 

monthly variation was found to be not significant (P>0.05) and is in 

agreement with that observed by Dixit et al. (1984). On the other hand, 

Gill et al. (1974) noted monthly variations in semen volume. 

Table 1. Semen characteristics observed in Nili-Ravi buffalo bulls. 

Parameters Mean * SD Range 

Semen volume (ml) 

Colour 

Density 

Mass activity 

Sperm concentration (1 06/ml) 1389 * 567 

Spenn motility (%) 

Cloudy - Creamy 

Dead sperm (%) 8.2 * 5.0 2 '- 24 

The mean spenn concentration of Nili-Ravi bulls in this study 

was 1389 * 567 million per rnl semen (Table 1) and was lower than the 

values reported by Rajamahendran and Dharmasena (1984) for local, 

Surti and Murrah buffaloes, but greater than the values reported by 

Kumar et al. (1993), Dixit et al. (1984) and Zafar et al. (1 988) in Nili- 

Ravi and Murrah buffaloes. The monthly mean concentrations showed 

two peaks during April (1581 * 443) and July (1 529 * 642), but the 

differences were not sigdicant (PX.05). 

The motility of sperms ranged from 70 to 90% with a mean of 

86.3% (Table 1). This is higher than the mean values of 74.6% reported 

by Dixit et al. (1 984) and 77.8% reported by Kumar et al. (1 993) in 

Murrah bulls. This could be due to the fact that in the present study 

mdty was assessed after addition of a semen extender, resulting in the

D. Gunarajasingam 'et al. 

dilution of motility inhibiting factors present in the seminal plasma (Bass 

et al., 1983). The monthly mean values for sperm motility were lower 

during December (81%), March (78%) and September (85%) than during 

other months (86 to 90%), and the differences were significant (P

Variatiom in testicular characteristics 

published information on this breed to determine the upper and lower 

limits of various abnormalities to be used as a guideline in semen 

evaluation. 

Table 2. Sperm abnormalities found in the semen of Nili-Ravi bulls. 

Location Abnormality % Mean * S.D 

Head Pear shaped 

Narrow at base 

Abnormal contour 

Undeveloped 

Narrow 

0.11 * 0.16 

0.42 * 0.49 

0.22 * 0.22 

0.67 + 0.45 

0.25 * 0.49 

Loose 1.44 St 0.54 

Abaxial 0.11 i 0.22 

Overall 3.21 * 1.83 

Proximal cyto. droplets 

Distal cyto. droplets 

Abnormal did piece 

Overall 

Tail Single bent 3.58 * 1.06 

Double bent 0.75 * 1.02 

Coiled under head 2.22 * 0.83 

Others 0.44 * 0.61 

Overall 7.00 4.07 

Single and polynucleated spermatogonial cells and epithelial 

cells were also observed but were very few in number (1-2 cells per 

microscopic field), which indicates that the testicular functions were in 

a healthy state in these animals.

Study 2 

Seminiferw tubular diameter (STD): The mean and range for STD in 

indigenous buffalo bulls during the months of August and December are 

given in Table 3. Statistical analysis indicated that the mean difference 

ofSTD between the two periods was sigtllficant (R0.01). The overall 

mean for indigenous bulls in the present study was lower than that 

reported for swamp buffalo bulls in Malaysia, where the STD showed 

a decreasing trend fiom 258.6 to 226.5 pm with increasing age fi-om 26 

to 32 months (Nordin et al., 1986; Vidyadaran et al., 1989). The mean 

values of 225 pm reported for rams (Courot and Ortavant, 1981) are 

also higher than in the present study. In horses an increase in STD 

occurs during the breeding season (Squires and Thompson, 1983). 

Table 3. Diameter of seminiferous tubules during August and 

December in indigenous buffalo bulls. 

Month Animal Seminiferous tubular diameters (pm) 

Minimum Maximum MmSD 

August A 150.42 228.90 178.67 * 16.94 

B 143.88 210.26 173.90 * 15.88 

C 153.96 209.28 176.58 12.04 

, . 

Overall 177.22 rt 15.20 

Overall 193.71 6.36 

Seminiferous epithelial cycle: The frequencies observed in the 

testicular sections in the semidhm epithelial cycle during August and 

December are given in Table 4. They were similar to the eight stages 

reported by Ortavant et al. (1977) in cattle, rams, boars and horses. 

McCool et al. (1989) identified eight stages in buffalo bulls, and also 

further subdivided stages I, 11, IV, VJII into sub-stages. No attempt 

was made in the present study to iden* these sub-stages. Most stages,


including VIU of the cycle which consists of mature spermatids, had 

similar fiequencies during August and December. 

Table 4. Frequencies of stages of the seminiferous epithelial cycle 

during the months of August and December in indigenous 

buffalo bulls. 

Month Animal Stage of cycle (% frequency) 

I I1 III W V V I W m 

August A 25 19 21 5 2 4 9 15 

B 23 22 22 5 2 2 10 14 

C 26 19 20 6 1 10 8 10 

Mean - - 

December X 25 21 18 4 1 8 10 13 

Y 26 14 17 7 3 7 12 14 

Mean 25 17 19 6 3 7 9 14 

Semen of Nili-Ravi buffaloes is extensively used in cross- 

breehng programmes for upgrading indigenous stock in Sri Lanka. 

Thls study has provided data on normal parameters to evaludte semen 

samples collected under local conditions. The values reported are in 

close agreement with reports available for this breed in other Asian 

countries. Some seasonal changes observed in semen in other countries 

were not detected in the present study, possibly due to the mild nature 

of climatic changes during the year at the location of Study 1 in the mid- 

country of Sri Lanka. 

In Study 2, differences were apparent between the months of 

August and December in the STD, but not in the fiequencies of the 

stages of the seminiferous epithelial cycle. Since the two studies were 

conducted at different locations, it is not possible to correlate these 

hdings directly. However, STD is known to be influenced by a variety 

of factors such as breed, age, endocrine and nutritional status as well as 

environmental factors, and could be a sensitive index of testicular

D. Gunarajasingam et al. 

function. It would therefore be interesting to study the relationship 

between STD, the fkequencies of the stages of the seminiferous epithelial 

cycle, and the seminal characteristics in more detail at the same location. 




study, and the International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, for 

technical assistance. We also thank the Department of An~mal 

Produchon and Health for providing facilities at the Central Artificial 

Insemination Station (CAIS), Kundasale, and Dr. W.W. 

Abeygunawardena and his staff at CAIS for their co-operation. The 

assistance of Mr. Rex Fernando at the Buffalo Research Farm, 

Narangalla, is gratehlly acknowledged 

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Nordin, W., Azmi, T.I. and Bongso, T.A. (1986) Light and electron 

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EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SUCKLING REGIMES ON 

POSTPARTUM FERTILITY OF BUFFALO COWS AND 

GROWTH AND MORTALITY OF BUFFALO CALVES 

H. Abeygunawardena, V.Y. Kuruwita and B.M.A.O. Perera 

Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary, 


SRI LANK2 

Abstract: Low annual cam rates in indigenous buffaloes have been shown 

to be due to prolonged postpartum anoestrus, caused primarily by seasonal 

fluctuation of quantity and quality of pasture and fodder and by free suckling 

of calves. This study was conducted to determine the effects of different 

suckling regimes on postpartum fertility of buffalo cows and growth and 

mortality of calves. Six suckling managements were tested: free (ad-libitum) 

suckling (FS); FS and weaning by day 45 (FS+W45); FS and weaning by day 

60 (FS+W60); FS and weaning by day 90-120 (FS+W90); once a day suckling 

fiom day 7 (0s); and twice a day suckling from day 7 (TS). Different 

wmbinations of these were tested during 4 successive calving seasons. Calves 

were weighed at monthly intervals. Conception date was calculated by 

subtracting the mean gestation length of 301 days from the actual calving date. 

The pregnancy rates at 90, 120 and 150 days were: 19, 20 and 23% in FS 

(n=74); 54,73 and 73% in FS+W45 (n=l 1); 6,3 1 and 37% in FS+W60 (n=16); 

5, 17 and 27% in FS+W90 (n=18); 38,59 and 59% in OS (n=29); and 31,45 

and 59% in TS (n=22). The calf mortality in these groups were 5.4,55,3 1,3 3, 

6.8 and 4.5% respectively. Free suckling resulted in the lowest pregnancy rates. 

Weaning after 60 days did not improve postpartum fertility. Calf mortality was 

high with all three weaning ages tested. Suckling once or twice a day improved 

fdty although the former resulted in slower growth rates during the first 

3 months, there was no difference from 4 months onwards. In conclusion, the 

results show that once a day as well as twice a day suckling can be adopted as 

suitable regimes to improve postpartum fertility in indigenous buffaloes. 

Keywords: Buffalo, suckling regimes, fertility, calf growth, calf mortality

Effects ofsuckling on postpartum fertiliq 

INTRODUCTION 

Indigenous buffaloes form about 95% of the total buffalo 

population of 0.8 million in the country (Sn Lanka Livestock Statistics, 

1986,237). They remain the most important multipurpose agricultural 

animal. since inhabitation of the island in the 6th and 5th century BC 

(Siriweera, 1982) and have played a quiet but vital role in rural crop- 

livestock mixed production systems. Valuable baseline information on 

indigenous buffaloes and the rural production systems was provided by 

de Silva et al. (1 985) and Perera et al. (1 987). Indigenous buffaloes are 

largely concentrated in North-westem and South-eastern parts of the 

country and are managed extensively on communal grazing lands with 

minimum inputs, usually along with cattle. They are primarily used by 

small-holders for land preparation for rice cultivation and also for 

threshing of paddy after the harvest. In some areas, particularly where 

the production of "curd" is popular, buffaloes are also milked. The milk 

yield is low, rangng fiom 1 to 2 liters per day over a 4 to 6 month 

lactation period (de Silva et al., 1985). 

Research has revealed that many physiological and biochemical 

aspects of reproduction in buffaloes closely resemble those of cattle 

(Dobson and Kamonpatana, 1986; Abeygunawardena et al., 1994). In 

both species the period fiorn parturition to the commencement of oestrous 

cycles, which is referred to as the postpartum acyclic period, is influenced 

by many biological and environmental factors. Nutrition and suckling 

have been identified as two of the major factors whlch determine 

postpartum fertility, while breed, age of the dam, season of calving, milk 

yield and postpartum infections are also known to play a role (Short et 

al., 1990). Previous work on indigenous as well as exotic buffaloes in Sn 

Lanka have shown that age at first calving is well over 48 months and 

annual calving rates are often less than 60% (Lundstrom et al., 1 982; de 

Silva et al., 1985). The primary determinant of low calving rate in 

extensively managed buffaloes was shown to be prolonged postpartum 

anoestrus, with conception occurring soon after resumption of oestrous 

cycles (Perera et al., 1984). Seasonal fluctuations in nutnent supply 

@undstrom et al., 1982) and suckling (Perera et al., 1 987; Mohan et nl..

H. Abeygunawardena et a!. 

1990) were identifired as the two major factors which cause extended 

postpartum anoestrous periods. Similar effects on postpartum 

\ reproduction have been demonstrated elsewhere in river and swamp 

buffaloes (El-Fouly et al., 1976; Usmani et al., 1985; Lubis and 

Fletcher, 1987) and in cattle (Short et al., 1972, Laster et al., 1973; 

Reeves and Gaskins, 1981; Randel, 1981; Wettermann et al., 1978; 

Wettermann et al., 1986). 

Reducing the cow-calf interaction by complete or temporary 

weaning, or limited suckling, has been shown to remove the suckling- 

induced suppression of gonadotrophin secretion (Edwards, 1985), and 

resulted in early return to oestrus (Wettermann et al., 1986) as well as 

increased pregnancy rates (Laster et al., 1973). Previous work by our 

group has demonstrated that marked differences exist in the reproductive 

performance of indigenous buffaloes at different locations under 

traditional management conditions in Sri Lanka, and that this can be 

partly attributed to different suckling practices adopted by the fanners (de 

Silva et al., 1985; Perera et al., 1987; Mohan et al., 1990). 

Therefore the objectives of the present study were to test the 

effects of different suckling regmes on postpartum reproductive 

functions, calf growth and mortahty, with the aim of developing 

practically feasible calf management strategies which would improve the 

reproductive performance of buffaloes. 


Location, animals and management: The studies were conducted at the 

SAREC/NARESA Buffalo Research Station at Narangalla, located in the 

low-country intermediate zone of Sri Lanka. The station receives an 

average rainfall of 20575405 mmlannum and precipitation is primarily 

during North-East (October to January) and South-West (April to June) 

monsoon seasons. The daily average ambient temperature was 

31.3*1.6"C and the relative humidity ranged from 64 to 80%. The herd 

of about 200 indigenous buffaloes were extensively managed wth fi-ee

Effects of suckling on pospartum fertility 

grazing during the day on natural and improved pasture under coconut 

and paddocked at night. A stud bull was always run with the herd and 

the cows were not milked. 

Sucking regimes: The folowing six suckling management regimes were 

tested in four trials during four successive calving seasons: (1)ftee (ad 

libitum) suckling (FS); (2) FS and weaning by day 45 postpartum 

(FS+W45); (3) FS and weaning by days 60 postpartum (FS+W60); (4) 

FS and weaning by days 90-120 postpartum (FS+W90); (5) restricted 

suckling once a day (0s) and (6) restricted suckling twice a day (TS). 

The distribution of regimes between trials were: Trial 1 (1989190) - FS, 

FS+W45 and 0s; Trial 2 (1990191) - FS, FS+W60 and 0s; Trial 3 

(1991192) - FS and FS+W9O; and Trial 4 (1992193) - FS and TS. 

Animals were randomly assigned to the treatments at calving, the cows 

were allowed to run with a stud bull and the subsequent calving dates 

were recorded. Calves in OS and TS groups were kept in a shed away 

fiom the dams while the latter were either on the grazing land or in the 

night paddock. They had fiee access to water and were also allowed 

access to young pasture fiom 45 days of age. The OS group was allowed 

to suckle their dams for 30 to 45 minutes in the morning, while the TS 

group was allowed to suckle them a second time in the afternoon. No 

attempts were made to observe oestrus or services as the animals were 

managed extensively. 

Calfgrinvth and mortality: Growth of calves was monitored in Trials 2 

and 4 only. Body weights were recorded at birth and at monthly 

intervals thereafter. Mortality among the calves was recorded in aU four 

trials. No attempts were made to rescue sick calves. 

Pregnancy rates: Following subsequent calvings, the approximate 

conception dates were calculated by subtracting the estimated gestation 

length of 301 days w~eratne et al., 1962) fiom the calving interval. The 

pregnancy rates at 90, 120 and 150 days postpartum were calculated 

based on the estimated conception dates.


Statistical analysis: Pregnancy rates of dams and mortality and body 

weights of calves in different treatments within trials were statistically 

analyzed to determine the effect of the suckling treatment on postpartum 

fertility and calf perfiance. 

RESULTS 

The effect of suckling management regimes on pregnancy rates 

and calf mortality in each individual trial are given in Table 1 and the 

combined results fiom all four trials for the different treatments are 

illustrated in Figure 1. 

Table 1. Pregnancy rates at 90, 120 and 150 days postpartum in buffalo 

cows and mortality rates in calves subjected to different 

suckling regimes. 

Trial and Treatment n Pregnancy rate Calf 

mortality 

90 days 120 days 150 days YO 

Trial 1 

Free Suckling (FS) 09 33.3 33.3 33.3 1.1 

FS+Weaned at 45 d 11 54.5 72.7 ' 72.7 54.5 

Once a day suckling 09 66.6 66.6 66.6 1.1 

Trial 2 

Free Suckling 10 0.0 10.0 30.0 0.0 

FS+Weaned at 60 d 15 6.6 33.3 40.0 33.3 

Once a day suckling 20 25.0 55.5 55.5 5.0 

Trial 3 

Free Suckling 31 25.8 25.8 25.8 3.2 

FS+Weaned at 90- 16 6.3 18.7 41.2 37.5 

120 d 

Trial 4 

Free Suckling 21 14.2 14.2 14.2 4.7 

Twioe a day 22 31.8 45.4 59.0 7.1 

suckling

Effects of suckling on postpartum fertiliv 

Percent 

u 

90 d 120 d 150 d Calf Mortality 

Pregnancy Rate 

i W Free Suckling (FS) W FS+Weaning d45 El FS+Weaning d60 

1 7 FS+Weaning d9o-120 Oncelday Twicelday i 

Figure 1. Combined results fiom four trials showing pregnancy rates in 

cows at 90, 120 and 150 days postpartum and calf mortality for 

the six suckling regtmes. 

Free suckling resulted in the lowest pregnancy rates, while 

weaning by day 45 resulted in the highest. The latter regime, however, led 

to the hlghest calfmortality. Weaning at later stages (60 to 120 days) did 

not improve pregnancy rates markedly over that of the fiee suckled group 

and mortality remained high. Restricted suckling once or twice a day had 

beneficial effects on pregnancy rates and the calf mortality was similar to 

that in the fiee suckling group. 

The birth weights and monthly body weights of calves in FS and 

OS groups in Trial 2 and in FS and TS groups in Trial 4 are given in Table 

2. The mean growth rates for the different groups are illustrated in Figure 

2. Although the growth rates were slightly lower in the OS group than in 

the FS group, the difference was not statistically significant as there was


a high variation of body weights within the group. The difference in body 

weight was less with advancing age. There were no differences in body 

weights and growth rates between TS and FS calves. 

Table 2. Mean birth weights and monthly body weights of calves 

subjected to fiee, once a day or twice a day suckling. 

Trial and Birth Body Weight (kg) 

Treatment Weight 

Org) lmo 2 mo 3 mo 4 mo 

Trial 2 

Free suckling 20.0rt2.3 36.2Jt8.1 47.b12.3 53.W13.6 64.8E3.6 

Once a day 19.3rt1.9 30.66.7 36.4rt8.8 47.839.0 55.5rt14.7 

suckling 

Trial I 

Free suckling 17.3f3.0 29.7fi.4 39.549.5 47.91t11.4 55.6*11.8 

- - 

Twice a day 18.31t2.3 28.6rt4.0 37.46.4 46.1*7.7 53.839.3 

suckling 

Orowth rate (glday) Orowth rate (glday) 

Age (months) Age (months) 

.Free sucldimg UOncelday / 

I---j 

W Free suclding BTwwlday ; 

Figure 2. Mean growth rates of calves subjected to fiee, once a day or 

twice a day suckling.

Effects of suckling on postpartum fertility 

DISCUSSION 

It has been well established that the low fertility often seen in 

indigenous buffaloes of Sri Lanka is not due to an inherent characteristic 

of the breed, but is more to do with environmental, nutritional and 

management factors (de Silva et al., 1985; Perera et al., 1987). These 

studies have identified fluctuating nutrient supply resulting from seasonal 

rainfall, together with free suckling by calves, as key factors causing 

prolonged postpartum acyclicity and thereby leading to long calving 

intervals. 

The events occurring during the postpartum period, which are 

critical for the overall efficiency of the reproductive process, have been 

subjected to detailed study over the last two decades in many species 

(Lamming et al., 1981 ; Dobson and Kamonapatana, 1986; Short et a/., 

1990). After parturition, which in itself is considered a stressfbl event to 

the mother, lactation commences and the previously gravid uterus 

undergoes an extensive repair process. The hypothalamo-pituitary- 

gonadal axis is initially inactive and gradually regains its cyclic activity. 

The speed with which this occurs is determined by many factors, chief 

among whlch is the balance between the demand for metabolic substrates 

for lactation and body maintenance on the one hand, and their availability 

from stored reserves and daily feed intake on the other. Factors such as 

interactions between the dam and offspring, including suckling, are also 

known to influence the return to ovarian cyclicity (Short et al., 1972; 

Peters et al., 1981). 

In the present study, free suckling by calves in all the trials 

resulted in low pregnancy rates between 90 and 150 days postpartum. 

Since the cows were run with intact bulls, the delay in conception is most 

likely due to delayed commencement of ovarian activity. Studies in cattle 

have demonstrated that weaning facilitates only the onset of ovarian 

activity and does not intluence conception per se (Reeves and Gaskins, 

1981; Wettermann et al., 1986). This also corroborates previous studies 

on extensively managed buffaloes which showed that conception usually 

follows immediately after resumption of ovarian activity (Perera et al.,


1984). Our results are in general agreement with those reported by 

Mohan et al. (1990) in Lanka buffaloes, El-Fouly et al. (1976) in 

Egyptian buffaloes, Jainudeen et al. (1 982183) in Malaysian buffaloes and 

Wagner and Hameet (1969), Short et al. (1 972) and Laster et al. (1 973) 

in cattle. 

Much research effort has been directed towards elucidating the 

mechanisms underlymg the suckling-induced anoestrus in cattle (Wagner 

and Oxenreider, 1972; Short et al, 1972; Carruthers and Hafs, 1980; 

Carruthers et al., 1980). It has been shown that the suckling-induced 

inhibiti-on of postpartum reproduction can occur independently of 

postpartum nutrition (Short et al., 1972). Further, the mechanical act of 

suckling alone may not be sufficient to hlly inhibit postpartum 

reproduction, but the complex interplay between the cow and calf which 

normally occurs mayneed to be present over a period of time (Williams 

et al., 1984). Many previous studies have also clearly demonstrated that 

the resumption of episdc release of gonadotrophins, particularly LH, is 

a prerequisite for the establishment of ovarian cyclicity following calving 

(Peters et al., 1981; Scharns et al., 1978; Walters et al., 1982 a, b and c). 

Suckling a p w to &lay the appearance of episodic release of LH (Smith 

et al., 1981; Peters et al., 1981) and cause anomalies in FSH secretion 

(Williams et al., 1 983). 

Suckling and cow-calf interactions appear to suppress episodic 

release of GnRH &om the hypothalamus (Walters et al., 1982 a, b and c), 

decrease responsiveness of the pituitary to GnRH (Smith et al., 19$1), 

decrease the positive feedback responsiveness of the hypothalame 

pituitary axis to estrogen (Smith et al., 1981) and increase its sensitivity 

to the negative feedback inhibitory effects (Acosta et al., 1983). How 

these changes are brought about by suckling is not clear but, there are 

several hypotheses which implicate opioid neuronal pathways in the 

central nervous system (Whlsnant et-a1.,1986), cortisol (Wagner and 

Oxenreider, 1972; Dunlap et al., 1981; Padmanabhan et al., 1983; 

Abeygunawardena et al., 1985) and prolactin (Williams grid Ray, 1980; 

Wheeler et al., 1982). Recent studies, however, suggest that cortisol and 

prolactin, which are secreted in large quantities in response to suckling,

Effects ofsuckling on postpartum fertility 

may play only a modulating role rather than being direct mediators (Short 

et al., 1990). 

Early studies aimed at developing practical calf management 

methods to improve postpartum fertility showed that cows which have 

their calves weaned at birth have shorter postpartum anoestrous periods 

than those that are suckled (Short et al., 1972; Bellows et a]., 1974). In 

beef cattle, weaning calves 1 to 2 weeks prior to the beginning of the 

breeding season resulted in higher pregnancy rates (Laster et al., 1973). 

Reeves and Gaskins (1 981) demonstrated that once a day suckling fiom 

21 days postparbum allows early return to oestrus, while Edwards (1 985) 

showed that short-term calf separation for 72 hours caused increased 

mean LH concentration and LH pulse frequency. Wettermann (1 986) 

further demonstrated that short-term calf separation is effective only in 

cows with good body condition, while Randel (1981) showed that 

restricting suckling to once a day fiom 30 days after calving does not 

interfere with growth of the calf. 

In our study weaning by day 45 and 60 resulted in higher 

pregnancy rates, but weaning at later stages was less effective. This 

sugges'ts that the hypothalama-pituitary axis may be more sensitive to 

inhibition by suckling during the early postpartum period, and that 

beyond this period other limiting factors such as nutrition may play a 

dominant role. Alternatively, the calf may be suckling the mother less 

frequently by this stage, thereby causing less inhibitory effects. 

AU weaning ages tested (45-120 days) resulted in increased calf 

mortality. This suggests that the buffalo calf may be dependant on the 

dam for an extended period. Possibly, fiee suckling discourages the calf 

from picking up roughages at an early stage, thereby delaying the 

development of fermentative functions in the rumen. Hence, when 

weaning results in the abrupt cessation of milk intake, the calf may be 

unable to adapt quickly to a forage-based diet. However, in view of the 

beneficial effects of early weaning on fertility seen in the present study, 

it would be justified to examine whether provision of supplementary feeds

H. Abeygmawardena et al. 

such as milk replacers can reduce the high calf mortality in a cost-effective 

manner. 

Both regimes oflimited suckling tested, once or twice a day, had 

beneficial effects on postpartum fertility. Although calves subjected to 

once a day suckling had an initial reduction in body weights and growth 

rates, this was not seen in those subjected to twice a day suckling. Even 

in the former group, there was a gradual recovery of this loss with time 

and their body weights did'not differ significantly fiom those of free 

suckled calves from four months onwards. Further, most imp~rtantly, 

neither treatment resulted in the high calf mortality seen in the weaned 

groups. 

The findings of this study offer a perfectly viable management 

option for extensively managed buffalo herds in Sri Lanka. In practice 

most herds are milked only once a day in the morning and the herd 

(including calves) is then taken to grazing lands, usually some distance 

away fiom the farmers dwellings, and the calves are separated.fiom dams 

only when the herd is brought back in the evening to the paddocks. 

Limited suckling could easily be incorporated into this system, by 

encouraging the farmers to leave the calves behind in a separate paddock 

with suf6cient bedding and water. Provision of hay or grazing for a few 

hours a day would also be very beneficial for reducing the initial inhibition 

of growth, and would permit early development ofruminal function. It 

must be stated here that this system of management is in fact being 

practiced traditionally by village fanners in a few remote locations in Sri 

Lanka (Perera et al., 1987). These farmers, however, have evolved this 

system not as a method of improving fertility, but as a means to reduce 

calf losses fiom predators such as leopards and crocodiles which are 

present in such areas. Under these situations, Perera et al. (1987) 

observed that the postpartum anoestrous period was significantly shorter, 

and the annual pregnancy rates higher, than under the more prevalent 

traditional systems with fiee suckling. Our study provides the scientific 

evidence for the beneficial effects of restricted suckling regimes on 

postpartum fertility.


In conclusion, the results of the present study indicate that fiee 

suckling is a cause of poor reproductive performance in buffaloes, and that 

limited suckling either once or twice a day advances conception and 

thereby reduces the calving interval, with no major inhibitory effect on 

calf survival and growth. Limited suckling, once or twice a day, can 

therefore be recommended as a suitable calf rearing system for extensively 

managed buffalo herds in Sri Lanka. 





assistance and supply of RIA kits. We also thank the Manager and staff 

of the Narangalla Buffalo Research Station. The assistance of Messrs. 

A.M. Karunaratne, Janaka Herath and Rex Fernando and Ms. Ramani 

Ruwanpathirana is gratefblly acknowledged. 

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luteal function. J. Anim. Sci. 50,906-918. 

Williams, G.L., Talavera, F., Peterson, B.J., Kirsch, J.D. and Tilton, J.E. (1983) 

Coincident secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinking 

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1069.

EFF'ECTS OF EXOGENOUS HORMONES ON 

FERTILITY OF POSTPARTUM 

ANOESTROUS BUFFALOES 

H. Abeygunawardena, V.Y. Kuruwita and B.NLA.0. Perera 

Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary, 


SRI LANK4 

Abstract: Seasonal calving and low c a w 

rate, caused by long postpartum 

anoestrus, have been identified as the major factors which limit the productivity 

of buffaloes in Sri Lanka. As a management strategy to improve fertility of 

buffdoes during the postpartum Hod, the effects of the following regimes of 

exogenous hormone treatments were tested in anoestrous animals; (a) two 

injections of 250 pg of GnRH (Receptal, Hoechst) 24 h apart, Q) two injections 

of 4 mg of FSH (Intervet) given 12 h apart, followed 12 h later by treatment 

(a); (c) progesterone releasing intravrrginal device (PRID, Sand) for 11 days 

and 500 IU of PMSG (Folligon, Intervet) at the time of coil removal and (d) 

progesterone releasing silastic ear implant (Synchromate B, Intervet) for 1 1 days 

and 500 IU of PMSG at the time of implant removal. An untreated group of 

animals remained as control (e). After the hormonal treatments they were 

allowed to run with stud bulls. Subsequent cahrings were recorded. The 

number (and percentage) of animals which became pregnant within 90 days of 

treatment in groups a, b, c, d and e were: 0110 (W), 0112 (OYo), 19/23 (83%), 

32/44 (73%) and 15/45 (33%), respectively. In a separate trial, 9 cows were 

given treatment (d), kept away fkom bulls and observed for oestrous signs. 

Plasma progesterone was measured by RIA in blood samples collected at 

frequent intervals up to 45 days. All treated animals showed distiuct signs of 

oestrus following implant removal and 8 (89%) had ovulations as indicated by 

plasma progesterone. However, two animals had abnormal luteal phases and 

relapsed into acyclicity. The lack of response to GnRH treatment could be due 

to r&actoriness of the ovary and pituitary, and the lack of tertiary follicles. The 

combination of progesterone and PMSG given sequentially appears to be 

capable of overcoming this refractoriness, possibly through the build up of LH 

reserves and stimulation of follicle development, and appears to be an effective 

method for inducing oestrus and improving pregnancy rates in anoestrous 

buffaloes. However, more studies are needed to determine the factors which 

influence the success rate.

Effects of exogenous hormones on postparrum anoestrus 

Keywords: Buffalo, anoestrus, post-partum, hormones, treatment 

Seasonal calving and low calving rate have been identified as two 

major factors which limit the productivity of buffaloes in Sri Lanka 

(Lundstrom et al., 1982; de Silva et al., 1985). Majority of calvings 

occur with the commencement of North-East monsoon rains in 

October/November, and analysis of calving and conception patterns in 

relation to rajnfall data suggest that the seasonality of calving may be the 

result of entrainment of postpartum ovarian activity by the seasonal 

fluctuations in pasture and fodder availability which are determined by 

seasonal rainfall. Animals which calve early in the calving season have 

the benefit of an abundance of natural pasture and fodder during the early 

postpartum period while these that calve late in the season experience hot 

and humid weather conditions along with scarcity of feed. 

This prolonged postpartum acyclicity makes buffalo farming 

uneconomical to small holders as well as at state farms. It is imperative 

that various management and therapeutic strategies should be developed 

to overcome this problem. Apart from supplementary feeding (Dziuk et 

al., 1983), early weaning &aster et al., 1973) and limited suckling 

(Randel, 1981; Reeves and Gaskin, 1981; Bastidae et al., 1984), 

exogenous hormones have been used to improve the pregnancy rate of 

cattle as well as buffaloes in many countries (Kesler et al., 1982; Odde, 

1990; Narasimha Rao and Venkatramiah, 199 1). Further, the hormonal 

induction and synchronization of oestrus would be a very useful aid for 

planned breeding in upgrading of indigenous buffaloes with genetically 

superior exotic river buffaloes. 

The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of 

various hormonal preparations in inducing oestrus in anoestrous 

buffaloes, to assess subsequent pregnancy rates, and to characterise the 

hormonal prdles and external signs after induction of oestrus.

Trials at Research Farm 



These were conducted at the SARECINARESANLDB Buffalo 

Research Station at Narangalla, located in the intermediate zone of Sri 

Lanka. The annual rainfall is 1583 * 910 mm, and occurs primarily 

during October to December (North-East monsoon) and April to June 

(South-West monsoon). The ambient temperature fluctuates between 20 

and 33°C with a mean of 25°C. Average relative humidity fluctuates 

between 60 to 87 % with a mean of 78%. 

Indigenous (Lanka) and cross-bred buffalo cows were managed 

extensively on natural and improved pasture under a coconut plantation, 

grazed for 8 - 10 hours during daytune and paddocked in the night. They 

were allowed to wallow once a day and the calves allowed free suckling. 

Stud bulls were always with the herd. Calvings were seasonal with peak 

calving in October to January. Cows which were more than 100 days 

after calving were examined by rectal palpation and those with no 

palpable ovarian structures were selected for the study. 

Hormonal Treatments: The following regimes were used: (a) two 

injections of 250 pg of Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone (GnRH, 

"Receptal", Hoechst) 24 h apart; (n=9): (b) two injections of 4 mg of 

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH, Intervet) given 12 h apart, followed 

by treatment (a) 12 h later; (n=12): (c) Progesterone Releasing 

Intravaginal Device (PRID, Sand) for 1 1 days and 500 IU of Pregnant 

Mare Senun Gonadotrophin (PMSG, "Folligon", Intervet) at the time of 

coil removal; (n=23): (d) progesterone releasing silastic ear implant 

("Synchromate B", Intervet) for 1 1 days and 500 IU of PMSG at the time 

of implant removal; (n=12); and (e) untreated controls (n=22). After 

treatment the cows were allowed to run with stud bulls, subsequent 

calvings were recorded and the pregnancy rate at 90 days after treatment 

was calculated.

Efiects of exogenous hormones on postpartum anoestnis 

Intensive Sampling Trial: In a separate trial, 9 cows were given 

treatment (d), kept separate hn bulls and observed for oestrous signs for 

5 days arfter treatment. Blood samples were collected daily between days 

1 - 5, 18 - 23 and 38 - 46, and at 3 day intervals during the intervening 

periods. Blood was centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 10 minutes, plasma 

separated and stored at -20°C until assayed for progesterone by 

radioiqmunoassay (RIA). 

Hormone Assay: Plasma progesterone was quantified by RIA using 

antibody precoated tubes and '251 progesterone as tracer (supplied by the 

Joint FAOMA Division, Vienna). The sensitivity of the assay was 0.3 

nrnoVI and intra-and inter-assay coefficients of variation were 9.7% and 

13.7%, respectively. 

Statistical Tests: Differences among the treatments were tested for 

statistical significance by Chi-square test. 

Trial at Village Location 

This was conducted at Harnbantota in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka, 

where the annual rainfall is between 875 and 1875 mm, with the primary 

precipitation occumng during the North-East monsoon &om September 

to December. The animals were of indigenous type and managed 

extensively with grazing during the day on communal lands and 

paddocking at night. They were milked once in the morning, with calf 

separation during the night only. Calvings were seasonal with the 

majority occurring between September and January. The trial was 

conducted during January to March. Pluriparous cows which were more 

than 100 days after calving were examined by rectal palpation and those 

with no palpable ovarian structures were selected for the study. 

Treatment (d) was given to 32 cows while 23 were kept as controls. 

They were allowed to run with stud bulls, subsequent calvings were 

reun-ded and the pregnancy rate at 90 days abr treatment was calculated.

Trials at Research Farm 

RESULTS 


Horntonal Treatmentr: The pregnancy rates at 90 days after the different 

treatments are given in Table 1. GnRH treatment, with or without FSH 

pre-treatment, was ineffective in inducing oestrous cycles in any of the 

.treated animals. With both progesterone releasing devices, the retention 

rate was 100%. There was some tissue reaction to the vaginal coil 

(PRID) with a discharge of purulent material at the time of coil removal, 

but there was little reaction to the ear implant. 

Table 1. Number and percentage of buffalo cows pregnant at 90 days 

after treatment. 

Treatmeat n Number pregnant Pregnancy rate (96) 

a. GnRH 10 0 

b. FSH + GnRH 12 0 

c. PRID + PMSG 23 19 

d Ear Impl. + PMSG 12 11 

e. Control 22 7 

Intensive Sample Trial: In the intensive sampling trial, all 9 treated 

animals showed signs of oestrus following implant removal. Vulva1 

swelling, redness and mucus discharge were observed commencing fiom 

12 hours, and they were maximal between 48 to 60 hours after implant 

removal. The vulval temperature ranged from 98 to 102°F and the 

variations in the vulva1 temperature were more related to the time of the 

day than to the time after treatment. The majority of animals showed 

restlessness and homosexual behaviour while a few had increased 

frequency of urination. 

The plasma progesterone profiles showed that although all nine 

treated animals exhibited signs of oestrus, only 8 had ovulations. As

Effects ofexogenous hormones on postpartum anoestrus 

shown in the selected plasma progesterone profiles in Figure 1, the 

synchrony of ovulations was poor and appeared staggered over several 

days. One animal which ovulated had a very short luteal phase (Figure 

2) and did'not continue cyclicity, while another animal which had an 

apparently nmal luteal phase also relapsed into acyclicity. In the other 

6 animals oestrous cycles were of variable lengths and they continued to 

cycle. 

" -9 1 5 14 20 24 32 40 44 

Days from implant removal 

Figure 1. Plasma progesterone profiles in three animals after treatment 

with progesterone ear implant and PMSG. 

Progrstaone (n@/ml) 

Days from implant removal 

Figure 2. Plasma progesterone profiles &om two animals after treatment 

with progesterone ear implant and PMSG, showing short (No. 

154) and normal (No. 199) luteal phases and subsequent 

acyclicity .

Trial at Village Location 


The pregmncy rate at 90 days after treatment with progesterone 

ear implant and PMSG was 66% (21/32), while the pregnancy rate in the 

control group was 35% (8123). The retention rate of the ear implant was 

94%. 

DISCUSSION 

Reappearance of episodic bursts of LH following calving has 

been shown to be a prerequisite for the resumption of postpartum ovarian 

activity in cattle (Peters et al., 1981) and to be true also for buffaloes 

(Mohan et al., 1990). Intermittent injections of low doses of GnRH at 

frequent intervals have successfdly induced ovulation in postpartum 

cows Wey et al., 1981 ; Walcers et al., 1982; Vorstemans and Walten, 

1985). This effect has been shown to be associated with increase in 

responsiveness of the pituitary to GnRH (Foster, 1978), increase in LH 

and FSH pulse frequency and amplitude (Walters et al., 1982; Spicer et 

al., 1986; Jagger et al., 1987) and stimulation offdlicular steroidogenesis 

and induction LH receptors (Spicer et al., 1986). As the administration 

of fiequent injections is practically not possible, effects of bolus injections 

have been tested by many workers and the effect of double injections of 

GnRH on the release of gonadotrophins and induction of oestrus have 

been demonstrated in cattle (Fonseca et al., 1977; Webb et al., 1977) and 

buffaloes (Barkawi and Aboul-Ela, 1987). These trials also demonstrated 

that intermittent injections besides being cumbersome had little 

advantage over the bolus injections (Vorstermans and Walten, 1985). 

In our study, bolus injections of GnRH into anoestrous buffaloes 

did not result in increased pregnancy rate. Poor fertility after use of 

GnRH in postpartum anoestrous buffaloes was also reported by Barkawi 

and Aboul-Ela (1 989) and Narasirnha Rao and Venkatramiah (1 991). 

Several studies have shown that the responsiveness of the postpartum 

cow to* exogenous GnRH is dependent on many factors such as days 

postpartum (Foster et al., 1980; Irvln et al., 1981), pre-treatment

Effects of exogenous hormones on postpartum anoestrus 

oestradiol concentration which is determined by ovarian fohcular 

development (Kesler et al., 1977; Fernandes et al., 1978; Jagger et al., 

1987) and suckling (Troxel et al., 1980). Pretreatment oestrogen 

concentration also &ts the responsiveness of the pituitary to GnRH by 

influencing the number and affinity of receptors (Leung et al., 1984). It 

is therefore likely that the poor response obtained in our study, where the 

animals were also subjected to fiee suckling, was due either to the 

refractoriness of the pituitary to GnRH, or the lack of response of the 

ovaries due to absence of developing follicles. 

Therefore in the next trial, FSH was used to stimulate follicular 

development prior to GnRH injections. The ability of exogenous FSH to 

stimulate fdlicular development has been demonstrated in many species 

including buffaloes (Karaivanov, 1 986). However, pre-treatment with 

two 4 mg injections at 12 hours apart failed to improve the effectiveness 

of exogenous GnRH. This does not, however, invddate this hypothesis 

but may renect an inadequacy of either the dose given or the time allowed 

between the FSH and GnRH injections to ensure sufficient follicular 

development. 

The use of progesterone in the induction and synchronization of 

oestrus has been studied in many species and two hypotheses have been 

used to explain the effects. One proposes that exogenous progesterone 

inhibits the release of gonadotrophins, thus building up reserves for 

release upon withdrawal (Breuel et al., 1993). Another is that the 

progesterone may sensitize the ovaries to the action of gonadotrophins 

(Gonzalez-Padilla et al., 1975; Smith et al., 1979). In our study with 

progesterone, induction of oestrus was successfil in all treated animals. 

However, plasma progesterone profiles indicated that 8 out of 9 animals 

responded with an ovulation. Of the responders, however, two did not 

continue to cycle; even in those that did cycle, the interval fiom implant 

withdrawal to rise in progesterone was not very uniform, suggesting that 

oestrus, LH surge and ovulation may not be well synchronized. This'was 

also reported by others (Rentfiow et al., 1987). The variation in the 

response to exogenous progesterone treatment can be due to several 

factors, including age of the animal, interval from calving to treatment.,


nutritional status and the pre-treatment ovarian status. Studies in cattle 

have shown that luteal dysfunction is one of the causes of reduced fertility 

following synchronized and induced oestrus (King et al., 1986; Favero 

et aZ., 1988). 

Many workers have attempted to improve pregnancy rates 

following progesterone treatment by. including oestrogens 'andlor 

gonadotrophins in the regime. For example, oestrogen pretreatment with 

progesterone implant for 10-1 1 days followed by PMSG injection has 

been rep& to give high pregnancy rates (Chupin et a]., 1977; Mikisch 

et al., 1978). In our studies conducted at the research station as well as 

under village conditions, the 90 day pregnancy rates were above 70%. 

Similar high fertility rates have been reported among anoestrous as well 

as cycling bu£Edoes (Virakul et aZ., 1988). Studies in cattle have yielded 

first service conception rates ranging from 33 to 66% (Odde, 1990). In 

general, previous studies indicate that fertility can be high when cycling 

animals are synchronized, whereas it is low when induction of oestrus is 

done in anoestrous animals (Brink and Kiracope, 1988; Brown et al., 

1988). 

In the present study, buffaloes treated with progesterone and 

PMSG expressed good signs of oestrus over a period of 1 to 2 days. 

Since they were run with bulls, it is likely that they were served several 

times during the induced oestrus, thus contributing to the high fertility 

rate obtained. On the other hand, if artificial insemination is to be used, 

it is necessary to determine the optimum time for insemination aRer 

induced oestrus following this regime of hormonal treatment. 

In conclusion, the results of this study show that short term 

progesterone treatment in conjunction with PMSG appears to be very 

promising in inducing oestrus and improving the pregnancy rate in 

indigenous buffaloes during the post-partum period. However, more 

studies are needed to determine the factors which affect the success rate 

in order to improve the efficiency of treatment. Further, time sequences 

in relation to implant removal, LH surge, ovulation and oestrus need to

ESfects of exogenous hormones on postpartum anoestrus 

be determined precisely in order to use this treatment for planned 

breeding with artificial insemination. 





assistance and provision of the RIA kits. We also thank the farmers in 

Hambantota for their co-operation. The assistance and dedicated work 

of Dr. W.D. Abayawansa, Mr. A.M. Karunaratne, Mr. Janaka Herath, 

Mr. Jayadasa Weeratunga, Mr. Rex Fernando and Ms. Rarnani 

Ruwanpathirana are gratefully acknowledged. 

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Session IV - Reproduction 


Q: B.M.A.O. Perera - What is the farmer demand for herd fertility 

programmes from commercial dairies and small farms, and what is the 

method used by farmers for record keeping? 

A: N.H. Shah - There are five categories of farmers, based on herd size: 

(a) 1 - 5 millung cows (small farms); (b) 5 - 10; (c) 10 - 20; (d) 20 - 50; 

and (e) > 50. Within these categories the demand for herd fertility 

investigation is elicited only by the c, d and e categories (i.e. the large 

scale commercial farmers). The demand fi-om the small farmers are 

therefore poor. Farmers keep simple records on fertility parameters such 

as milk production, services etc. The major reports are computerized and 

kept by the project's para-professional staff who carry out extension. 

Comment: N.H. Shah - In Pakistan the buffalo is the main source of 

milk (71%) and low reproductive efficiency such as the increase in 

calving interval from 365 days to 635 days decreases the annual milk 

yield by 2 kg per day. Herd fertility is also reduced due to heat stress, 

which is seen mainly when high .temperature occurs together with dry 

weather. 

Q: H. Abeygunawardena - The Nili Ravi buffaloes shown in slides 

appear to have good body condition. Is this a result of feeding or effective 

culling? 

A: N.H. Shah - Since nutrition is an important factor for reproduchon, 

animals are kept at the desired level of nutrition by monitonng the 

respective blood metabolite levels, using assays developed in Pakistan. 

Assays in excess of 3000 are being carried out. In addition rigorous 

culling is also in place among small farms. A high culling rate is due to 

reproductive problems despite appreciable milk yields gving economic 

returns. 

Q: H. Abeygunawardena - In Sri Lanka culling is based on age and not 

on reproductive performance. The Nili Ravi performance here has been 

disappointing. Could this be due to environmental factors? 

A: N.H. Shah - The poor performance of Nili Ravi buffaloes in Sri 

Lanka cannot be due to humidity, as in Pakistan the reproductive 

performance is only a f f i by high temperature combined with dryness.


Q: D.K. Singh - What is the major cause of infertility? Is it due to 

malnutrition or infections? . 

A: N.H. Shah - Nutrition and seasonal heat stress are major factors, but 

infections are also prevalent. 

Q: S.K. Ranjhan - You mentioned that buffalo contributes- to 71% of 

milk production. What is their contribution to meat production? 

A: N.H. Shah - Meat fiom cattle is about 32%, and meat extracted fi-om 

buffaloes appears to be 42%. The main area which requires more 

research is consideration of the dressing percentages and population 

estimates of buffaloes. 

Q: P. Bunyawejchevin - At what age was the measurement of 

prepubertal growth rate done? 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - At 6 to 12 months. 

Comment: I. Settergren - The data presented is very interesting and can 

be applied in herd health programmes to maintain reproductive 

performance and to implement preventive measures. Buffalo 

reproduction has become a very strong component of this programme. 

The results obtained over the years in Sri Lanka could be important for 

the comparison of reproductive performance in cross breehng dairy 

buffaloes. The results would have been more meaningful if all the buffalo 

breeds had been maintained in the same fann. 

Comment: C. Chantalakhana - It is important to emphasise the concepts 

of sustainable agnculture that are upheld by CGIAR. Production inputs 

of Draft Animal Power are very important vzs a vis commercial 

production to optirnise utilization of available resources. Conservation 

of natural resources, biodiversity and indigenous genetic resources such 

as cattle and chicken should be strengthened to prevent dependency on 

outside intluences. A holistic approach for research is therefore essential. 

Comment: S.K. Ranjhan -Farmers practise sustainable agnculture but 

the scientists have overlooked their mixed farming practices. There 

should be more emphasis to study their systems and to try and opbmse 

productivity using research results to Increase sustainability. The 

indigenous animal populat~on cannot meet the demands of the increasing 

human population. Therefore it IS necessary to have commercial 

producers to meet the demand. Cross breeding has so far failed to 

improve the productivity of the indigenous population. Therefore what

Discussion 

is essential is to improve productivity through selection and proper 

feeding. 

Q: C. Chantalakhana - Will the farmers be able to adopt a restricted 

suckling regime of one or two sucklings at village level? 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - In many fanning systems in Sri Lanka once 

a day milking is practised and the calf is not allowed to follow the cow. 

For this system it is recommended to allow suckling for 30 - 45 minutes 

after milking, and keep the calf separated when the cow is sent to graze. 

In situations where milking is done twice a day, this can be repeated. The 

procedure can be easily incorporated to the existing farming practices. 

Comment: N.H. Shah - Research results indcate significant 

improvement (73%) of fertility rates. But calf mortality is high, which is 

a limitation. The possibilities of controlling calf mortality was discussed 

in the paper. Although this could be done with calf starters, etc. it cannot 

be recommended, as small farmer's economic returns are poor, and 

adoption will be difficult at this stage. 

Comment: C. Chantalakhana - I agree with Dr. Shah's comment. In 

India also it has been found difficult to get fanners to give calfstarters. 

Comment: D.K. Singh - Experience in South India has shown that calf 

mortality is around 30 - 40%, but by improving management methods, 

eg. colostrum feeding 112 to 1 hour atter birth, etc., farmers were able to 

reduce.mortality. Therefore early weaning was possible without calf 

mortality and fertility levels increased. 

Comment: H. Abeygunawardena - The recommendation of early 

weaning is valid for improvement of indigenous farming systems, 

particularly under semi-extensive farming in the mid and intermediate 

zones. 

Q: N.H. Shah - How was the anoestrous condition deked? If the 

animals were truly anoestrous GnRH should have a better response. If 

they were suboestrous, then progesterone implants would give a better 

response. Is it possible that the animals would have been in suboestrous 

and not true anestrous? 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - Animals were defined as anoestrous when 

they had not shown any heat signs within a period after parturition, and 

the ovaries did not show any fbnctional activities on palpation. 

I do not agree with your comments. GnRH acts on the pituitary to


stimulate FSHLH release for follicular development in the ovaries. 

Progesterone inhibits GnRH release at hypothalamic level and its 

withdrawal brings about a preferential release of LH and FSH that 

stimulates non functional ovaries. Experience with cattle and other 

species indicate better response to GnRH in animals with functional 

ovaries (suboestrous animals) rather than in anestrous animals. 

Comment: N.H. Shah - Since anestrous condition was determined by 

rectal palpation &agnostic error could confuse results. 

Q: Prof. Settergren - What is the number of calving cows that come to 

heat within the 90 day postpartum period, without treatment and what is 

the cost of the niost effective treatment? 

A: H. Abeygunawardena - A 55% calving rate had been reported. A 

majority calved during the early period of the calving season. Therefore 

treatment requires to be directed only to those that calve during the latter 

period or during unfavourable environmental conditions due to the 

reduced fertility observed. The cost of treatment was estimated at Rs. 

500.00 and as small producers obtain 5-6 litres milk per day, this is 

affordable. 

Comment: S.K. Ranjhan - A cheap cost effective oestradiol vaginal 

sponge treatment is used in Indonesia with results over 75% for blanket 

A1 after 72 hours.

FURTHER STUDIES ON THE EPIDEMIOLOGY AND 

IMMWNOLOGY OF HAEMORRHAGIC SEPTICAEMIA 

IN BUFFALOES 

M.C.L. de Alwisl, N.U. Horadagoda2, T.G. Wijewardana' 

P. ~beynayakg, A.A. Vipulasiril and S.A. Thalagoda' 

'Veterinary Research Institute, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, 

2Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, 

University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 

SRI LANK4 

Abstract: Three separate studies were conducted to investigate some aspects 

of the epidemiology and immunology of haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) in 

buffaloes. The existence of 'Latent' and 'Active' carriers m HS, and the 

intermittent conv~rsion of latent carriers into an active state have been 

demonstrated in earlier studies. Further it was found that the carrier state could 

not be cleared by treatment using antibiotics to which the organism was 

sensitive in vipo. In the present study immunohistochemical methods were used 

to determine the exact site of localisation of the Pasteurellae within the tonsils 

of HS carriers. Attempts were made to determine the role of immunosuppression 

induced by corticosteriods in converting 'Latent' carriers to 'Active' carriers. The 

immunolo~cal aspects investigated in the present study were focused on the 

immune response of buffaloes to the current oil adjuvant vaccine. 

The carrier state was established in 13 buffaloes by exposure to a 

marked strain of Pasteurella multoc+. Five bu£bloes were slaughtered and the 

tonsils collected and fixed in 10% buffered sahe and subjected to 

immunohistochkmical studies using the peroxidase anti-peroxidase test, to 

visualise the organisms in tissue sections. The immune status and carrier status 

of the balance eight animals were monitored. When these animals were in a 

latent phase, they were subjected to heavy dosing with steroids alone or in 

combination with Neostigmin. In the vaccination trial, 38 out of 47 antibody 

free calves were vaccinated with HS oil adjuvant vaccine. The serological 

responses of these and 9 unvaccinated controls were monitored monthly by the 

indirect haemagglutination test, passive mouse protection test and the ELISA. 

Animals fiom each group were challenged at 9 m and 12 m by subcutaneous 

inoculation of a field isolate of P. multocida type 6:B. (10' cfu). The results 

indicated that the pasteurellae in HS carriers were localised exclusivley in the

Epidemiology and immunology of haemowhagic septicaemia 

crypts of the tonsils and that treatment of latent carriers with steroids and 

Neostipjnin failed to trigger the conversion of "latent carrier" to an "active 

carrier''. The protection produced by the oil adjuvant vaccine to direct challenge 

at 9 m and 12 m was 50% and 67%, respectively. There was however no 

correlation between the response to direct challenge and antibody titres. 

Keywords: Haemorrhagic septicaemia, buffalo, carrier state, tonsil, vaccines 

INTRODUCTION 

Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS) is an acute, fatal septicaemic 

disease of b&oes and cattle caused by specific serotypes of Pusteurella 

multocida. The disease causes serious economic losses in Asia through 

morbidity and mortality, and it has been established that buffaloes are 

more susceptible than cattle. 

Several workers (Singh, 1948; Gupta, 1962; Wtjewantha and 

Karunaratne, 1968) have shown that the causative organism persists in 

a small percentage of carrier animals and that in these animals the 

organism is detectable in the nasopharynx. Other studies (Gupta, 1962; 

Hiramune and De Alwis, 1982) revealed that the presence of the 

organism in the nasopharynx of carriers is related to the recent incidence 

of the disease. More recent studies by De Alwis et al. (1 986; 1990) with 

fiee range and experimentally produced carrier animals have 

demonstrated that (a) following an outbreak of disease a large number of 

clinically unaffected animals became carriers, (b) after a brief period the 

carriers became 'latent' with the organism disappearing fiom the 

nasopharynx, (c) the organism intermittently reappeared in the 

nasopharynx and (d) during the period of latency, the organism persisted 

in the tonsils and remained unaffected by antibiotics to which it was 

sensitive in vitro. These findings led to the investigation of the factors 

which triggered the conversion of a latent carrier to an active carrier and 

the exact localisation of the organism in the tonsil which allowed the 

organism to evade the effects of antibiotics.

M.C.L. de Alwis et al. 

The immunological studies reported herein are focused on the 

evaluation of immunity provided by the oil adjuvant vaccine (OAV) 

currently used in Sri Lanka. The OAV was originally introduced to the 

country in 1956 but discontinued in 1963 and re-introduced in 1965. 

Studies carried out in the late 1970's demonstrated that the OAV 

protected animals for 6-9 months following a single injection (De PSwis, 

et al., 1978). Since then several improvements have been made in the 

production technology which include the incorporation of a newly defined 

vaccine seed culture, a newly formulated growth medium and 

emulsification formula The equipment used for bulk culture production 

has also been upgraded. These changes demanded an evaluation of the 

immunity induced by the improved vaccine in buffaloes. 

MATERIAL AND METHODS 

Localisation of Pasteurella multocida Type B:2 in the Tonsils 

Five non-immune buffalo calves aged 7 to 9 months were 

expt+mentally infected inwanasally with a streptomycin resistant strain 

of Pasteurella multocida serotype B:2 (1.12-2.4 x 10' CFU). Following 

infection, the presence of the organism in the nasopharynx was monitored 

daily up to 7 days and every third day thereafter. Blood samples were 

collected at weekly intervals for assay of antibodies by the inhrect 

haemagglutination @HA) test (Wijewardana et al., 1986). 

Three animals were slaughtered 24 days and 2 animals 52 days 

after infection. Tonsils collected at slaughter were subjected to 

bacteriological examination and portions of tissue were fixed in 10% 

neutral buffered formalin for immunohistochemical studies. The organism 

in tissue sections was visualised by the peroxidase-anti-peroxidase (PAP) 

technique using a 1 :SO00 dilution of a rabbit hyperimmune antiserum to 

Pasteurella multocida serotype B:2 (Horadagoda and Belak, 1990). 

Tonsillar tissue cdlected fiom 2 non-mfected buffalo calves and 6 bovine 

calves at the Uppsala slaughter house in Sweden were used as negative

Epidemiology and immunology of haemorrhagic septicaemia 

controls. Isolation and identification of the organism in swabs and 

tonsillar tissue were carried out as described by De Alwis, et al., (1 990). 

Investigation of Factors Responsible for the Conversion of 

Latent Carriers to Active Carriers 

Eight male bufblo calves were used in this study. Carriers were 

produced following intranasal inoculation of a streptomycin resistant 

strain of P. multocida. The infected animals were maintained at the 

laboratory premises and nasophaqmgeal swabs were collected daily up 

to 10 days and once a week thereafter. Antibodies were examined by the 

MA technique (Wijewardana, et al., 1986) in blood collected on the 10th 

day after infection as well as in samples collected at weekly intervals 

thereafter. 

The conversion ofa latent carrier to an active carrier was studied 

in a series ofexperiments in which three preparations were administered 

to carrier animals at different time points leaving a sufficient time 

between each experiment for drug excretion. 

Experiment I: The carrier animals were given 40 mg of Dexamethasone 

wona injection; Cadilla ) intramuscularly. 

Experiment ll: The animals were given 5 mg of Neostigmin (Pratigmin; 

Roche) intramusculary fdlowed by 15mg of Dexamethasone by the same 

route. 

ExperimentIZI: Methylprednisolone acetate (Depo-Medro1:Upjohn) was 

given on the first day of the experiment followed by 40 mg of 

Dexarnethasone given intramuscularly two days later and Neostigmine on 

the third day of the experiment. The Neostigmine was given both 

intramuscularly (5mg) and intravenously (15mg) at the same time. 

All animals were bled before and after each drug administration 

and the IHA test was performed to detect any changes in the antibody 

titre. In ad'dition, nasophaqmgeal swabs were obtained at weekly


intervals in order to detect the organism during each period of drug 

administration. 

Immune Response to the Oil Adjuvant Vaccine 

Animals: Forty seven buffalo calves (4-6 m) were selected for this study 

based on the absence of antibodies to P. rnultocida serotype B:2 as 

demonstrated by the indirect haemagglutination test @IA) and the 

passive mouse protection test (PMPT). AU animals were maintained at 

a state farm throughout the experiment and transported to the veterinary 

research institute od$ for the purposes of the challenge. 

Vaccine: The oil adjuvant vaccine produced at the veterinary vaccine 

laboratory, Peradeniya (Peiris and De Alwis, 1991) was supplied for this 

study by Dr. L.K.P.N. Peiris. Thirty eight animals were given 3.0 rnl of 

vaccine intramuscularly, followed by a booster 3 months later by the 

same route (Log protection of the vaccine used on two occasions were 

6.71 and 7.0 when tested in mice). 

Seem: Blood was collected from all 47 animals at monthly intervals. 

The serum was inactivated (56' C for 30 min) and then stored at -20' C 

until antibody titres were assayed. 

Serologxal Tests: Serum samples were tested for the presence of 

antibodies by the IHA test described by Carter (1 955) and later modified 

by Wijewardana et al. (1 986) using &esh sheep erythrocytes. The passive 

mouse protection test was also performed to determine the antibody 

status. Briefly, serum fiom each buffalo was inoculated into a group of 5 

mice (except in the 9th month where only 3 mice were used) with each 

mouse receiving a 0.5 ml volume of serum subcutaneously. Twenty four 

hours later they were challenged with 0.5 ml of a 6 hour broth culture of 

a field isolate (WU culture collection No. 8406) diluted lo-' that gave 

approximately a 100 LpO. As there was no protection indicated in prevaccination 

sera only a challenge control group was included for the test. 

The antibody titre was also assayed by the ELISA described by 

Horadagoda et al. (1994).

Epidemiology and immunology of haemoirhagic septicaemia 

Direct Challenge Test in Buffaloes: Vaccinated and control buffaloes 

were challenged at 9 and 12 months post-irnmunisation. One rnillilitre 

of a diluted (1:lO) 6 hour broth culture of a local field isolate (VRI 

culture No. 8406) was injected by the subcutaneous route. At 9 months, 

six vaccinated and 4 control animals selected at random were also 

subjected to direct chdhge with 1.1 x 1 Og live organisms. Similarly, at 

12 months, 6 vaccinated and 3 control animals selected at random were 

subjected to a direct challenge with an inoculum containing 1.6 x 10' live 

organihms. All challenged animals were observed over two weeks and 

deaths recorded. 

RESULTS 

Localisa tion of Pasteurella multocida in the Tonsils 

P. multocida antigen was detected as a brown precipitate in 

formalin-fixed, paran embedded tissue sections by the PAP technique. 

In the tonsils of infected animals, immunostaining was confined to the 

lumen of the tonsillar crypts. The epithelium and lymphoid follicles were 

devoid of any immunoreactwity (Figure 1). In the crypts, diffuse DAB 

precipitate was present amidst desquamated epithelial cells and necrotic 

debris of the lumen (Figure 2), while intracellular staining was evident in 

the cyfoplasm of the macrophages (Figure 3). Tonsil sections from 

control animals &d not show immunoreactivity. Moreover 

immunostaining. was not present when the primary antibody was 

replaced by normal rabbit serum. 

AU infected animals demonstrated very high antibody titres to 

HS when assayed by the indirect haemagglutination test (Table 1). 

Bacteriological examination of the nasopharynx demonstrated that the 

pasteurellae were present only during the first few days after infection 

(Table 2 ). However, in all the animals the organism was isolated from 

the tonsils after slaughter.


Figure 1. Tonsil of a HS carrier buffalo revealing irnmunoreactivity in 

the lumen of the tonsillar crypt. Immunoperoxidasel 

haematoxylin x25. 

Figure 2. Diffise immunostaimng amidst the desquamated squamous 

epithelial cells and necrotic debri of the tonsillar crypt. 

Immunoperoxidase/haematoxylin x 100.


Figure 3. Jntracytoplasmic immunostaining of macrophages (arrow) in 

the lumen of the tonsillar crypt. Immunoperoxidase 

~haernatoxylin x250. 

Table 1. Reciprocal antibody titres of HS - carriers after intranasal 

infection. 

Animal No. Antibody titres in the post infection period (weeks)

M. C.L. de Alwis et al. 

Table 2. Isolation of P. multocida &om tonsils and nasopharynx (0-7 

days) of HS carriers after experimental infection (pi). 

Animal No. Tonsil Isolation of organism in the Nasopharynx pi (days) 

5 + + + + 

Animals 1-3 - organism present in the tonsil 24 days pi 

Animals 4-5 - organism present in the tonsil 52 days pi 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Investigation of the Factors Responsible for the Conversion 

of Latent to Active Carriers 

Experiment I: Twenty four hours after the administration of 

dexamethasone there was profuse salivation and an elevation of body 

temperature in 4 of the 8 animals. The organism was not detected in the 

nasopharynx and there was no change in the antibody titre. 

Experiment II: The response to Neostigmine was characterised by 

profuse nasal and salivq secretions. The clinical changes commenced 

thirty minutes after administration and persisted for two hours. In this 

expenment too, P. multocida was not isolated and there was no change 

in the antibody titre. 

Experiment III: The clinical behaviour of animals following the 

admtnistrations in this experiment was similar to that observed in 

experiments I and II. The organism was not isolated and there was no 

change in antibody titres.

Epidemiologv and immunology of haemorrhagic septicaemia 

Immune Response to the HS Oil Adjuvant Vaccine 

Haemagglutinating antibodies: Table 3 shows the IHA antibody 

response to the oil adjuvant vaccine. Antibodies were first detected two 

months after inoculation in two of the 26 animals. The percentage of 

animals showing IHA antibodies gradually increased reaching 100% by 

the 11th month, post-vaccination. In the control animals, 

haemagglutinating antibodies were observed during the course of the 

experiment although none of the animals showed titres at the time of 

vaccination. 

Table 3. The number and the percentage of buffaloes showing IHA 

titres. 

Number of Proportion of aniinals showing IHA titres at mosths post-vaccination 

buffaloes 

Vaccinated O 2 li 2h 32 Z 26 X 21 23.23 26 11 

(38) 38 26 26 37 37 38 28 33 31 33 27 26 27 

Yo 0 8 

58 70 86 84 93 90 68 70 83 100 40 

Control 2 0 0 4 1 g Z i. 4 3 1 ' 3 0 

(09) 9 5 4 8 9 3 9 8 9 9 5 5 5 

Pmsive Mome Protection Tat: The results of the PMPT are shown in 

Table 4. The findings indicate a marked mouse protection during the 4th 

and 5th months followed by an uneven decline to 4% by the 12th month. 

Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay: Table 5 shows the antibody 

titres when measured by the ELISA. In this assay, titres were observed 

only after 3 months &om vaccination. The highest titres were observed 

between 6 and 12 months after vaccination (ELISA units up to 64), but 

there was no relationship between the ELISA titre and protection after 

direct challenge.


Table 4. The number and the percentage of buffaloes inchcating mouse 

protection. 

Number of Proportion of buffaloes indicating mouse protection at months post-vaccination 

buffaloes 

, Vaccinated - 0 2- 5 3- 1- 3 2- 0 2- 4 - 7 - 7 - 11 3 0 4 - 1 

(38) 38 38 36 38 36 37 27 35 28 27 26 26 27 

control o ! 2 0 ! ? 0 ! 2 8 6 5 ! 2 3 4 5 

(09) 9 8 4 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 5 4 5 

Table 5. The number and the percentage of buffaloes inhcating titres in 

ELISA (ELISA units). 

Number of Proportion of buffaloes indicating ELISA units at months post-vaccination 

buffaloes 

Vaccinated Q Q Q 2 1 26 2 2 31 22 19 22 2 

(3 8) 38 31 30 35 37 36 27 33 31 32 26 27 26 

Yo 0 0 0 72 3 72 100 79 100 100 73 100 100 

Control Q Q O Q 0 Q 8 6 2 2 3 4 5 

(09) 9 8 4 . 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 5 4 5


The antibody levels detected by the three serologic test viz. HA, 

PMPT and ELISA together with the animals that survived the direct 

challenge at 9 and 12 months, post vaccination are shown in Table 6 and 

Table 7, respectively. 

Table 6. The antibody level detected by IHA, PMPT and ELISA and 

animal survival &r direct challenge at 9 months post 

vaccination. 

Animal Reciprocal PMPT ELJSA Survived or 

No. IHA units died 

Vaccinated 1685 -ve 0 4 Died 

1696 40 NT 4 Died 

1697 20 NT 4 Survived 

1699 40 0 8 Survived 

1721 -ve 0 8 Survived 

1728 -ve 0 4 Died 

Control Died 

NT = Not tested 

Survived 

Died 

1755 -ve 0 4 Survived


Table 7. The anitibody level detected by IHq PMPT and ELISA and 

animal survival after direct challenge at 12 months post 

vaccination. 

Animal Reciprocal . PMPT ELBA Snrvivedor 

No. IHA units died 

Vaccinated 1695 -ve 0 16 Survived 

1705 160 20 32 Died 



1722 20 0 32 Survived 

1741 20 0 64 Died , 

Control 1746 -ve 0 32'. Died 


1750 -ve 0 32 Died 

DISCUSSION 

Localisation of Pasteurella multocida in the Tonsils 

The present investigation confirmed that pasteurellae in carrier 

animals persisted in the tonsil as reported earlier by De Alwis et al. 

(1990) and~clearly showed that the tissue distribution of the organism 

within this organ is confined to the lumen of the tonsillar crypts. In 

addition, the study also provides evidence to support the development of 

an antibody respmse following exposure and confirmed the relationship 

between antibody response and carrier status (De Alwis, 1982; De Alwis 

and Sumanadasa, 1982). ,

Epidemiology and immunologv ofhaemowhagic septicaemia 

The use of a immunohstochernical technique to detect the 

distribution of the organism within the tissue also provided an 

opportunity to simultaneously examine the histopathological changes of 

the tonsil. Despite the presence of the organism for a considerable length 

of time within the ton&, there was no evidence for histological changes 

except for a few areas of epithelial desquamation in some parts of the 

tonsillar crypts. In an earlier report, Omar et al. (1962) described the 

presence of a chronic suppurative idammation in the tonsil of an 

apparently healthy buffalo from which HS causing pasteurellae were 

isolated. P. multocida is not regarded as a pyogenic organism hence, the 

histologcal observation reported by Omar et al. (1962) may reflect a 

tissue response to a concurrent infection with suppurative organisms 

such as Actinomyces pyogenes which are also known to colonise in the 

tonsil of clinically normal bovines (Bock, 1980; Duncanson and Slater, 

1986 ). 

The streptomycin resistant stain of P. multocida used in the 

present study was developed fiom a field isolate and known to possess 

the same virulence as the field isolate. Previous experiments (De Alwis 

et a1.,1990) using this strain have demonstrated that the virulence of the 

organism was retained despite a long term persistence in tonsils. The 

streptomycin resistant strain of the organism used in this study also 

served as a marker during the isolation and identification of the organism 

fiom tonsillar tissue and nasal swabs fdlowing the intranasal inoculation. 

In the studies reported by De Alwis et al. (1 990), it was argued 

that the persistence of the organism for over 200 days after initial 

exposure indicated that the tonsil is a reservoir for pasteurellae. At 

present, factors that contribute to the persistence of the organism in the 

tonsil and role ofthe defence mechanisms in eliminating it is unclear. The 

intense immunostaining in the cytoplasm of macrophages within the 

tonsillar crypt indicate the presence of phagocytosis wihn the lumen. 

However, the relatively normal appearance of lymphoid folhcles in the 

tonsil together with the absence of significant numbers of leukocytes or 

mononuclear cells within the lumen or in the process of migration. 

suggests the presence of only a weak cell-mediated immune response by


the host. These observations need to be fiuther investigated to understand 

the interaction between the host and the organism which may be 

necessary. for the: bacterium to remain viable in the tonsil for a 

considerable length of time. 

In the earlier study (I% Alwis et al., 1990) attempts to eliminate 

the organism fiom the tonsil following antibacterial therapy failed. The 

possibility of the organism remaining in a "dormant state" in the tonsil 

was suggested as areason for the lack of response to antibiotics to which 

it was sensitive in vitro. The findings of the present study, clearly shows 

that the colonisation of pasteurellae in canier animals is exclusively in the 

lumen oftonsillar crypts which in actual fact is outside the tissues of the 

host where antibiotic penetration is insuflicient to reach adequate 

concentrations to destroy the organism, hence its ability to survive 

despite the administration of antibiotics parentally. 

The experimental studies by De Alwis et al. (1 990) have clearly 

demollsbated the tonsil as reservoir site for HS-causing pasteurellae. The 

tindings ofthe present investigation whilst confirming these observations 

have also identilied the tissue location of the organism. In the light of this 

knowledge, it appears that previous assessments of the carrier status of 

HS, based on the detection of pasteurellae in the nasopharynx alone is an 

underestimation of the actual situation. In this context, it will be 

worthwhile to evaluate the validity of these experimental findings in the 

natural disease in order to fully appreciate the role of the tonsils of 

carriers in the epidemiology of HS. 

Investigation of the Factors Responsible for the Conversion of 

Latent to Active Carriers 

It is believed that "stress" has some bearing on activation of 

carriers' to shedders of the HS-causing organism. The identi6.ed term 

"stress" could be attributable to the predisposing factors such as 

overwork, extreme weather conditions, prolonged transportation, low 

plane of nutrition or a combination of any of these factors. Field


observations appear to associate such stress &ors with outbreaks of HS. 

The mechanisms whereby "stress" promote outbreaks is not established. 

There is however, a clear indication for activation of neure 

humoral mechanisms during adverse erivhmnental situations in 

domestic animals (Stephens, 1980). The intermediate physiological 

response to adverse situations is characterised by activation of the 

autonomic nervous system. Based on this understanding attempts were 

made to chemically stimulate the activation of caniers using drugs with 

known mechanisms of action. 

The single administration of dexamethasone has provided the 

baseline information for future exwents in terms of dosage. 

Methylprednisdone acetate, the long acting preparation of corticosteroid 

provides long term suppression of initnunity. Neostigmine which has a 

cholinergic effect increased the nasal and salivary secretions along with 

dilation of the tonsillar sinus. It was believed that these chemicals 

administered to carriers stimulate secretions of the organism lying in 

tonsillar crypts. In the present study,however, there was no change in 

antibody levels as reflected by IHA titres. The immunosuppressive dose 

of methylprednisolone acetate used in buffaloes in this work failed to 

activate "latent carriers". 

Immune Response to the HS Oil Adjuvant Vaccine 

One of the main objectives of the present study was to 

evaluate the level and duration of immunity against P. multocida 

serotype B:2 following vaccination against HS. Immunity is assessed by 

the level of serum antibodies as determined by serological tests. In this 

study, the conventional serological tests which included the IHA and the 

PMPT were employed together with the ELISA described by 

Horadagoda et al. (1994): It is apparent from the results that the 

pnmsny OAV elicited a poor antibody response as indicated by lHA and 

ELISA titres. Chandrasekeran et al. (1992) have reported that most 

immunised buffalo sera did not contain HA titres, indicating a poor


immune response to P. multocida type B capsular antigen. However, the 

present study indicated that after a booster dose at 3 months, the IHA and 

ELISA titre gradually increased. The observation that the titres as well as 

the number of animals showing titres continued to increase steadily even 

up to the end of the experimental period of 12 months is noteworthy 

(Table 1). This observation appears to indicate that factors other than the 

vaccine have influenced the immune response as detected by JHA and 

ELISA This was further borne out by the fact that unvaccinated control 

animals also developed titres. Similar observations have been made by De 

Alwis et al. (1 978). It was postulated that sub-clinical HS infections or 

exposure to related serotypes may account for this phenomenon. 

The results of PMPT are not consistent (Table 2). In the first 

month post-vaccination, PMPT indicated a 66% protection, which 

remained up to 5 months and declined to 4% by 12 months. Under 

natural conditions the mast appropriate test for assessing immunity is the 

direct challenge test. As shown in Tables 6 and 7, at 9 months 50% of the 

vaccinated animals survived while at 12 months 67% survived the 

direct challenge of the virulent organism. Survival of unvaccinated 

control animals to direct challenge cannot be M y understood. Thomas 

et al. (1969) made similar observations and attributed this to individual 

resistance which they considered to be different to "naturally acquired 

immunity". If these animals were exposed to the infection and acquired 

natural immunity one would expect very high antibody titres detectable 

by IHA (De Alwis, 1982; De Alwis and Sumanadasa, 1 982). Antibodies 

to the HS serotype has been detected even in countries such as Australia 

and USA where HS is not endemic pain et al., 1982). Natural immunity 

in such situatians may be due to the presence of serologcally related non- 

HS paskurellae and other bacteria. 

The other objective of this study was to assess the perfmances 

of the serological tests used, i.e. IHA, PMPT and ELISA in relation to 

the results of the direct challenge test. Chandersekeran et al. (1993) 

reported a relationship between ELISA titres and the protection levels. 

Johnson et al. (1989) have stated that an apparent relationship between 

EUSA-titres and the results of PMPT can be observed. However, in the


present study, no such relationship was observed. The ELISA was more 

sensitive in detecting antibodies in that when both IHA and PMPT were 

negative the ELISA gave positive results. Nagy and Penn (1976) have 

reported a correlation between the IHq PMPT and direct challenge test 

in cattle which however was not consistent. Conversely, Chandrasekeran 

et al. (1 993) observed a lack of relationship between PMPT and direct 

challenge in buffaloes. It is hrther stated that immune sera produced in 

mice affaded 100% protection, while sera fiom immune buffaloes failed 

to give 100% protection. The results of the present study too indicate 

that PMPT is not an appropriate test to assess protection against HS in 

buffaloes. Mukkur and Nilakantan (1 969) have also observed a lack of 

relationship between MA, PMPT and direct challenge test. The results 

indicate that there is no correlation between serologtcal tests and 

protection levels as detemned by the hrect challenge test. 

Our findings provide further evidence towards the absence of 

correlation between the currently used serological test and direct 

challenge. It is important to note that the method of challenge itself, used 

by all workers is not the natural route, which is believed to be oral or 

intra-nasal. It is our view that firstly, specific protective immunogens 

must be identified and secondly, a technique to detect protective 

antibodies must be developed. A method of natural challenge has also to 

be developed. It is then that the most appropriate tests to detemne 

protective immunity can be stipulated. 

General Discussion and Conclusions 

The results of this study have clearly demonstarted that 

PasteureIIa multocida that colonise the tonsil of latent HS carriers are 

located exclusively in the tonsillar crypts. This localisation has enhanced 

the survival by evading the defence mechanism and the effects of 

antibiotics to which it is sensitive in vitro. Epidemiological studies on HS 

have suggested that outbreaks of the disease are due to the spread of the 

infection by latent carriers and that some triggering mechanism has 

transformed them to become active carriers or shedders in which the


organism is present in nasal secretions. In this regard the findings of the 

present study imply that it would not be possible to eliminate the 

organism in the latent camers through antibiotic therapy, as a means of 

controlling outbreaks of the disease. 

lhs study also attempted to investigate the effect of steroidinduced 

immunosuppression on transformation of latent carriers to an 

active state. In the dose-range used no effect was demonstrable. The 

Wrs responsible for this transformation remain an area for research in 

order to completely understand this segment of the epidemiological cycle. 

The vaccination experiment with the OAV has demonstrated the 

need for a booster in order to achieve titles to last a 12 month period. The 

results of the vaccine experiment have demonstrated a lack of correlation 

between the different serological tests used to assess immunity as against 

the direct challenge test, which is the ultimate proof of protection afforded 

by the vaccine. The findings of this experiment have indicated several 

areas of basic research for the future which have direct implications on 

the evaluahon of vaccines used to control the disease. The areas 

suggested include the need to (a) identify specific protective immunogens 

of the organism, (b) develop a test that will precisely detect and quantitate 

protective antibodies and (c) establish a better challenge model to 

evaluate immunity produced by vaccines. 


We wish to acknowledge with thanks the research grant awarded 

by the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with &veloping 

Countries and the NARESA for their assistance in administering the 

grant.


References 

Bain, RV.S., De Alwis, M.C.L., Carter, G.R and Gupta, B.K. (1982) 

Haemorrhagic septicaemia Animal Production and Health Paper NO. 

33 Rome, FAO. 

Bock, R (1980) Detection of Corynebacterium pyogenes in tonsils and lymph 

nodes of healthy calves and young cattle and its signtficance in the 

occurrence of summer mastitis. Vet. Bull. 52,178; Abstract NO. 1540. 

Carter, G.R (1955) Studies on Pasteurella multocida. I. A haemagglutination 

test for the identif3cation of serological types. Am. J. vet. Res. 16, 481- 

484. 

Chandrasekaran, S., Kennett, L., Yeap, P.C., Munianady, N., Rani, B. and 

Mukkur, T.K.S. (1993) Relationship between active protection in 

buffalo vaccinated against Haemorrhagic septicaemia and passive 

mouse proteotiotl and serological tests. In: Proceedings of an 

(ntemational Worhhop on Pasteurellosis in Production Animals. 

ACAIR Proceedings No: 43 pp. 165-1 69. 

De Alwis, M.C.L. (1982) The immune status of buffalo calves exposed to 

natural infection with Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Trop. Anlm. Hlth. 

Prod. 14,29-30. 

De Alwis, M.C.L., Gunatillake, AA.P. and Wickramasinghe, W.A.T. (1978) 

Duration of immunity to Haemdagic septicaemia in cattle following 

immunisation with alum precipitated and oil adjuvant vaccines. Ceylon 

vet. J. 26,35-4 1. 

De Alwis, M.C.L. and Sumanadasa, M.k (1982) Naturally acquired immunity 

to Haemorrhagic septicaernia among cattle and buffaloes in Sri Lanka. 

Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 14,27-28. 

De Alwis, M.C.L., Wijewardana, T.G., Gomis, A1.U. and Vipulasiri, kk 

(1990) Persistence of the carrier status in Haemorrhagic septicaemia 

(Pasteurella multocida serotype 6:B infection) in buffaloes. Trop. 

Anim. Hlth. Prod. 22,185-194. 

De Alwis, M.C.L., Wijewardana, T.G., Sivaram, k and Vipulasiri, k A. (1986) 

The carrier and antibody status of cattle and buffaloes exposed to 

Haemorrhagio septicaemia: Investigations on survivors following 

natural outbreaks. Sri Lanka vet. J. 34,33-42. 

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bovine tonsils. Vet. Rec. 118,459.


Gupta, B.K. (1962) Studies on the carrier problem in Haemorrhagic 

septicaemia Ph.D Thest Punjab Universiw Chandigar, India. 

Hiramme, T. and De Alwis, MC.L. (1982) Carrier status of cattle and buffaloes 

in Sri Lanka. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 14,91-92. 

Horadagoda, N.U. and Belak, K. (1990) Demonstration of Pasteurella 

multocida type 6:B @:2) in fonnalin-fixed para&-embedded tissues 

ofbuffaloes by the peroxidaseanti-peroxidase (PAP) techniques. Acta 

Vet. Scand. 31,493-495. 

Horadagoda, N.U., Wijewardana, T.G., Mulleriyawa, LS., Ramya Kumari, 

HMR and Vipulashi, kA (1994) Development of an enzyme-linked 

immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of serum antibodies to 

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Reproduction and D&ease diagnos& in Asia through the Application 

of Immunoassay Techniques. IAEA publication No: IAEA- 

TECDOC-736. pp 185-193. 

Johm, RB., Dawkins, H. J. S., Spencer, T.L., Saharee, A.k, Bahaman, A.R. 

Ramdani and Patten, B.E. (1989) Evaluation of bovine antibody 

responses to Haemorrhagic septicaemia vaccine. Res. Vet. Sci. 47, 

277-279. 

Mukkur, T.K.S. and Nilakantan, P.R (1969) The relationship of 

haemdutinating antibody with protection in cattle imrnunised 

against Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Cornell vet. 59,643 -649. 

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Haemorrhagic septicaemia by the capsular antigens of Pasteurella 

multocida types B and E. Res. Vet. Sci. 20,249-253. 

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strain of Pasteurella British vet. J. 118,71-73. 

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Haemdagic septieaemia vaccine production. In: Proceedings ofthe 

International Workshop on Haemorrhagic Septicaemia Ed. De 

Alwis, M.C.L. and Wijewardena, T. G. FAOIAPHCA Publication No: 

1991113 pp117-120. 

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77-80. 

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review of behavioural and physiological studies under field and 

laboratory situations. Adv. Vet. Sci. Comp. Med. 24, 179-210. 

'


Thomas, J., Omar, A.R, Fadzil, M., Mustaffa-Babjee, k and Vendargon, X.A. 

(1969) Studies on Haemdagic septicaemia oil-adjuvant vaccine. 11. 

Field and laboratory trials. Kajian Veterinaire, Malaysia-Singapore 2, 

4- 12. 

Wijewantha, E.k and Karunarawe, T.G. (1968) Studies on the occurrence of 

Pasteurella multocida in the nasopharynx of healthy cattle. Cornell 

vet. 58,462-465. 

Wijewardana, T.G., De Alwis, M.C.L. and Bastiansz, H.L.G. (1986) Cultural, 

biochemical, serological and pathogenicity studies of Pasteurella 

multocida isolated from camer animals and outbreaks of 

Haemorrhagic septicaemia. Sri Lanka vet. J. 34,43-57.

CJMRAGTERI[ZATION OF S-S OF BUFFALO 

CALF ROTAVIRUS BY POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL 

ELECTROPHORESIS 

U. Ariyaratne and S. Mahalingam 

Department of Veterinary ParaClinical Studies, 

Faculty of Veterina y Medicine and Animal Science, 


SRILANKA 

Abstract: The objective of the present study was to detect non-group A 

('atypical') rotaviruses as well as to study the genome profiles of strains of 

buffalo group A rotaviruses by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). 

Faecal samples collected fiom 175 buffalo calves 1 to 150 days old 

were examined by the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) test for 

group A rotaviruses antigen. These samples were also examined by PAGE. Of 

the 175 calves 139, (79.4%) were diarrhoeic at the time of sampling whilst the 

rest were non-diarrhoeic, but in contact with them. 

Fourteen of the 175 (8%) samples were positive for rotavirus by 

ELISA, and were of group A, sub-group 1 specificity. By PAGE only 9 of these 

samples showed banding pattern typical of group A rotavirus, although one of 

them was indistinct. None of the ELISA negative samples gave any banding 

pattern by PAGE similar to the atypical rotavirus. Six of these strains were 

dflerent ftom each other. These strains were circulating in farms, 60-100 km 

distant from each other, but in the same region. Variations in the 

electropherograms of rotaviruses detected in the same farm but at different times 

of samplmg were also obsefved. The Sri Lankan strains of buffalo calf rotavirus 

differed fiom the bovine strain in the migratory pattern of segment 5, whereas 

the Indian strains diflered in the migratory pattern of segment 10. 

PAGE is a useful technique to distinguish isolates and outbreaks of 

disease, and in detecting "atypical" rotaviruses where typing antisera are hard 

to come by. However, electropherotyping of strains of rotaviruses may not 

indicate variation in antigenicity of these strains. 

Keywords: Buffalo, rotavirus, diarrhoea, PAGE, calf.

Characterization of buffalo calfroravims 

INTRODUCTION 

Group A rotaviruses are the most important agents causing non- 

bacterial gastroenteritis in humans and animals (Bishop et al., 1973; 

Flewett et al., 1974). In Sri Lanka, 36.6% of diarrhoeas in buffalo calves, 

aged 10 to 51 days are rotavirus associated (Sunil Chandra and 

Mahalingam, 1994a). The genome of these RNA viruses consist of 11 

gene segments, which code for different viral proteins. These segments 

have different molecular weights and hence varying mobilities, when the 

extracted viral RNA is subjected to polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis 

(PAGE), they band themselves into a 4 - 2 - 3 - 2 configuration. 'hs is 

known as the electropherograrn for that particular virus group. These 

segments can be made visible by silver staining of the gels (Herring et 

a1.,1982). Variations of this basic electrophoretic pattern may occur 

amongst dfferent isolates within the group A rotaviruses in different 

farms with the country, in different outbreaks within the same farm, 

and amongst isolates fiom different countries (Rodger and Holmes, 

1979). 

Very few studes have been made on the electropherograms of 

group A strains of buffalo rotavirus. Muniappa et al. (1 987) have 

reported that their Bulgarian buffalo strains differed from the U.S. and 

Japanese bovine strains, Lincoln and 1 1-2, respectively. Singh et al. 

(1 993) showed that their Indian buffalo strains too differed fiom cattle 

strains in the migratory pattern of the 10h segment. 

The PAGE technique has also been exploited to detect "novel" 

or atypical rotaviruses in the faeces of humans and farm animals having 

diarrhoea. On the basis of their electropherograms, these atypical 

rotaviruses have been classified into five distinct goups B to F (Bridger, 

1984). 

The objectives of this work were to detect the occurrence of 

atypical rotaviruses associated with buffalo calf diarrhoea, and study the 

variabilities in the electropherograrns of strains of group A buffalo 

rotavinises detected in Sri Lanka.


U. Ariyaratne and S. Mahalmgam 

Faecal samples: Samples were collected from 175 diarrhoeic and non- 

diarrhoeic calves in three organized farms, 139 of whom were diarrhoeic, 

and 36 non-diarrhoeic but in contact with them. These animals were one 

day to five months of age. 

Enzyme linked immunosorbent arsay @LISA): Faecal samples were 

examined for rotavirus group A antigen by the ELISA, using a 

commetcial kit (Dakopatts, K 349, Denmark). The positives were 

confirmed by the blocking ELISA using reagents obtained from the 

W.H.O. (Sunil Chandra and Mahalingam, 1 994b) and subgrouped (Sunil 

Chandra, 1988). 

PAGE:. Samples were also examined for their rotavirus genome profiles 

by PAGE (Sevensson et al., 1986). Briefly, a 10% faecal suspension in 

phosphate buffered saline (PBS) was incubated with extraction buffer, 

pH 8.0 in the ratio 5:l for 30 minutes at 37' C (IOmmolA Tris 

hydrochloride, 10 mmoVl EDTq 0.5% sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) 

and l0pl of 1% Prokinase K ). An equal volume of phenol, chloroform, 

isoarnyl mixture in the ratio 24:24:1 was added, vortex mixed and 

centd3ged at 10,000g for 5 minutes. To the supernatant, sample buffer 

was added in the ratio 3: 1 (0.5 mmolA Tris hydrochloride, 5% SDS, 

0.005% Elrrq 40% glycerol, 5% mercapto ethanol and 0.001% phenol 

red) and vortex mixed. Twenty five microlitres of this preparation was 

then loaded into a well of the stacking gel (4.5%) and electrophorosed at 

100v for 1 5 min, after which the voltage was increased to 160v for 70 

minutes (10% separating gel of size 8 x 7cm) using Bio Rad Mini 

Rotean Cell 11 (Biorad, U.S.A). At the end of the run, the separating gel 

was reinoved, fixed for 15 min in a mixture containing 10% methanol- 

0.5% acetic acid with gentle shaking in an orbital shaker, washed with 

distilled water, stained with silver for 15 min, dned on cellophane 

membranes for 3 days and bands examined. Samples which gave similar 

banding patterns were co-electsophorosed.

Characterization of buffalo calf rotavirus 

Fourteen of the 175 samples examined were positive for 

rotavirus, and were all of group A, subgroup I specificity. Thirteen of the 

samples were fiom diarrhoeic calves and one £iom a non-dimhoeic calf. 

These calves were 1 to 2 months of age. By PAGE, only 9 of these 

samples showed bandmg pattern typical of group A rotaviruses. None of 

the ELISA negative samples gave a banding pattern similar to atypical 

rotaviruses. 

The electropherogram of the 9 buffalo rotavirus strains, together 

with those of a simian SA ll and a Swedish bovine strain are shown in 

Figures 1 and 2. Strains D2,4850,4851 and 823 were similar, whereas 

the other four strains, 514, 189811, 613 and 530 were dissimilar. The 

bands of strain 477 were indistinct. 

Figure 1. Electropherograms offive different strains of buffalo rotaviruses and 

those of a reference simian and bovine group A rotavirus. Lanes:A, 

SAl1; B, Bovine; C, 51% D, 1898/1; E, D2; F, 613; G, 4850; H, 

4851.


Figure 2. Electropherograms of a further three different strains of buffalo 

rotavirus, and a reference simian and bovine group A rotavirus. 

Lanes: A, SAl1; B, Bovine; C, 477; D, 530; E, 823. 

C~lectrophoresis 

of the similar strains showed that two of them (4850 

and 4851) were similar, whereas strains D2 and 823 were different fiom 

each other (Figures 3 and 4). These variations amongst strains appeared 

to be minor. When buffalo strains were compared with the Swedish 

bovine strains, the only difference noted was in segment 5 (Figures 3 and 

4), whilst there were only minor differences in segment 10. This bovine 

strain gave identical banding pattern as with the U.K. bovine strain, as 

well as to cattle calf strains detected in Sri Lanka.

Chavacteriiation of buffalo -calf rotavirus 

Figure 3. Electropherogram of three strains of buffalo rotavirus following 

co-electrophoresis. Electropherograms of reference simian and 

bovine group A rotavirus are also shown. Lanes: A, SAl1; B, 

SAI l+Bovinc C, Bovine; D, 4851+4850; E, 4850; F, 4850+D2; 

G, D2; H, D2+485 1 ; 1,485 1; J, 485 l+Bovine. 

Figure 4. Electropherograms of three other strains of buffalo rotaviruses 

following co-electrophoresis. Electropherograms of reference 

simian and bovine group A rotavirus are also shown. Lanes: A, 

SA11; B, SAI l+Bovine; C, Bovine; D, Bovinei-823; E, 823; 

F, 823+D2; G, D2; H, D2+530; I, Bovine+530.

DISCUSSION 


In the present study all strains of rotavirus detected both by 

ELISA and PAGE were group A, subtype I rotaviruses. None of the 

faecal samples examined by PAGE gave any genome profiles 

representative of the atypical rotaviruses. This is not surprising since 

atypical rotaviruses ar.e believed to be comparatively uncommon. For 

instance, Snodgrass et al. (1984) examined 222 samples of calf faeces 

containing rotaviruses and only two atypical specimens were detected. 

The electropherograms of these two cases were those of group B. 

Although detection rates have been low, seroprevalence studies have 

shown that these atypical rotaviruses are widely distributed among 

animals. In a sero survey for prevalence of antibodies to Group B and C 

rotaviruses in pigs, Bridger and Brown (1 985) found that 86% of the sera 

tested had antibodies to group B and 77% antibodies to group C 

rotaviruses. In another study, Brown et al. (1987) found nearly 71% of 

cattle sera examined had antibodies to group B rotaviruses, whereas the 

prevelence of antibodies to this group in humans was very low (4-10%). 

Although the association of atypical rotaviruses with diarrhoeas in cattle 

and other animals have not being studied to the same extent as group A 

rotaviruses, their pathogenicity is not in doubt. Group B rotaviruses have 

been associated with two large outbreaks in humans in China, involving 

mainly adults over 15 years of age and not infants and young children 

under three years of age. Group C rotaviruses too have been associated 

with an outbreak of diarrhoea in adult cattle (Tsunemitsu et a]., 1980). 

Considerable variations were observed amongst the buffalo rotaviruses 

detected in our study Six of them (514,530,823, D2,613, 189811) were 

different from each other. These strains were circulating in different 

farms, 60-100 km &om each other, but in the same region. One of these 

strains (514) was fiom a non-diarrhoeic calf (Figure 1). Six months later 

when diarrhoeic and non-diarrhoeic animals were sampled from this same 

farm, the electropherograrn of the virus detected (189811) was different 

from that of 514 Pigure 1). In another farm in the same region 

(Polonnaruwa), rotavirus was detected on three separate occasions, all 

from diarrhoeic animals. The electropherograms of these three strains 

(530,823 and 4850) were all different &om each other. Similar results

Characterization of buffalo calf rotavirus 

have been found by others as well. Singh and Pandy (1988) in their 

study of rotavirus diarrhoeas in a buffalo farm in India found that the 

electropherogram of the rotaviruses detected at the second sampling 4 

months later was different to that detected at first sampling. De Costa 

Mendes et al. (1993) in their studies on rotavirus dimhoeas in 6 weeks 

old Afiikander calves maintained in two farms, found that the 

electropherograms of the rotavirus strains detected at first sampling in the 

second farm under study was different to the rotavirus strains detected at 

the second sampling two months later,. and at the third sampling eight 

months later, in one of the farms. Although electropherotyping of 

rotavirus strains does not give an indication of their antigenicity, it is still 

a useful technique for the study of variability of these strains within 

farms, and for the detection of sources of outbreaks. 

References 

Bishop, RE, Davison, G.P., Holmes, I.H. and Ruck, B.T. (1 973) Viral particles 

in epithelial cells of duodenal mucosa from children with adult non 

bacterial gastroenteritis. Lancet ii, 128 1- 1282. 

Bridger, J.C. (1984) Novel rotaviruses in animals and man. In: Novel 

Diarrhoea Viruses. CIBA foundation symposuim 128, John Wiley 

and Sons, Chichester, U.K pp. 5-33. 

Bridger, J.C. and Brown, J.F. (1985) Prevalence of antibody to typical and 

atypical rotaviruses in pigs. Vet. Rec. 116,50. 

Brown, D.W.G., Beards, G.M., Guang-mu C. and Flewett, J.H. (1987) 

Prevalence of antibody to group B (atypical) rotavirus in humans and 

animals. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25,3 16-3 19. 

De Costa Mendes, V.M, De Beer, M., Peenze, I. and Steele, AD. (1993) 

Molecular epidemiology and subgroup analysis of bovine group A 

rotavirus associated with diarrhoea in South African calves. J. Clin. 

Microbiol. 31,3333-3335. 

Flewett, T.H., Bryden, AS., Davies, H.A., Woode, G.N., Bridger, J.C. and 

Derick, J.M. (1974) Relation between viruses from acute 

gastroenteritis of children and newborn calves. Lancet ii, 61-63.


Herring, A.J., Inglis, N.F., Ojeh, C.K., Snodgrass, D.R and Menzies, J.D. 

(1982) Rapid diagnosis of rotavirus infection by direct detection of 

viral nucleic acid in silver stained polyacrylamide gels. J. Clin. 

Microbiol. 16,473-477. 

Muniappa, L., Georgine, K.G., Dimitrov, D., Mitow, K.B. and Haralambiv, E.H. 

(1987) lsolation of rotaviruses from buffalo calves. Vef. Rec. 3,23. 

Rodger, S.M. and Holmes, J.H. (1979) Comparison of the genomes of simian, 

bovine and human rotaviruses by gel electrophoresis and detection of 

genomic variations among bovine isolates. J. Virol. 30,839-846. 

Sevensson, L., Uhnoo, J., Grandien, M. and Wadell, G. (1986) Molecular 

epidemiology of rotavirus infection in Uppsala, Sweden 1981: 

Dissappearance of predominant electropherotypes. J. Med. Virol. 18, 

101-1 11. 

Singh, A. and Pandey, R (1988) Analysis of electropherotypes of rotavirus 

from diarrhoeic faeces of neonatal calves in India Acta Virol. 32, 156- 

159. 

Singh, A, Kapoor, S. and Pandey, R (1993) Molecular epidemiology of bovine 

rotavirus during 1987 as determined by electrophoresis of genomic 

RNA. Indian J. Virol. 9,l-8. 

Snodgrass, D.R, Heering, k J., Campbell, I., Inglts, J.M. and Hargreaves, F.D. 

(1984) Comparison of atypical rotaviruses in calves, piglets, lambs 

and man. J. Gen. Virol. 65,909-914. 

Sunil Chandra, N.P. (1988) Studies on rotavirus infection of buffalo calves in 

Sri Lanka. M. Phil Thesk, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 

Sunil Chandra, N.P. and Mahalingam, S. (1994a) Rotavirus associated 

diarrhoea in buffalo calves in Sri Lanka. Res. Vet. Sci. 56,393-396. 

Sunil Chandra, N.P. and Mahalingam, S. (1994b) Application of ELISA id the 

diagnosis of rotavirus infection in buffalo calves. Buffalo J. 3,237- 

248. 

Tsunemitsu, H., Saif, L.J., Tiang, B., Shmmu, M., Hiro, M., Yamaguchi, H., 

Ishyama, T. and Hirai J. (1980) Isolation, characterization and serial 

propagation of a bovine group C rotavirus in a monkey kidney cell line 

(MA1 04). J. Clin. Microbiol. 29,2609-26 13

MARKERS OF INF'LAMMATION IN BUFFALO MILK 

Silva, I.D.l, Silva, K.F.S.T.*, Ambagala, A.P.N.l and Cooray, R.3 

Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Department of Animal 

Science, University of Peradeniya, SRI LANKA, 

3National Veterinary Institute, 

SWEDEN 

Abstract: Immunity in milk against invadiig pathogens is asserted by 

phagocytes and serum factors. The somatic cell count (SCC) in buffalo milk 

ranged from 50,000 to 375,00O/ml, of which 56% (range 22-88) were 

neutrophils which are the most active phagocytes in the body. The lymphocytes 

constituted 28% (range 10-54) of the SCC, and the rest consisted of 

macrophages (8%), epithelial cells (5%) and eosinophils (1%)). The presence of 

a small percentage (2%) of cells undergoing necrosis was a unique observation. 

The pH of the buffalo milk was 6.5 (range 6.1-7.0). 

In inflammation, the vascular permeability in the gland increases 

permitting leukocytes and serum factors in blood to enter the lacteal secretion. 

Experimentally induced aseptic subclinical mastitis elevated the SCC from 

50,000lml to 75x1O61ml, and 90% of these were neutrophlls. The presence of 

serum factors in normal milk was detected by the electrical conductivity (EC) 

and chloride ion percentage (Cl%) which were 3.86 milli Siemenslcm and 

0.11%, respectively. The entry of serum factors into milk preceeded the entry 

of cells, and a raise in EC to 4.87 mSiemens1cm (or above the mean plus twice 

the standard deviation, 4-46 milli Siemenslcm) and a rise in C1% to 0.14% were 

observed in mdk following induction of subclinical mastitis. Sigmficant 

alterations were not detected in acidity percentage and pH. The CMT negative 

milk had SX~O-'~ moles/ml of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and the values 

elevated with increasing SCC. A significant increase to 33x10-'' moleslml was 

obtained for milk with CMT scores above 2 which had an average SCC of 

4.25x106/ml. Streptococci were the major bacteria isolated from subclinical 

mastitic samples while 44% of the samples did not yield any bacteria on culture. 

Therefore SCC, EC, C1% and ATP are markers of subclinical mastitis in the 

buffalo. 

Keywords: Somatic ,cell count, conductivity, chloride, buffalo, milk

Markers of injlammation in buffalo milk 

INTRODUCTION 

Mastitis is the greatest single cause of loss of milk in the dairy 

industry. Bacteriological testing of milk &om all cows in a herd is too 

cumbersome and expensive for regular testing, especially in large herds 

(Guterbock and Blackmer, 1 984). Therefore, it has become a standard 

practice in developed countries to monitor the somatic cell counts (SCC) 

in milk, as an indicator of mastitis in cattle (Schultz, 1977). This is 

because, in response to an insult to the mammary gland, the increase in 

capillary permeability, hyperalgesia and haemodynarnic derangement 

results in a breakdown of the blood-milk barrier (Robbin, et al., 1984; 

Zia, et al., 1987; Schuster, et al., 1993 ). This in turn leads to marked 

oedema, swelling and tenderness of the gland, and transudation of serum 

proteins and recruitment of blood leukocytes, mainly neutrophils, into the 

lacteal secretion (Jain, 1976; Kerhli and Schuster, 1994). These 

responses are critical to the cow's ability to survive an infection and to 

return to normal production. 

The serum factors and cells act together to remove the invading 

pathogens. Opsonization of the invading pathogens by immunoglobulins 

and complement components assist the leukocytes to eliminate the 

pathogens wemidtowski, et al., 1988). The widely accepted California 

Mastitis Test (0 is a cowside test which gives an estimate of the total 

cell count in milk (Schalm and Noorlander, 1957). Measurement of the 

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) generated by the SCC indirectly estimates 

the degree of intlamrnation. The NaCl and bicarbonate ions enter the milk 

due to the alteration of the permeability, thus elevating the electrical 

conductivity PC), chloride ion levels (Cl%), pH and acidity ( Schalm, et 

al., 1971 ; Linzell and Peaker, 1975). 

The incidence of subclinical mastitis in the buffalo is apparently 

lower than that in cattle (Kalorey, et al., 1983; Khalaf, 1983). Therefore, 

it is possible that the quantity andlor quality of cells and plasma factors 

in buffalo milk during a mammary infection is different to those of cattle. 

However, udder infections can present a serious problem in buffalo herds 

due to poor hygiene (Chamberlain, 1993; Uppal, et al., 1994). The


present study describes the cytology and the serum factors in normal and 

mastitic buffalo milk, and their relationship with the SCC. This 

information will assist veterinarians and farmers in the early detection of 

subclinical mastitis. 

MATEW AND METHODS 

Animals: A total d 100 milking buffaloes used in this study were fiom 

five large organized fms in the north western, central and north central 

provinces, and those reared individually or in groups in small farming 

households in Sri Lanka. The breeds were Lankan, Murrah, Surti, Nili 

Ravi and their crosses. Twelve cattle from a large fann in the central 

province were used for comparison, wherever indicated. 

Milksmnples: The CMT was performed on all samples according to the 

method described by Schalm and Noorlander (1 957). The pH of the milk 

samples were also recorded. The number of quarter milk samples used for 

the different tests are indicated under each test. 

Normal buflalo milk: A composite sample of 250 to 400 ml of milk fiom 

each of the four quarters &om each cow was collected. Milk was 

cdlected separately and aseptically into covered sterile beakers and was 

transported in ice to the laboratory, to cany out the tests. Samples fiom 

the north central and north western provinces were tested on location. 

Milk was identilied as non-mastitic by using the CMT as an indicator. 

Mmtitic bu-alo milk: Aseptic idammation of the udder @AM) was 

induced in 51 quarters of 9 Lankan and 5 Surti buffaloes as described 

earlier (Silva, 1993a). Additionally twenty two quarter milk samples 

fiom 9 buffaloes fiom a farm 0 which gave CMT scores of between 

trace and 3 were also collected as aseptically as possible. 

Cattle milk samples: Twenty one quarter milk samples fiom 12 neat 

cattle were also collected aseptically and subjected to the same tests, for 

purposes of comparison.

Markers of inflammation in buffalo milk 

Somatic cell counts (SCC): The SCC of each quarter milk sample was 

measured microscopically using a haemocytometer as described for blood 

leukocyte counting (Silva, 1993a). 

DlfSerential cell counting m): CMT negative quarter milk samples 

(n=148) from 37 buffaloes were used. Milk cells were isolated by 

fdtering the milk through 4 layers of gauze to remove flakes, if any, and 

centrifugng at 300 RCF for 10 minutes. The sediments were 

resuspended in 2 ml of sterile phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.2 (PBS) 

and 2% bovine serum albumin (BSA) was added to prevent cell damage 

and loss during smear preparation and staining. The DC was done on a 

maximum of 200 cells in Leishman stained smears. 

Measurement of electrical conductivity (EC): The EC of quarter milk 

samples were measured by using a conductometer ("Analis K520", 

Belgium). The electrode was immersed in the milk sample and the 

measurement (L) was taken at a reference temperature of 20°C, after the 

digital reading stabilized itself. The specific conductance was calculated 

by using the following formula, K = L.k/l + a(t-20) in which, K = 

spdc conductance related to 20°C in Siemenslcm; L = conductivity at 

t°C in Siemens; a = sample temperature coefficient in 2%/K; t = sample 

temperature in OC; k = cell constant in llcm. 

Measurement of chloride (el%): The Cl% was measured as described 

by Marth (1978). One millilitre of 10% potassium dichromate (indicator) 

and 9 ml of milk were titrated with 0.1N silver nitrate (AgNO,) to the 

first perceivable pale red-brown colour, lasting 30 seconds. The C1% was 

calculated using the following formula = (ml of AgNO, x N of AgNO, x 

3.55)lweight of sample, where factor 3.55 = (35.46 (m.w.) x 100)/1000. 

Measurement of acidity: The acidity was measured as described by 

Marth (1 978). Five hundred millilitres of 1 % phenolphthalein and 9 g 

of milk was titrated with 0.1N NaOH to the first permanent colour 

change fi-om whlte to pink. Acidity was expressed as lactic acid where 

1 ml of 0. lN NaOH = 0.009 g of lactic acid. Percent acidity was


calculated by using the following formula = ml of 0. IN NaOH x 0.009 

x 100 /weight of the sample. 

ATP analysis: This was carried out at the National Veterinary Institute 

in Sweden. Milk samples (n=88) were transported to Sweden using one 

"Masti~trip"~ cassette for each cow. Each cassette contained 8 paper 

discs fixed to 4 plastic strips (2 discs per quarter) which were used for 

bacteriological examination and for ATP measurement. These cassettes 

allowed milk to remain uncontaminated up to 3-4 days and silica gel 

ensured rapid drytng of the discs after sampling. 

Nme hundred microlitres of 0.1 M Tris12mM EDTA buffer and 

one paper disc was allowed to interact in a 4 ml plastic cuvette by 

shaking for 12 minutes. Then lOOpl AMR reagent (1243-200 ATP 

monitoring reagent) was added and the cuvette was kept in a lurninometer 

1 250 (LKBIWaUac). The light emission (in mV) for 60 seconds was 

measured using a 1-channelhecorder (LKB\Wallac 2210). The light 

emission for 30 seconds was measured after adding lop1 of ATP 

standard. The ATP moles/ml = (Sample (mV)-Blank (mV))/ (Standard 

(mV) - Sample (mV)) x 50 x10-lo. 

Bacteriological analysis: The second paper disc on the "Mastistrips" 

was mixed with 0.5ml RPMI for 60 seconds and 5Opl of this solution was 

incubated for 24 or 48 hours on blood agar. 

StatisticaI analyses: The following tests were used: Paired t-test at 5% 

significance level for values between normal and subclinical samples; 

pooled t-test at 5% significance levels for the effect of breed; Tukey's 

multiple comparison at (P4.05) level for the ATP values (Daniel, 1987). 

RESULTS 

The experimental induction of irlnammation in the mammary 

glands ofthe cows resulted in subclinical mastitis, with higher SCC and 

CMT scores in milk and no evidence of clinical mastitis. The mean and


the range for the concentrations for the various cells in the SCC were as 

follows: Neutrophils 56% (22-88), lymphocytes 28% (10-54), 

macrophages 8% (0-28), epithelial cells 5% (0-1 5), eosinophls 2% (0-6). 

The nuclear morphology of 2% of cells showed pyknosis, karyorrhexis or 

karyolysis. The CMT scores of the EAM milk were between trace - 2, 

and between 1-3 for the 22 FM milk samples. Milk fiom the 21 cattle 

had CMT scores rangng fiom trace to 3 although signs of inflammation 

of the udder were not evident at the time of sampling, suggesting that 

those cows were affected with subclinical mastitis. 

The values obtained for SCC, C1%, EC, acidlty and pH for all 

the normal and mastitic milk fiom buffalo and cattle are given in Table 1. 

Table 1. Mean values (s.E.M.) and the range for somatic cell count 

(SCC), chloride% (Cl%), electrical conductivity, acidity??, 

and pH for normal and mastitic buffalo and cattle milk. 

SCCIml CI% Cmdudivity Acidity (%) PH 

(msl-) 

Normal 74,800 0.1 1 3.86 0.15 6.5 

buffalo (8,400) (0.002) (0.04) (0.003) (0.02) 

milk 0-375,000 0.08-0.2 1 3.40-4.75 0.08-0.22 61-7.0 

n 216 105 57 78 83 

Normal NT 0.13 4.58 0.16 6.3 

cattle (0.005) (0.12) (0.007) (0.a) 

milk 0.10-0.16 3.74-5.13 0.12-0.20 6264 

n=10 

Mastitic baalo milk -Milk &om experimmtal induced subclinical maslitis (EAM) 

14x106 0.14 4.87 0.14 . 

(2x109 (0.004) (0.08) (0.003) 

0.45-75x106 0.1 1-0.21 3.85-5.67 0.10-0.19 

n 39 38 32 37 

- Milk from Mastitic quarters tkomfarm buffaloes 0 

5.5~106 0.13 4.31 0.14 

(1 .7x106) (0.006) (0.14) (0.007) 

0.15-24x1 O6 0.09-0.22 3.32-5.52 0.08-0.18 

n 14 22 22 22 

n=2 1 

n-numba of @er samples; mS/~n-miUi siemdcentimeta; NTacd tested


Significant effect of the breed on these parameters were not observed in 

normal milk except for a higher EC in Surti milk (4.43 mS/cm) when 

compared with that of Lankan buffaloes (3.89 mS/cm). The changes in 

these parameters before and after induction of subclinical mastitis are 

given in Table 2. The ATP values increased significantly between CMT 

2, 1 scores (Table 3). There was no difference between the ATP values 

for zero, trace and 1 CMT scores. 

Table 2. Mean (SEM) values for somatic cell counts (SCC), chloride% 

(C1%), electrical conductivity @C), acidity % and pH of milk 

before and after induction of subclinical mastitis inbuffaloes. 

Parameter n Pre-induction Post-induction 

milk milk 

C1% 36 0.108 (0.002) 0.142' (0.004) 

EC (mS/cm) 33 3.78 (0.04) 4.87' (0.08) 

Acidity % 34 0.145 (0.08) 0.142 (0.004) 

PH 39 6.37 (0.02) 6.42 (0.03) 

* - mean value was signrficantly different than the preinduction value (P

Markers of injlammation in buffalo milk 

Of the samples cultured for bacterial growth, 31% had CMT 

scores varying £tom trace to 3, suggesting the presence of a subclinical 

infection. The bacteria isolated fiom these milk samples fiom subclinical 

quarters are as follows: 22% coagulase negative staphylococci, 15% 

Streptococctlr uberis, 11% Streptococcus agalactiae, .7% other 

streptococci. About 44% of the samples did not yield any bacterial 

growth. 

DISCUSSION 

The SCC is a valuable tool for iden-g major udder infections, 

and it is now recommended as an indicator trait to achieve genetic 

improvement for mastitis resistance (Kerhli and Schuster, 1994; Shook 

and Schutz, 1994). The mean SCC in normal milk of Bubalus bubalis 

was 140,00O/ml and ranged fiom 50,000 to 375,00O/ml. These values 

are similar to that is normal cattle milk (Jasper, 1963). Individual cow 

variations in the SCC could be attributed to the level of management in 

the different agro-climatic zones. The cells in buffalo milk were similar 

to those in cattle milk in that the neutrophil was the predominant cell, 

although its concentration was higher (2248%) in buffaloes than in cattle 

(26-29%) (hhller, et al., 1990). The lymphocyte was the second 

predominent cell (1 0-54%). 

The SCC in EAM and FM samples ranged fiom 0.45-75x 1 06/ml, 

and 0.1 5-24x106/ml, respectively (Table l), and 90% of those were 

neutrophils. The lower count of 450,000 SCC/ml obtained for EAM 

samples was a result of cell dilution, as these low counts were obtained 

from high millc producers. The presence of necrotic cells (2%) in normal 

milk, with pyknosis, karyorrhexis or karyolysis of the nuclei, was not 

reported in cattle. This may be because the buffalo leukocytes are 

functionally more active and therefore, may undergo the process of cell 

necrosis faster than cattle cells (Silva, 1993b). Furthermore, in contrast 

to cattte, the functional activity of milk neutrophils during an acute onset 

of udder idammation in the buffalo is similar to that of blood neutrophils


(Dulin, et al., 1988; Silva, 1993a). Therefore, although the SCC in 

buffalo is similar to cattle, the concentration and functional efficiency of 

milk phagocytes is superior in buffaloes. 

The ATP appears in milk as a consequence of milk somatic cells, 

and its concentration is elevated with increasing SCC (Table 3). An ATP 

concentration of 33x10'1° moles/ml was observed for a SCC of 

4.25x106/ml with a corresponding CMT score of 2. However, the 

measurement of SCC and ATP require laboratory facilities which may not 

be practical under local situations. The present trend towards larger herds 

producing quality milk, automation and hgher profits from the milk 

industry necessitates a rapid and easy measurement of mastitis at or 

around mikng time. Therefore, other inflammatory markers can be used 

for this purpose. 

In the normal udder, the major ions responsible for EC in milk 

are sodtum (Na), potassium (K) and chloride (Cl) (Linzell and Peaker, 

1975). During inflammation, the increase in vascular permeability 

precedes the entry of leukocytes thereby permitting partial equilibration 

of milk with extracellular fluid, which is rich in Na, C1 and low in K, by 

raising the salt concentration of milk (Linzell and Peaker, 1975; Schalrn 

et al., 1971). Therefore, measurement of the EC of milk is an accurate, 

rapid and an inexpensive method of detecting mammary infections, 

especially subclinical inflammation, before other clinical signs become 

evident (Linzell and Peaker, 1975). Only the SCC, C1% and EC levels 

elevated sipficantly following induction of subclinical mastitis in 

buffaloes, whereas, the acid@ and pH changes were insignificant. In 

cattle, hlgh correlations have been observed between the EC, infection 

status, and SCC (Fernando, et al., 1982; Jasper, 1963). An elevation in 

EC to above the mean plus twice the standard deviation 

(3.87+0.3x2=4.47 mS/cm) of the normal milk, when measured 

individually for each buffalo, can be used as an indicator of subclinical 

mastitis. A relatively higher EC of 4.43 mS/cm was observed for Surti 

buEdoes than for the Lankan buffaloes (3.89 mS/cm) which could be 

attributed to the breed differences and to the low milk yield of the Lankan 

buffaloes (Greatrix et a1.,1968). The elevation in the EC and C1% were

Markers of infammation in buffalo milk 

s~rnilar while the SCC elevation in FM samples were relatively lower than 

that ofEAM samples, which reiterates the fact that elevations in EC and 

C1% precede that of the SCC. 

About 44% of the buffalo quarters with subclinical inflammation 

did not yield bacteria on culture. This may imply the cause of the 

elevated SCC as ofgon-bacterial origin, such as irritation due to improper 

milking practices, leading to aseptic mastitis. Streptococci and 

staphylococci were the major bacterial species isolated from 26% and 

22% of the subclinical quarters, respectively. 

The finhngs presented reveal that SCC, ATP, EC, C1% are 

markers or inhcators of subclinical mastitis in the buffalo. Further 

studies are needed to observe correlations between infections, day-teday 

variations, yield and the lactation number on these parameters in the 

buffalo. 


This study was supported in part by funds from the Swedish 

Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC) 

awarded through the Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority 

of Sri Lanka(NARESA), and by a research grant from the University of 

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka The authors wish to thank N. Weerakkody, 

L.U.S.S. de Silva, K.R J.K. Amararatne, K. A.M. J. Silva, S.S. Withanage 

and I.N.K. Iriyagolla for assisting in sample collection and for technical 

assistance. 

References 

Chamberlain, k (1993) Milk Production in the Tropics. Longman Scientific 

and Technical, UK. 

Daniel, W.W. (1987) Biostatistics: A Foundationfor Analysis in the Health 

Sciences 5th Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., USA.


Dulin, A.M., Paape, M.J. and Nickerson, S.C. (1988) Comparison of 

phagocytosis and cherniluminescence by blood and mammary gland 

neufmphils from multiparous and nulliparous cows. Am. J. Vet. Res. 

49,172-177. 

Fernando, RS., Rindsig, R.B. and Spahr, S.R (1982) Electrical conductivity 

of milk for detection of mastitis J. Dazy Sci. 65,659-664. 

Greatrix, G.R, Quayle, J.C. and Coombe, Rk (1968) The detection of 

abnormal milk by electrical means. J. Dairy Scl. 35,2 13-221. 

Guterbk, W.M. and Blackmer, P.E. (1984) Veterinary interpretation of bulktank 

milk. Veterinary Clinics of North America 6,257-268. 

Jain, N.C. (1976) Neutrophil leukocytes and idammation of the bovlne 

mammary gland. Theriogenology 6,153- 173. 

Jasper, D.E. (1963) A summary of screening methods for leukocytes and 

their significance in milk quality. The California Veterinarian 

July-August: 37-40. 

Kalorey, D.R., Purohit, J.H. and Dholakia, P.M. (1 983) Studies on the 

incidence of subclinical mastitis, its aetiology and in vitro 

sensitivity of isolates. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 53,96 1-963. 

Khalaf, A.M. (1983) Studies on mastitis in buffaloes in Iraq with 

pmcular reference to prevalence rates, aetiology and diagnosis. 

Third International Symposium of the World Associaaon of 

Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians. June 1 3- 1 5, Iowa, 2, 

591. 

Kerhli, M.E. Jr. and Schuster, D.E. (1994) Factors affecting milk 

somatic cells and their role in health of the bovine mammary 

gland. J. Dairy Sci. 77,619-627. 

Linzell, J.L. and Peaker, M. (1975) Efficacy of the measurement of the 

electrical conductivity of milk for the detection of subclinical 

mastitis in cows: Detection of infected cows at a single vlsit. 

British vet. J. 131,447-451. 

Marth, E.H. (1 978) Standard Methods for the Examrnation of Dairy 

Products. 14th edition. Amencan Public Health Assocration, 

Washington DC, USA. 

Miller, R.H., Paape, M.J. and Lmk, S. (1990) Detechon of changes in percent 

neutrophils (PMN%) in milk by flow cytometry. (Abstract) J. Dairy 

Sci. 73 (Suppl. l), 21 1.


Niemialtowski, M., Nonnecke, B.J. and Targowski, S.P. (1988) Phagocytic 

activity of milk leukocytes during chronic staphylococcal mastitis. J. 

Dairy Sci. 71,780-787. 

Robbin, S.L., Cotran, RS. and Kumar, V. (1984) Idammation and repair. In: 

Pathological Basis ofD&eases. 3rd ed. W.B. Saunders Company, 

Philadelphia. 40-80. 

Schalm, O.W., Carroll E. J. and Jain N.C. (1971) Bovine Mastitis. Lea and 

Febiger, Philadelphia, USA. 

Schalm, O.W. and Noorlander, D.O. (1957) Experiments and observations 

leading to development of the California Mastitis Test. J. Am. Vet. 

Med. Assoc. 130,199-204. 

Schultz, L.H. (1977) Somatic cell counting of milk in production testing 

programs as a mastitis control technique. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 170, 

1244- 1246. 

Schuster, D.E., Kerhli Jr., M.E. and Stevens M.G.(1993) Cytokine production 

during endotoxin-induced mastitis in lactating dairy cows. Am. J. vet. 

Res. 54,80-83. 

Shook, G.E. and Schutz, M.M. (1994) Selection on somatic cell score to 

improve resistance to mastitis in the United States. J. Daily Sci. 77, 

648-658. 

Sihra, I.D. (1993a) Phagocytic efficiency of Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) blood 

neutrophils for cammon mammary pathogens. Buffalo J. 2,18 1-185. 

Silva, I.D. (1.993b) A comparison of the phagocytic efficiency of buffalo 

(Bubalus bubalis) blood and milk neutrophtls. Sri Lanka vet. J. 40, 

7-14. 

Uppal, S.K., Singh, K.B., Roy K.S., Nauriyal, D.C. and Basal, B.K. (1994) 

Natural defense mechanisms against mastitis: a comparative 

histomorphology of buffalo and cow teat canal. Buffalo J. 2, 125- 13 1. 

Zia, S., Giri, S.N., Cullor, J., Emau, ~.,'~sburn, B.I. and Bushnell, R.B. (1987) 

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1617-1625.

PREVALENCE OF LEPTOSPIRAL ANTIBODIES IN 

BUFFALOES IN SRI LANKA 

T. G. Wijewardana, B.D.R. Wijewardaua, W.N.D.G. S. Appuhamy 

and K.RV.P.M. Premaratna 

Veterinary Research Institute, 

Gannonnua, Peradenzya, 

SRl LANK4 

Abstract: Infections among humans, domesticated and wild animals caused by 

Leptospira lnterrogans occur worldwide. In Sri Lanka the prevalence of 

leptospirosis among domesticated animals has not been determined. The present 

sero-epidemiological study was to determine the prevalence of leptospirosis 

among buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Buffaloes are closely associated with humans as 

they are reared for both draught and dairy purposes. The infection is a wonosis. 

The data generated from the study would be useful in the formulation of future 

control programmes. 

Based on the prevalence of leptospirosis among humans, the districts 

of Anuradhapura, Badulla, Colombo, Galle, Gampaha, Kandy, Kegalle, 

Kalutara, Kurunegala, Matara, Polonnaruwa and Ratnapura were selected for 

the survey. From each Divisional Secretariat division within a district, serum 

was collected fiom 0.4 % of the buffalo population, giving a total of 1500 serum 

samples. Each sample was examined by the microscopic agglutination test 

against a panel of 10 serovars of Leptospira that are representative of sero 

groups present in Sri Lanka. Those showing an agglutination at a dilution of 

150 or above were considered positive. The overall prevalence was 41.93 %. 

The lugbest prevalence was in Badulla district (72.91 'Yo) while the lowest was 

in the Kegalle district (1 1.84 %). The most common serovar was weerasingha 

(30.2%) followed by pomona (26.55 YO) and hardjo (24 %). The least common 

serovar was ceylonica (0.7 %). These serovars maintained in other hosts have 

become adapted to buffaloes. 

Keywords: Leptospirosis, buffaloes, antibodies, MAT, prevalence.

Prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in bufSaloes 

INTRODUCTION 

The term leptospirosis refers to a range of disease syndromes in 

man and animals associated with infection by spirochaetes of the genus 

Leptospira There are two species within this genus, L. bljZexa which is 

considered non-pathogenic and L. interrogans, whlch is pathogenic. L. 

intewogk comprises 25 serogroups with over 200 serovars within the 

serogroups reported to date and, has a world wide distribution (Faine, 

1993). The serovars exhibit a host predilection and they differ fiom one 

another cm the basis of agglutinating surface antigens (Faine, 1993). The 

infection occurs through direct contact with infected tissues, body fluids, 

&e or virulent laboratory cultures or indirectly, through contaminated 

food, water or urine (Kmgscote, 1986). Skin and mucous membranes are 

the commonest portals of entry through cuts and abrasions and the 

organtsm can also be transmitted by inhalation (Mazzonelli, 1984). After 

an incubation period of 4-10 days, the organism disseminates itself 

throughout the body in the blood circulation. This phase, could last fiom 

a few hours to 7 days and is followed by a clearance phase fiom the blood 

and most of the tissues. Leptospiras are retained in the proximal renal 

tubules and in the female reproductive tract leading to a carrier stage, 

which are the foci of infection for animals and man (Ellis, 1984). 

Leptospirosis is an economically important dsease as losses 

occur through abortions, stillbirths, loss of milk production, deaths and 

infertility (Ellis, 1984). It is an occupational disease in man, the risk 

groups being agricultural workers, workers in mines, abattoirs, 

laborhes, wool workers and animal handlers. In the tropics, infections 

initiated by wild mammals such as rodents and carnivores are more 

prevalent and many serovars are present. The microclimatic condtions in 

the tropics with warm wet conditions and a pH closer to neutral, 

especiaily in paddy fields favour the survival of the spirochaetes outside 

the host, thus enhancing the danger to animals and man in these 

surroundings (Faine, 1993). 

In Sri Lanka only a few studies on leptospirosis in cattle (Peiris 

and Wettimuny, 1972) and in dogs and goats (Babudieri and Jagels,

T.G. Wijewardana et al. 

1362) have been carried out. Human leptospirosis in Sri Lanka has also 

been investigated (Babudieri and Jagels, 1962; Rajasuriya et al., 1964; 

Wdoopillai et al., 1966). In this country, buffaloes constitute an integral 

part of the agricultural sector. The importance ofthe buffalo lies in the 

fact that they perform a dual role of a draught animal and that of a milk 

producer. Leptospirosis in buffaloes has been reported in many countries 

(Ciceroni et al., 1995). Despite the close association between buffaloes 

and the agricultural community in Sri Laonka, no studies on the prevalence 

ufleptospirosis in buffsloes have beefi undertaken yet. Therefore, a study 

was designed to gather information on leptospirosis in buffaloes in Sri 

Lanka and it's importance. This communication describes the findings of 

a ser~epidernidogical survey, which was the initial step in achieving .the 

objective. 


Method of sampling: Multistage sampling technique was employed. 

Data perhining to prevalence of human leptospirosis were extracted fiom 

records maintained at district and base hospitals in each of the districts, 

except in d~stricts ofthe north and east. Colombo district had the highest' 

prevalence of human leptospirosis followed by Gampaha, Kandy, 

Matara, Kegalle, Kurunegala, Anuradhapura, Badulla and Polonnaruwa. 

Table 1 shows the mean of the number of cases of human leptospirosis 

for the 4 year period from 1989 to 1992. Data on buffalo populations in 

the Divisional Secretaries Divisions @S divisions) within each district 

under study were obtaitied h m each DS division and 0.4 % of the 

buffalo population was sampled. A total of 1500 samples of sera were 

included in the study (Table 2). 

Collection of samples: Blood samples were collected by jugular 

puncture. The blood was allowed to clot and the serum was separated at 

the Veterinary Research Institute by centrifugation at 1000 rpm for 10 

minutes. The sera were stored at -20" C until required. Each animal 

sampled was given an identification number using ear tags. wherever 

possible, details of age, sex, history of abortionslstillbirths or

Prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in buffaloes 

reproductive.failures and the purpose for which the buffaloes were reared 

were also recorded. The samples and relevant data were collected over a 

period of 18 months fiom December 1993 to May 1995. 

Table 1. Average number of cases of human leptospirosis during the 

four year period from 1989 to 1992. 

District Average No. of cases 

Colombo 150 

Gampaha 63 

Kandy 40 

Kalutara 39 

Galle 21 

Makara 2 1 

Kegalle 2 1 

Kurunegala 15 

Anuradhapura 15 

Ratnapura 12 

Badulla 11 

Polonnaruwa 8 

Microscopic Agglutination Test &UT): The test was performed as per 

recommendations of the WHORAO Leptospirosis Reference Centre in 

Brisbane, Australia. Table 3 indicates the sero groups, serovars and the 

panel of reference strains of the antigens used in the test (Krnety and 

Dikken, 1988). The WHORAO Reference Centre for Leptospirosis 

selected the panel of antigens, which were representative of serogroups 

prevalent in Sri Lanka. The antigens and the standard positive 

hyperimmune sera raised in rabbits against the 10 individual strains were 

supplied by the Reference Centre.


Table 2. The composition of the samples and the prevalence in each 

district. 

District No. of samples expected to No. actually No. YO 

be collected fiom each DS collected positive positive 

division 

Kandy 

Polonnaruwa 

Colombo 

Gaml'aha 

Ratnapura 

Anuradhapwa 

Kunmegala 

Galle 

Kalutara 

Matara 

The reference antigen strains were maintained at 30°C in EMJH 

(Difco) medium in screw capped tubes and used in the test at a 

concentration of approximately lo8, 4-7 days old live leptospire 

organisms per ml. The test was performed in 96 well, flat bottom 

mimotitre plates. Each test serum sample was diluted 1 :25 in phosphate 

buffered saline, pH 7.5, and screened against the 10 serovars. Any degree 

of agglutination with any of the serovars was recorded and, each test 

compared with the readings against the pooled standard positive sera. 

Serum samples showing agglutination were serially diluted, using 2 fold 

dilutions fiom 1 125 to 1 : 12,800 in phosphate buffered saline, pH 7.5, and 

equal volumes of the corresponding serovar antigen suspension added, 

mixed well by agitation and incubated at 30°C for 90 minutes. The plates 

were viewed under darkfield microscopy using a magnification of x100.

Prevalence ofleptospiral antibodies in bu~aloes 

The end point was taken as the highest dilution showing 50 % 

agglutination. A test was considered positive where agglutination 

occurred at a dilution of 1.50 or above. 

Table 3. The panel of antigens indicated in the MAT (supplied by the 

WHORAO Leptospirosis Reference Laboratory in Australia). 

Serogroup Serovar Strain 

Canicola canicola Hond Utrecht IV 

Tarassovi 

Australis 

Pomona 

Sejroe 

Icterohaemorrhagia 

Autumnalis 

trassovi 

australis 

pyrogenes 

pomona 

hardj o 

ceylonica 

weerasingha 

Perepelitsin 

Sahem 

Pomona 

Hardjoprajitno 

Piyasena 

Simon 

Weerasingha 

Grippotyphosa ratnapura Wimalasena 

RESULTS 

Of the 1500 serum samples collected, 629 were found to be 

serologcally positive indicating a prevalence of 41.93 % leptospirosis in 

buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Of these, 41 serum samples reacted with another 

serovar at a similar titre, indicating mixed infections. In instances where 

serum samples reacted with 2 or more serovars, the serovar indicating the 

hlghest titre was considered as the one responsible for the infection. The 

titres ranged fiom the lowest value of 1.50 to 1 :3200. Table 2 indicates 

the targetted number of animals to be sampled, the number actually 

sampled and the percentage of prevalence of leptospirosis in each district 

under study. Only animals aged 6 months and over were sampled. As


shown in Table 2, the highest prevalence (72.91 %), was observed in the 

Badulla district while the lowest was in Kegalle district (1 1.85%). As 

given in Table 4 serovar weeraringha in the sero group Autumnalis had 

the highest prevalence at 30.2 %, followed by pomona (sero group 

Pomona) and hardjo (sero group Sejroe), while serovar ceylonica had 

the lowest prevalance at 0.7 %. Table 5 illustrates the predominant 

serovars in each district. 

Table 4. Numbers of animals giving positive reactions to different 

serovars at litres ranging from 1 150 to 1 :3200. 

Serovar 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 Total Yo 

tested 

Canicola 3 10. 7 3 6 3 1 33 . 5.25 

Australis 1 1 2 1 1 6 0.96 

Pomona 23 '31 36 25 31 15 6 167 '26.55 

Ceylonica 1 2 2 5 0.79 

Gem 1 5 4 1 1 1 1 14 2.23 

Weerasingha 21 59 56 26 17 9 2 190 30.2 

Total 104 180 148 106 86 33 13 670

Table 5. Percentage distribution of serovars among seropositive animals in the different districts. 3 

Serovars RTP GMH CMB KDY POL ANR KNG BDA KEG KAL i3 GAL MTR : C, 

Canicola 5 6.45 30 185 13.15 0.39 2.85 n 

Tarrasovi 5 

3.7 3.5 1.17 2.85 4 

R 

Weerasin& 20 38.7 20 14.8 16.66 29.48 37.5 42.85 33.3 36.3 33.3 40 

RTP - Ratnapura GMH - Gampaha CMB - Colombo KDY - Kmdy POL - Polama~wa ANR - kamapura 

KNG - Kunmeg@a BDA - BaW KEG - Kegalle KAL - Kalutm GAL - Galle MTR -Matma

DLSCUSSION 

T. G. Wijewardana et al. 

The objective of the present study was to ascertain the prevalence 

of leptospirosis in buffaloes in Sri Lanka in relation to dominant serovars 

and age, sex and the use (milk/draught/both) of the animal. The survey 

revealed an overall prevalence of 41.96 % of leptospirosis in buffaloes in 

the country. According to Mazzonelli (1984), a serological survey 

correctly performed and interpreted would reflect the true situation of 

leptospirosis in the area. The sampling method, sample size, the 

performance of the serological test (MAT) and the selection of the 

reference strains of the antigens, which were representative of serogroups 

prevalent in Sri Lanka were in line with the recommendations of the 

WHO/FAO Reference Centre for Leptospirosis, Brisbane, Australia. As 

such, assuming that the results of the MAT as absolute, the positive 

animalscoul'd be considered as having been exposed to the bacterium, 

while the negatives are to be considered as susceptibles. As the kinetics 

of antibodies involve rising and falling antibody titres, the true prevalence 

could be higher than found in this survey (Mazzonelli, 1984). 

The most predominant serovar was weeraringha of the 

Autumnalis sero group (30.2 %). Among the seropositives, it was the 

commonest in Badulla (42.86%), foUowed by Matara (40%). Kurunegala 

(37.15%), Kalutara (36.36%), Galle (33.33%), Kegalle (33.33%) and 

Anuradhapura (29.48%). Other sigdicant serovars were pomona (26.56 

%), hardjo (24 %), pyrogenes (1 1.28 %) and canicola (5.2 %). Each 

serovar has a specific maintenance host and when other animal species 

are exposed they could become infected. Favourable conditions for the 

leptospires to survive outside the animal host include warm wet 

conditions and a pH closer to neutral (Faine, 1993) commonly found in 

paddy fields, water holes and reservoirs with inter connecting imgation 

canals. These could become contaminated by the leptospires through wild 

mammals, such as rodents and carnivores, or other domesticated 

mammals. Serovarspomona, hardjo and canicola are maintained in pigs, 

cattle and dogs respectively, whde sero group Autumnalis represented by 

serovar weeraringha is associated with small rodents. Hence, it appears 

that these serovars which are maintained in other animal hosts have

Prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in buflaloes 

caused incidental infections in buffaloes and through prolonged contact, 

they have become adapted to buffaloes. 

All the sero groups included in the survey are represented in 

Polonnaruwa &strict, while Anuradapura and Kurunegala districts each 

have one less and Badulla district two less. The one factor common to 

these four dstricts is the large scale of cultivation of paddy with an 

abundance of sprawling paddy fields and irrigation reservoirs with 

interconnecting canals. The reason for the wider representation of 

serovars could be the favourable environment and the large population of 

buffaloes which have close interaction with a large variety of domestic 

zind wild mammals. Of the animals tested, 42.2 % of the females and an 

equal number (42.35%) of males were found to be sero-positive for 

leptospirosis. It was not possible to determine the relationship between 

prevalence and age, as the age given by the farmers could not be 

substantiated. 

In most of the areas the animal performed a dual role as a draught 

and dairy animal. As a draught animal it was mainly used in the paddy 

fields for ploughing and threshing, while in some Leas it was used to 

tread clay prior to malung of bricks. In all those pursuits, the buffaloes 

come into very close contact with humans. 

Economically, leptospirosis is an important disease causing 

enormous losses through abortions, still births, infertility and loss of 

production. It had been estimated that prenatal losses which occur due to 

serovar hardjo amount to 2.2 %. If countries of South and Central 

America with a cattle population of 220 million are considered, the 

enormity ofthe annual calflosses and the gravity of the problem could be 

envisaged (Ellis, 1984). The condition is a zoonosis. In Sri Lanka 

agricultural farmers working in paddy fields, gem miners, laboratory 

workers handling infective material, and livestock farmers handling 

buffaloes have been found to be infected with leptospirosis. 

Although serologcal surveillance provides an indcation of the 

extent of exposure to the infection, it can be supplemented with


microbiological and clinical investigations. Clinical signs are neither 

spdc nor pathognomonic for leptospirosis. Therefore, a microbiologtcal 

investigation should be initiated which would elucidate the camer status 

and its importance as a zoonosis. 


The survey was supported through funds provided by the 

Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries 

chanelled through NARESA. The role played by WHORAO 

Leptospirosi s Reference Centre, Brisbane, Australia headed by Mr. L. 

Smythe and the staffis gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are due to Dr. 

RJ. Chappel, VLAS, Melbourne, Australia. We are also appreciative of 

the assistance extended by the medical officers of district and base 

hospitals and the Epidemiologist of the Health Department. Finally we 

wish to express our gratitude to the field veterinarians and their staff for 

the cooperation. 

References 

Babudieri, B. and Jagels, G. (1962) Serological research on the presence of 

leptospirosis in Ceylon. Ceylon Med. J. 7,213 - 214. 

Ciceroni, L., Aniello,P.D., Russo, N., Picarella, D., Nese, D., Lauria, F., Pinto, 

A. and Cacciapuoti, B. (1995) Prevelence of leptospire infections in 

buffalo herds in Italy. Vet. Rec. 137, 192 -193. 

Ellis, W.A. (1984) Bovine leptospirosis in the tropics: Prevalence, pathogenesis 

and control. Prev. Vet. Med. 2,4 1 1 - 42 1 

Faine, S. (1993) Leptospira and leptospirosis. CRC Press BocaRaton, Florida 

Kingscote, B.F. (1986) Leptospirosis: An occupational hazard to 

Veterinarians. Can. Vet. JT27,78 - 8 1. 

Kmety, E. and Dikken, H. (1988) Revised List of"Leptospira" serovars. I. 

Alphabetical order. University Press. Groningen, Netherlands. 

Mazzonelli, J. (1984) Advances in bovine leptop&osis. Res. Sci. Tech. Ofice 

Int. Epizooties. 3,775 - 808

Prevalence of leptospiral antibodies in buflaloes 

Peiris, G.S., and Wettimuny, S.G.&.S. (1972) Presence of leptospiral 

antibodies in sera of cattle. Ceylon vet. J. 20,64 - 66. 

Rajasuriya, K., Munasinghe, D.R, Vitarane, U.T., Wijesinghe, C.P.&.S., 

Ratnaike, V.T. and Peiris, M.D. (1964) Leptospirosis in Ceylon: A 

Clinical Study. Ceylon Med. J. 9,136 - 153. 

Walloopillai, N.J., Markus, HK.N.1. and Nityananda, K. (1966) Leptospirosis 

in Ceylon. Ceylon Med. J. 11,50 - 58.

OBSERVATIONS ON Schistosoma nasale RAO, 1933 

JNFECTIONS IN THE VERTEBRATE 

AND SNAIL HOSTS 

D.J. Weilgama 

Department of Parasitology, Fa~llty of Medicine, 


SRI LANK4 

Abstract: Carcasses of cattle and buffaloes were examined for S. nasale 

infections during the period August 1992 to November 1993 at the Colombo 

abattoir, Government Livestock Fanns and in the field. Mections were detected 

in 5.9% cattle and in 23.9% buffaloes. In contrast, the infection rate at the 

Narangda Baa10 Research Station was 91%. Monthly examination of nasal 

secretions of these infected buffaloes showed S. nasale eggs persisting up to 8 

months. The only clinical sign observed was a thick nasal discharge. 

Snails belonghg to six species were examined although in the natural 

disease only Indoplanorbis emstus is infected The infeotion rate, however, was 

low (0.55%). Laboratory bred snails (F gen) of I. exustus fkom Narammala, 

Per-a, Nikaweratiya and Girandurukotte were tested and only snails from 

Peradeniya and Girandurukotte were susceptible. Miracidial doses of 1,4,6 and 

10 per snail produced infections, and infection rates of up to 50% were obtained. 

Higher doses (20lsnail) caused heavy sqail mortality. The prepatent period 

varied ikom 30 to 59 days and cercarial emergence peaked in the morning hours 

(0800 -1 130 hr). Attempts to infect mails of Bithynia sp. and Bulimus sp. 

failed. The cercaria were observed to migrate through skins of rats, mice and 

guinea pigs but schistosomulae were recovered only fiom lungs of mice, 5 to 7 

days post exposure. Attempts to infect calves in the laboratory were not 

successful. 

Circumoval Precipitin Test (COPT) was developed and was found to 

be useful in detecting S. nasale infections in cattle and buffaloes. COPT 

produced clear precipitin reactions around schistosomulae with sera of infected 

cattle and buffaloes. 

Keywords: Schistosoma nasale, Indoplanorbis exustus, Schistosomiasis, 

buffalo, circumoval precipitin test.

Schistosoma nasale infectiom in vertebrate and snail hosts 

INTRODUCTION 

Schistosorna nasale Rao, 1933 which causes nasal 

schistosomiasis in cattle and buffaloes is widespread in India (Dutt and 

Srivastava, 1968) and in the adjacent countries (Islam, 1975). It develops 

in the veins of the nasal mucosa and causes a marked rhinitis and 

granulomatous growths. S. nasale and S. spindale, a closely related 

parasite, have been reported *om Sri Lanka (Crawford, 1935; 

Dissanayake and Jayasunya, 1959). Recently De Bont et al. (1989), 

reported aprevdence rate of 12.6% for S. nusale in cattle. Much hlgher 

prevalence rates have been reported fi-om India (Muraleedharan et al., 

1976a) .and h Bangladesh (Islam, 1975). Very few attempts, however, 

have been made to study the development of S. nusale in animals. 

Snails of the species Indoplanorbis exustus have been 

incriminated as the intermediate hosts in India (Dutt and Srivastava, 

1968) and in Sri Lanka (De Bont et al., 1991). Diagnosis of S. narale 

infection in cattle and buffaloes is usually based on clinical signs and 

detection of eggs in nasal secretions as reliable serological tests are not ' 

available. 

This paper reports on the studies made on the prevalence of S. 

nmale in buffaloes and in cattle and its development in the vertebrate and 

invertebrate hosts. Attempts made in the development of a serological 

test for diagnosis is also reported. 

Examination of Animals 


Carcasses of cattle and buffaloes were examined for S. nasale 

infection at the Colombo abattoir, in Government farms and in the field 

during the period August 1992 to November 1993. The cattle were of 

Zebu breeds whilst the buffaloes were of the indigenous type. During the 

same period buffaloes stationed at the Buffalo Research Farm, Narangalla

D. J. Weilgama 

were also examined. Simple scrapings of the nasal mucosae were made 

using either a metal scoop (dead animals) or cotton wool swabs (live 

animals). The scrapings were immediately washed into about 40 ml of 

water in bottles and examined under a stereomicroscope. 

Examination of Snails 

Snails collected fiom different geographical areas namely, 

Hasalaka, Girandurukotte, Dehiattakanhya (dry zone), Nikaweratiya 

(intermdate zone), Narammala (low country wet zone) and Peradeniya 

(mid country wet zone) were examined for natural S. narale infections. 

The snails were kept individually in vials with water and observed daily 

for cercarial shedding. 

Colonisation of Snails 

I. exustus snails were maintained in fish tanks (30x15~16 cm). 

The water was aerated continuously and snails were fed with fish pellets 

and dried cabbage leaves. Eggs laid were transferred periodically fiom 

main tanks into sub tanks to obtain snails of different age groups for 

infection studies. 

Experimental Infection of Laboratory Snails 

Snails were exposed to S. nasale miracidia either singly or in 

groups. Single infections were carried out in a 24-well plate (Linbro R) 

whilst group infections were carried out in beakers with a sufficient 

quantity of water. Miracidia were added with a pasteur pipette and left 

undisturbed for 6 hours. The snails were kept individually fkom 20 days 

post-infection (PI) onwards and examined daily for cercarial sheddlng. 

On two occasions snails belonging to Bithynia sp. and Bulimus sp., 

collected from the field, were also exposed to miracidla using the same 

procedure.

Schistosoma nasale infections in vertebrate and snail hosts 

Experimental Infection of Animals 

Laboratory rats, mice and guinea pigs were exposed to S. nasale 

cercariae obtained from experimental infections. The animals were 

anaesthetized and 50 or 100 cercaria per animal were introduced on to 

shaved areas ofthe skin using a pasteur pipette. Impression smears were 

prepared from slun nips fiom rats and guinea pigs at 10, 15,20 and 30 

mins PI. They were stained with neutral red and exwned under oil 

immersion. The mice were sacrificed on days 5,7,10,15 and 90 PI and 

examined for developing andlor adult stages. Lung schistosomulae 

recovery assays were performed following the methods described by 

Janecharut et al. (1 987). 

Two crossbred calves, aged 5 and 7 months, were also exposed 

to S. narrale cercariae obtained from laboratory infections. About 500 

cercariae were instilled into the nostrils of each calf using a pipette. Nasal 

swabs were examined from 30th day onwards for eggs. 

Sero-diagnostic tests: The circumoval precipitin test (COPT) was 

performed in small screw capped vials and involved exposing S. nmale 

cercaria to known positive and negative cattle and buffalo sera. Freshly 

emerging cercariae were collected, concentrated by centrihgation in 

MEM and a known volume (500~1) put into each vial. An equal volume 

ofserurn was added into each vial and was incubated overnight at 37' C. 

Penicillin at 100 iulml and streptomycin at 10 idml were added to each 

vial to suppress bacterial growth. Foetal calf serum and PBS were used 

as controls. 

RESULTS 

Prevalence in Cattle and Buffaloes 

A total of 3 36 cattle and 142 buffalo carcasses were examined 

Qnng the study period and S. nasale was detected in 5.9% cattle and in 

23.9% buffaloes. At the Buffalo Research Farm, Narangalla, a total of


134 buffaloes were examined of which 113 were indigenous adult 

buffaloes, 5-8 years of age, whilst 21 were'Murrah crosses, aged 2-3 

years. The S. nmale infection rate in Murrah crosses was 100% whle in 

indigenous adults it was 89.4%; the overall infection rate was 91%. 

Twenty seven of these adult buffaloes were sampled on 8 

occasions at monthly intervals. S. nmale eggs were seen in all animals 

on each sampling day. The only clinical sign noticed was a thick nasal 

discharge which was unrelated to the status of infedion. In nearly 45% 

of buffaloes there was egg excretion with no noticeable nasal discharge. 

Prevalence in Snails 

A total of 796 snails belonging to 6 species viz, Indoplanorbis 

exustus (363), Gyrnulus sp. (39), Bulimus sp. (1 84), Bithynia sp. (82), 

Melanoides sp. (42) and Lymnoea luteola (86) were examined. One each 

ofl. exustus fiom Nikaweratiya and Girandurukotte produced S. nusale 

giving an infection rate of 0.55%. 

Laboratory Infection of Snails 

Snails were exposed to miracidia both at Narangalla and at the 

Cdo* abattoir. At the latter location the rniracidia were i?om animals 

fiom different geographical areas whilst at Narangalla they were fiom a 

single strain of S. nmale (Polonnaruwa strain). Only snails fiom the 

Peradeniya colony produced cercaria both in single and in group 

infections with miracidia fiom different areas (Table 1). These also 

developed infections readily with the Polonnaruwa strain of S. nusale. 

The infection rate, however, was seen to decrease with age of snails 

(Table 2). Of the other snruls tested only one snal fiom Girandurukotte 

developed an infection whilst aU others were refractory.

Sch&tosoma nasale infections in vertebrate and snail hosts 

Table 1. Susceptibility oflndoplanorbis emrstus fiom different localities 

to Schistosoma nasale collected &om mfferent sources. 

Locality Age No. Min P.P. P.D.R LR D.I. 

Exp (dl (%) (%) (4 

* Peradeniya 3m 55 40 76.4 15.4 2 

* Giraudumkotte 3m 33 97.0 00 0 

* Peradeniya 4m 29 40 51.7 7.1 3 

*Girmdurukotte 4m 15 46.7 .OO 0 

+ Peradeniya 4m , 09 40 66.7 33.3 4 

+ Nikeweratiya 4m 08 87.5 00 0 

No. Exp. = Number exposed, Min P.P.(d) = Min prepatent period (days), P.D.R. = 

prepatent death rate, I.R. = Infection rate, D.L(d) = Duration of infection (days), 

* Group infection - 06 miracidialsnail, + Single infection - 06 miracidia/snail 

Table 2. Susceptibility of Indoplanoribis exustus fiorn different 

localities to Schistosoma nasale (Polonnaruva strain). 

Locality Age No. Min P.P. P.D.R LR. D.I. 

Exp (4 (%) (%) (4 

+ Peradeniya 2m 50 35 (35-59) 64 50 2-22 

+ Narammala 2m 24 00 00 

+ Peradeniya 4m 20 41(41-47) 15 47 6-29 

+ Peradeniya 5m 24 36 50 25 2 

+ Narammala 5m 24 41.7 00 

* Peradeniya 5m 25 40 64 11.1 1 

* Narammala 5m 25 28 00 

* Girandumkotte 5m 24 35 66.7 12.5 1 

No. Exp. = Number exposed, Min P.P.D. = Min prepatent period (days) 

P.D.R. = prepatent death rate, LR = Infection rate, D.I.(d) = Duration of infection 

(days), + Single infection - 06 miracidialsnail, * Group infection - 06 miracidiahail 

Miracidial dose was seen to influence the infection and large 

numbers caused heavy snail mortality (Table 3). The maximum number 

of cercaria produced per snail was 1845 whilst the highest daily cercarial 

production was 537. Peak emergence of cercariae was between 0800 hr 

to 1 130 hrs. S. nasale did not develop in the Bithynia sp. and BuIimus 

sp. of snails.


Table 3. Susceptibility of Indoplanorbis exllrtus after exposure to 

different numbers of miracidia of Schistosoma nmale 

(Polonnaruwa strain). 

Locality No. No. P.D.R h4inP.P. LR D.L 

Exp MIS % (d) 'Yo (4 

Peradeniya 14 01 85.7 30 50 08 

14 10 85.7 41 50 14 

14 20 100 00 

Narammala 14 10 50 00 

Girmdurukotte 12 04 25 00 

No. Exp. = Number exposed, No. MIS. = No of mhcididsnail, P.D.R. = Prepatent 

death rate, Min P.P.(d) = Min ptepatent period (days), LR = Infection rate, D.L(d) 

= Duration of infection (days) 

Development in Animals 

In rats and guinea pigs the cercariae began to penetrate through 

the skin after 20 min and schistosornulae were seen in smears made at 20 

and 30 min post exposure. Rats that were exposed to cercariae 

repeatedly, developed hypersensitive reactions that manifested in violent 

scratching after exposure. No schistosomulae were detected in the skin 

impression smears made fiom such rats. Schistosomulae were recovered 

from lungs of 3 mice on day 5 (8/100,5/100,3/100) and from 2 mice on 

day 7 (2/100,1/100) post exposure. No schistosomulae were recovered 

thereafter. S. nusale did not develop into adults in mice. 

The two calves which were exposed to S. nasale cercariae were 

sampled by nasal swabbing up to 150 days post exposure but no eggs 

were recovered £?om them. All known infected buffalo and cattle sera 

gave positive results. Precipitin reactions were seen in COPT at the 

anterior and posterior ends of schistosomulae (Figure 1). No precipitin 

reactions were seen with negative sera or foetal calf serum.

Schirtosoma nasale infections in vertebrate and snail hosts 

Figure 1. Schistosomulum showing circumoval precipitin reaction at 

the anterior and posterior ends (arrows). 

DISCUSSION 

S. nasale is known to cause a more serious condition in cattle 

than in buffaloes @utt and Srivastava, 1968; De Bont et al., 1989). 

These authors reported granulomatous growths that caused snoring in 

affected cattle. In the present study, the only clinical sign noted in 

buffaloes was a thick nasal discharge. Dutt and Srivastava (1 968) made 

similar observations and was of the opinion that buffaloes possessed an 

innate resistance to S. nmale. 

De Bont et al. (1 989) in a survey done over a 12m period at the 

abattoir in Kandy, found a prevalence rate of 12.6% in cattle. A lower 

prevalence rate was detected in cattle in the present study but the 

prevalance rate in buffaloes was high. At the Narangalla farm where 

buffaloes obtained fiom different areas were stationed, the rate was much 

higher (91%). Such variations in prevalence have been reported by many 

workers (Dutt and Srivastava, 1968; Muraleedharan et al., 1976 b; Islam, 

1975).


These variations may be due to the susceptibility patterns of 

animals and to the presence of the intermediate hosts. Islam (1975) and 

De B& et al. (1989) found hgher infection rates in older cattle than in 

the young. In buffaloes, in the present study, the rates were similar in 

both young and old; a factor which could be related to the wallowing 

habits of the buffalo. 

This study has reconfirmed the observations of De Bont et al. 

(1 991) that I. emrstus is the only intermediate host of S. nasale in Sri 

Lanka Infection rate (IR) in nature however was low. Mwaleedharan 

et al. (1976b) too reported low infections in Karnataka but Dutt and 

Srivastava (1 968) observed a high IR (7%) in Uttar Pradesh. 

In experimental studies, however, IRs of up to 50 % were 

obtained and are in agreement with those reported by previous authors. 

High IRs have also been reported with other schistosomes (Arfaa et al., 

1989), and Richards (1976) was of opinion that such a change in 

infectiiity was due to a shift in gene frequencies. 

Only snails from Peradeniya and Giranchuuke became infected 

whilst snails fiom Narammala and Mkaweratiya were retiactory. 

Refractoriness has been noted with other snails and schistosome 

combinations (Sulaiman and ' lbrahim, 1985; Arfaa et al., 1989). 

Susceptibility to infection in snails decreased with age. Further, large 

numbers of miracidia caused heavy snail mortality. Such an inverse 

relationship between snail survival and miracidial dose has been reported 

with S. mansoni and Biomphalariapfeziferi snails (De Kock, 1992). 

Cercarial shedding was seen to peak in the morning hours. This 

phenomenon would certainly facilitate transmission as it coincides with 

the wallowing times of the buffaloes. Theron (1984) observed two 

shedding patterns for S. mansoni that coincided with transmission 

patterns to man (early) and to rats (crepuscular). Failure in this study to 

infect calves is probably due to the low numbers of cercariae us&. Dutt 

and Srivastava (1968) obtained infections only when very large numbers 

were used (700-21000). Though no adults were recovered from mice

Schktosoma nasale infections in vertebrate and snail hosts 

schistosomulae were found from 5th to 7th day PI. Similar findings have 

been reported for other schistosomes too (Janecharut et al., 1987; 

Uswattanakul et al., 1982). 

Effective serological tests have not been reported for animal 

schistosomes though many are available for human schistosomiasis 

(Janitschke et aL, 1987; el-Ganayani et al., 1988). COPT used in the 

present study was found to be effective in diagnosing S. nmale infections 

in cattle and buffaloes. A disadvantage of this test, however, was that an 

ongoing infection in snails was necessary to conduct the test on a routine 

basis . 


I am gratefid to Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with 

Developing Countries for the financial assistance provided through 

NARESA for thls project. I am thatMul to Dr. Vipula Dharmawardena 

for the facilities provided at the abattoir, Colombo and to Mr. Rex 

Fernando for the support extended at the Buffalo Research Station, 

Narangalla. The technical assistance of Mr. Gamini Perera is much 

appreciated. 

References 

Arfaa, I?., Mahboubi, E., and A1 Jefi, M. (1989) The potential role of various 

species of intermediate and host of Schktasoma haematobium Saudi 

Arabia. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 83, 216-218. 

Crawford, M. (1935) Report of the Government Veterinary Surgeon. Ceylon 

Admin. Rep. 1934, IV, 46-47. 

De Bont, J., Van Aken, D., Vercruysse, J., Fransen, J., Southgate, V.R and 

Rollinson, D. (1989) The prevalence and pathology of Schistosoma 

nasale Rao, 1933 in cattle in Sri Lanka. Parasitology 98,197-202.


De Bout, J., Vercruysse, J., Van Aken, D., Southgate V.R and Rollinson, D. 

(1991) Studies of the relationships between Schistosoma narale and 

S. spindale and their snail host Indoplanorb& exustllr. J. Helminthol. 

65, 1-7. 

De Kock, K.N. (1992) The effect of exposure to selected numbers of 

Schistosoma mansoni miracidia on survival of cohorts of 

Biomphalaria pfeifferi. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 86,557-562. 

Dissanayake, AS. and Jayasuriya, D.J.C. (1959) Some parasites hitherto 

unreported fkom pigs and cattle in Ceylon. Ceylon Vet. J. 7,30-33. 

Dutt, S.C. and Srivastava, H.D. (1968) Studies on Schistmoma nmale 

Rao,1933. I1 Molluscan and mammalian hosts of the blood-fluke. 

Indian J. Vet. Sci. 38,210-216. 

el-Ganayni, G. A, el-Shazly, A.M., Youssef, M.C. and Abdel-Mageid, S. A. 

(1988) ELISA and COPT in serodiagnosis of Schistosomiasis mansoni 

in children. Journal ofEmpt Sociely of Parasitology 18,165-171. 

Islam, K.S. (1975) Schistosomiasis in domestic ruminants in Bangladesh. 

Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 7,244. 

Janecharuf T., Usawattanakul, W., Sommani, S. and Kitrkoon, V. (1987) Lungmigration 

patterns of Schistosoma mekongi and S. spindale in mouse. 

Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 18 (4): 484-87. 

Janitschke, K., Reinhold, A. and Bode, L.(1987) Nitrocellulose dot-EISA for 

serodiaguosis of schistosomiasis. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 81, 

956-958. 

Muraleedharan, K., Kumar, S.P., Hedge, K. S. and Alwar, V. S. (1976a) Studies 

on the epbmotiology of nasal schistosomiasis of bovines. 1. Prevalence 

and incidence of infection. Mysore J. Agric. Sci. 10,105- 1 17. 

Muraleedharan, K., Prasama Kumar, S.,Alwar, V.S. and Hegde, K.S. (1976b) 

A note on the intermediate host of Schistosoma nasale Rao, 1933 and 

on the seqonal prevalence of its cercaria. Indian Vet. J. 53,s 19-820. 

Richards, S.R (1976) Variations of infectivity for Biomphalaria glabarata in 

strains of Sch&tosoma mansoni from the same geographical area. 

Bull. World Health Organ. 54,706-707. 

Sulaiman, S.M. and Ibrahim, S.M. (1985) Schistosoma mansoni (Gezira) 

infection in Biomphalariapfe~@~ snails from Gezira and Jebel Marra. 

J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 88,91-93. 

Theron, k (1984) Early and late shedding patterns of Schis~osoma mamoni 

cercariae: ecological sguifkmce in transmission to human and murine 

hosts. J. Parasitol. 70, (5): 652-655.

Schhtosomcr nasale infectiom in vertebrate and snail hosts 

Usawattanakul, W., Kamijo, T. and Kojima, S. (1982) Comparison of recovery 

of schistosomula of Schivtosoma japonicum from lungs of mice and 

rats. J. Pararitol. 68,783.

HAEMATOLOGICAL AND BIOCl3EMICAL PROFILES 

OF ADULT F'EMALE LANKA BUF'FALOES 

(BUBALUS BUBALIS) 

N.U. Horadagoda, I.S. Gunawardena, A.P.N. Ambagala 

and D.M. S. Munasinghe 

Department of Veterinary ParaClinicaI Studies, 

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, 

University of Peradeniya Peradeniya, 

SRILANM 

Abstract: The objective of this study was to establish reference values for 

haematological parameters and serum biochemical constituents of the Lanka 

bu£falo in order to interpret results hm experimental and clinical investigations. 

Jugular blood collected &om 80 apparently healthy female buffaloes (2-7 years) 

at the Narangalla buffalo researoh farm were used to determine the 

haematological parameters whilst serum biochemical constituents were assayed 

in 120 animals from both Narangalla and Mawela buffalo research farms. The 

haematological panmeters were measured using standard methods while serum 

analytes were assayed using biochemical kits (Randox Laboratories, UK) 

Irrespective of age, the reference values (mean* one standard deviation) 

for haematological parameters were: red blood cells, 5.34k1.23 (10'2/1); 

haemoglobin, 1 1.88*1.69 (gldl); packed cell volume, 0.3 1*0.05 (111); 

erythrocyte sedimentation rate, 3 1.17~k22.2 (mmlhr); plasma protein, 76a 1 1.5 

(g/l); Fibrinogen, 6.8*2.7 (g~l); icterus index, 5.6e2.23; whte blood cells, 

11,6423991lpl; lymphocytes, 54.05*11.3 I(%) or 6171*3540/p1; neutrophils, 

36.23*11.04 (%) or 3797*1928/pl; monocytes 3.48i2.26 (YO) or 68258Olpl; 

eoskophils, 6.7W5.51 (%) or 38W357/p1 and basophils 0.3W0.3 (YO) or 

3SH241pL The reference values (meone standard deviation) for biochemical 

constituents were: albumin, 3 1.64*4.54 gll; aspartate aminotransferase (AST), 

1 05*3 6.56 U4 alanine aminotransferase (A.L,T), 3621 1.8 Ufl; creatine 

phosphokinase, 66.75*35.5 Uk, alkaline phosphate (ALP), 118.5*64.3 Uk, 

gamma glutamyl trd-, 18.8*16.03 UA; glucose, 3.220.87 mmoV1, urea, 

4.82rt1.62 mmoY1; creatinine, 130.27rt27.25 mmoVl and bilirubin 4.W4.4 

(total), 2.05 * 1.7 (direct) pmoyl.

Haematological and biochemical profiles of buffaloes 

The results of tfits study indicate that the haematological parameters of 

the Lanka buffalo are comparable to those reported for both swamp and river 

type buffaloes in Asia, characterised by a low icterus index, a high ESR and a 

predominance of lymphocytes over neutrophils. The biochemical values, in 

general, correspond to values reported for the swamp buffalo in Australia and 

are similar to the values described in cattle, except for AST, ALP and ALT 

which are hrgber in the buffalo. In contrast to other domesticated ruminants, the 

serum ALT concentration in the buffalo is high, and may reflect a species 

characteristic. 

Keywords: Buffalo, reference values, blood constituents, haematology, serum 

biochemistry 

INTRODUCTION 

Haemograrns and measurements of serum biochemical 

constituents are widely used in veterinary medicine for disease diagnosis 

and to understand the pathophysiological events of diseases during 

clinical and experimental investigations. The interpretation of the 

haematological and biochemical data of animals is dependant on the 

availability of reference or baseline values of the parameters as distinct 

species differences have been reported (Jain, 1986; Kaneko, 1989). For 

example, in the haemogram of the dog, cat, horse and pig, neutrophils are 

i the most predominant leucocyte in circulation while in ruminants, 

laboratory rodents and chicken, lymphocytes are more fiequent than 

neutrophils. Similarly, biochemical constituents have also shown species 

variation. Alanine aminotransaminase (ALT), an enzyme primarily of 

hepatic origin is present in relatively high concentrations in the sem of 

the dog and cat and the levels increase considerably with hepatic 

diseases/disorders therefare, ALT is a usd indicator of liver injury in 

these species. In contrast, the serum ALT levels in the cow and horse are 

very low and are not significantly increased with hepatic injury. In 

addition to such species characteristics, other factors such as age, breed, 

sex, climate, nutrition and physiological status are also known to 

influence the haematological and biochemical profiles.

N.U. Horadagoda et al. 

Idmation on the haematology and serum biochemstry of the 

buffalo is scanty compared to other domesticated animals. The current 

literature, is to a large extent based on studies conducted in the river type 

buffalo in India (Jain, 1986). These studies have examined the 

haemogram in relation to breed (Patel et al., 1969; Rao and Rao, 1977), 

age (Sharma et al., 1973), management (Banga et al., 1980), 

physiological status (Jain et al., 1982) and climate (Pate1 et al., 1971; 

Hassan et a1.,1981). In contrast to the river type buffalo which prefer 

clear running water to wallow, the Lanka buffalo wallows in stagnant 

water and has phenotypic characteristics of the swamp buffalo present in 

South East Asia It is therefore classified as a swamp buffalo although it 

has 50 chromosomes. In comparison to the river type buffalo only a very 

few studies have examined the haematology of the swamp buffalo. 

Sulong et al. (1980) stucbed the haematology of the Malaysian swamp 

buffalo while Canfield et al. (1984) reported on the heamatological and 

biochemical profiles of swamp buffalo in the Northern Territory of 

Australia. These studies have demonstrated that the red blood cells, 

packed cell volume and haemoglobin are higher in the swamp buffalo 

than that observed in river type buffaloes. In addition, the Malaysian 

study (Sulong et al., 1980) showed that the leucocyte counts are also 

high in the swamp buffalo. This study was undertaken to establish 

reference values for haematological and biochemical constituents in order 

to provide a basis for interpretation of data fiom clinical and experimental 

investigations on the Lanka buffalo. 


Locations of st@ : The blood analysed in this study was collected fiom 

adult Lanka buffaloes (2-7 years) managed at the SAREC/NARESA 

Buffalo Research farms in Peradeniya and Narangalla. All animals tested 

were fiee fiom disease, fed only on natural pasture and had been on the 

two fanns for at least one year prior to bleeding. 

Blood collection: The animals were restrained with great care to avoid 

undue excitement. Five mihlitres of jugular blood collected into a

Haematological and biochemical profils of buffaloes 

vacutainer tube (Becton Dickinson, USA) containing EDTA (2mglml) 

were used for haematological studies while serum prepared from 10 ml 

of blood collected into a second vacutainer tube without anticoagulant 

was used for measurement of biochemical constituents. A further 2 ml 

cdlected into fluoride oxalate tubes were used for glucose estimation. AU 

blood cdlections were made between 7.00 and 9.00 a.m. and the samples 

were transported to the laboratory wihn four hours of collection, in a 

polystyrene box maintained at 4°C. 

Haematological Analysis 

All haematological estimations, except the differential counts were 

perfanned within 24 hours of collection. The methods used in this study 

were selected from procedures described by Jain (1986); a brief 

description of these procedures is given below. 

Erythrocyte enumeration: The red blood oells were counted in an 

improved Neubaur haemocytometer after diluting (1 :200) the cells with 

Gower's solution in standard blood diluting pipettes. 

Leucocyte enumeration: The white blood cells were also counted in an 

improved Neubaur haemocytometer after diluting cells in standard blood 

diluting pipettes. Turk's solution was used to dilute (150) the white 

blood cells. 

Haemoglobin estimation: The haemoglobin concentration was measured 

by the cyanrnethhaemoglobin method. The absorbance of samples as 

calculated using a standard curve prepared with 4 serial dilutions of 

aquaglobin, a haemoglobin standard (3Omg/dl) from Sigma Chemical Co. 

(Poole, UK). 

Packed cell volume: The packed cell volume (PCV) was determined by 

using a microhaematocrit centrifuge. Two capillary tubes (75 x 1 mm) 

were filled with blood, centrifuged for 5 minutes at 5000g and the height


of the packed cells was determined using a reader designed for this 

purpo&. The mean of two readings was used as the PCV for the animal. 

Erythrocyte indices: The red cell indices such as Mean Corpuscular 

Volume (MCV), Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration 

(MCHC) and Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH) were calculated 

using standard formulae. 

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate: The erythrocyte sedimentation rate 

(ESR) was measured after standing the blood for one hour in Westergren 

tubes. 

Differential counting: Blood smears were prepared immediately after 

cdlection, fixed in acetone and later stained with Giemsa. Both cell size 

and appearance were assessed in areas of the smear showing little or no 

overlapping of erythrocytes. The distribution of leucocytes in each animal 

was based on the differentiation of 200 cells. 

Plasma protein andfibrinogen concentrations: Total plasma protein 

and fibrinogen concentrations were determined with a refiactometer 

(Golberg). For this purpose, two microhaematocrit capillary tubes were 

filled with blood and centrifuged in a microhaematocrit centrifbge (5000 

rpm) for five minutes and then one of the tubes was heated in a water 

bath at 56°C for three minutes and recentrifuged to sediment the heat- 

precipitated fibrinogen. Protein concentration of fluid in both capillary 

tubes were measured with the refiactometer. The value of the unheated 

plasma represented the total plasma protein concentration while the 

difference between the readings of unheated and heated plasma tubes 

reflected the fibrinogen level. 

Biochemical Assays 

Serum concentrations of albumin, alanine aminotransaminase (ALT), 

aspartate aminotransaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), 

bilirubin, creatine phosphokinase (CPK), creatinine, glucose, gamma

Haematological and biochemicalpro$les ofbuffaloes 

glutamyl transferase (GGT) and urea were measured using biochemical 

kits from Randox (RANDOX Laboratories Ltd. 55, Diamond Road, 

County Antrim, Northern Ireland BT29 4QY, UK). Total proteins were 

assayed by the biuret method (WHO Clinical Chemistry and 

Haematology Manual, 1986). 

RESULTS 

The values for haematdogical parameters of 80 clinically healthy, 

adult Lanka buffaloes are presented in Table 1 as means with one 

standard deviation. 

Table 1. Haematological parameters for the adult female Lanka buffalo. 

Parameters Mean*SD 

(n = 80) 

Red blood cells (x1 012/1) 

Haemoglobin Wdl) 

Packed cell volume(1 A) 

5.34 * 1.23 

Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (pg) 22.76-+ 7.08 

~ean corpuscular volume (fl) 59.1* 19.22 

Mean corpuscular haemoglobin 

concentration (gfdl ) 

38.21*14.8 

Whlte blood cells (number1 1) 11,642* 3, 991 

Plasma protein (gll) 76 *11.5 

Fibrinogen (g/l) 6.8* 2.7 

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (mrn/hr) 31.2+ 22.2 

Icterus index (units) 5.66* 2.23 

The prominent features of the haernogram of the Lanka buffalo include the 

average size (MCV) of erythrocytes, similar to that in cattle, low icterus 

index, conspicuous ESR and absence of reticulocytes. The morphological 

features of red blood cells are comparable to those observed for cattle cells. 

Erythrocytes exhibit a varying degree of rouleaux formation, slight


rouleaux formation, slight anisocytosis and uniform staining. Individual 

red cells, however, appeared as slightly biconcave discs with an indistinct 

central pallor. Polychromasia was absent. The chstribution of the 

leucocytes are given in Table 2. The results indicate a predominance of 

lymphocytes over neutrophils, in common with other domesticated 

ruminants. Table 3 shows the results of 11 serum biochemical 

constituents assayed in 120 clinically healthy adult female buffaloes. 

Tabl'e.2. Differential leukocyte count of the Lanka buffalo. 

Parameter Percentage Absolute number 

(number of cellslpl) 

Lymphocytes 54.0534 1.3 6171*3540 

Neutrophils 36.2*i 1.04 3797*1928 

Eosinophils 6.W5.51 388=t357 

Monocytes 3.483Z2.26 6823580 

Basophlls 0.38a.3 3 9*24 

Table 3. Serum biochemical constituents of adult female Lanka 

buffaloes. 

- - 

Serum constituent Mean* SD 

(n=120) 

Albumin (gll ) 3 1.6i4.5 

Alanine aminotransferase (UI1 ) 36.2*11.8 

Aspartate aminotransferase (Ull) 105*36.56 

Creatine phosphokinase (Ull) 66.8k35.5 

Alkaline phosphatase (Ull ) 118.6*64.3 

Gamma glutarnyl transferase (Ull) 18.8*16.03 

Glucose (mmolll ) 3.2k0.87 

Urea (mmoV1) 4.82i1.62 

Bilirubin (total; pmoV1 ) 4.9*4.4 

Bilirubin (direct; pmoV 1 ) 2.05i1.7 

Creatinine (mmolll) 130.27k27.25

Haematological and biochemical profiles of buflaloes 

DISCUSSION 

Reference values for blood parameters and serum biochemical 

constituents form a useful basis not only for the interpretation of results 

from clinical and experimental investigations but also to establish 

physiological trends and species characteristics. Most of the work on 

buffalo haematology and serum biochemistry is based on stuhes 

conducted on the river type breeds such as Murrah and Surti found in 

India. These studies have examined the influence of breed, age, sex,. 

management and a range of other animal and environmental factors on 

the haemogram (Jain, 1986). One of the first systematic studies on the 

haemogram of the swamp buffalo was reported by Sulong et al. (1 980) 

in Malaysia. These workers sampled 50 clinically healthy Malaysian 

swamp buffaloes between the ages of 2 and 4 years and reported the 

existence of differences in the blood profiles of the river and swamp type 

buffaloes. In another study, Canlield et al. (1 984) sampled 99 mature and 

55 immature feral swamp buffaloes which were domesticated and 

managed at an experimental unit in the Northern Terrority of Australia. 

The haematology profiles in both the Malaysian and Australian studies 

indicated that the RBC count, haemoglobin concentration and packed cell 

volume in the swamp buffaloes were higher than the values reported for 

the river type buffaloes (Simon and Jacob, 1 96 1 ; Pate1 et al., 1969; Jain 

et al., 1982). However, the results of the present study does not lend 

support to this observation as the RBC count, Hb concentration and PCV 

in the Lanka buffalo are comparable to values reported for the river type 

buffalo. Despite these differences in the red cell parameters the values for 

red cell indices, MCHC, MCH and MCV tended to overlap between the 

two types of buffalo. The morphology of red blood cells in the L da 

buffalo was very simtlar to that of the Murrah (Jain et al., 1982) and had 

some features such as a slight anisocytois, absence of polychromasia 

which are characters frequently observed in cattle. 

In the present study, the total W C 

counts tended to have a large 

range whtch made it difficult to make comparisons with other studies in 

the buffalo (Sulong et al., 1980; Jain et al., 1982; Canfield et al., 1984) 

or to comment on the observation made by Sulong et al. (1 980) that the


WC count was higher in the swamp buffalo conpared to the river type 

animals. The percentage distribution of the various leucocytes, 

particularly the lymphocytes and neutrophils were remarkably similar in 

our study compared to that reported for both the river type (Simon and 

Jacob, 1961; Moustafa, et al., 1964; Jain et al., 1982) and swamp type 

buffalo (Sulong et d., 1980; Canfield et al., 1 984). Jain et al. (1 982) also 

noted that in some animals the neutrophil percentage exceeded the 

lymphocytes and they attributed this phenomenon to a redistribution of 

neutrophtls in the vascular pool either due to handling of the animals, or 

to subclinical infection. S~milar observations were made in the present 

study among a few of the animals tested. The distribution of monocytes, 

eosinophils and basophils in our study were in general, comparable to 

that reported by other workers. The morphological features of the 

leucocytes in the Lanka buffalo were essentially similar to those described 

in detail by Jain et a1 (1 982) for the Murrah buffalo. 

The increased ESR in the buffalo is indeed, a clear discriminating 

feature in the heamatology when compared to other domesticated 

ruminants such as cattle, sheep and goats. Purushotham and Mahendar 

(1963) in a comparative study, reported that the buffalo has a higher 

ESR even when compared to the horse and dog. The precise reason for 

the increased ESR in the buffalo is not known. In the horse, the rapid 

ESR is attributed to rouleax formation but rouleax formation is not a 

feature-in buffalo blood and it was not observed to a large extent in the 

smears examined in the present study. Several workers have attempted 

to determine the relationship between the ESR and other blood 

parameters of the buffalo. In this connection, Raghavan and Gdar 

(1960) reported an inverse relationship between the PCV and ESR. It 

was observed that buffalo calves with a high PCV had a slow ESR 

compared to adults animals that had low PCV. They also noted that the 

ESR increased with age. In a subsequent study, Raghavan et al. (1 961) 

demonstrated a direct relationship between the spmfic gravity of blood 

and PCV The findings described in the latter two reports (Raghavan and 

G&, 1960; Raghavan et al., 1961), when taken together, suggest that 

the ESR of the buffalo is related to the specific gravity of blood. 

Accordingly, the low ESR present in calves is attributed to the high

Haematological and biochemical profiles of buflaloes 

s w c gravity and PCV whereas the high ESR observed in adults is due 

to the low PCV and specific gravity. In a separate study, Escudero and 

Resoso(1968) reported that both ESR and PCV in the buffalo were high 

in the females compared to that in males but the authors failed to 

demonstrate these differences statistically. Unlike in other species, the 

ESR in ~e buffalo has not been exploited as yet, as a clinical aid in 

disease diagnosis. Future research need to focus on the ESR of the buffalo 

m order to explore the possibilities of using it as a routine diagnostic test 

in hematology as in man and other domestic animals such as horse, dog 

and cat. 

Most biochemical data available for the buffalo has been derived 

fiom studies in the Indian and Egyptian buffalo. However, Sulong et al. 

(1980) and Canfield et nl. (1984) reported on the plasma protein 

concentrations of the swamp buffalo in Malayasia and Australia, 

respectively. These values are essentially similar to that reported in the 

present study and those recorded for the Murrah buffalo (Jain et al., 

1982) and the Egyptian buffalo (Hafeez and Anwar, 1956). In addition, 

the fibrinogen concentration reported herein is comparable to that 

reported for the Murrah buffalo by Jain et al. (1982). The values for 

albumin, gamma glutarnyl transferase and urea in the Lanka buffalo were 

essentially similar to those reported for the swamp buffalo in Australia 

and in general, they were wthin the reference range for cattle. The 

creatine phospholunase values tended to overlap in our study with that 

of the Australian work although the mean values were different in the 

two studies. The blood glucose concentration reported in this study was 

similar to that recorded by Canfield et al. (1984) as well as by other 

workers in India (Kehar and Murty, 1951) and Egypt (Hafeez aqd 

Anwar, 1956) The levels of ALP and AST rmded in this study and that 

by Caniield et al. (1 984) were higher than values reported for cattle. The 

enzyme ALT is generally low In rumnants but the present study has 

demonstrated relabvely hlgh concentrations of this enzyme in the buffalo 

which may very well reflect a species characteristic.


N.U. Horadagoda et a1. 

The authors wish to thank the Swedish Agency for Research Co- 

operation with Developing Countries (SAREC) for providing the 

financial support and the Natural Resources, Energy & Science Authority 

of Sri Lanka (NARES A) for operating the grant. 

References 

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spray cooling and wallowing on blood composition in buffaloes during 

summer. Indian J. Dally Sci. 33,294-298. 

Canfield, P.J., Best, F.G., Fairburn, AJ., Purdie, J. and Gilham, M. (1 984) 

Normal haematological and biochemical values for the swamp buffalo 

(Bubalus bubaln) in Australia. Aust.vet. J 61,89-93. 

Escudero, S.H. and Resoso, B.B. (1968) The erythrocyte sedimentation rate 

and packed cell volume of blood of Philippine carabaos. Philippine J. 

vet. Med. 7,57-68. 

Hafez, E.S.E. and Anwar, k (1956) Cytological, physiological and chemical 

studies of Egyptian buffalo blood. IndianJ. vet. SCI. 25,125-130. 

Hassan, A, Samak, M. and Badaway, k (1981) Seasonal variation in lactational 

performance and blood haematologioal characteristics of cross-bred 

(Egyptian x Holstem) and buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) cows under sub 

tropical conditions. World Review ofAnima1 Production 17,65-72. 

Jain, N.C. (1986) Schalm's Veterlnaly Haematology. 4th Edition. Lea Febiger 

USA. 

Jain, N.C., Vegad, J.L., Jain, N.K. and Shrivastava, AB. (1 982) Haematological 

studies on normal lactating Indian water buffaloes. Res. Ver. Scl. 32, 

52-56. 

Kaneko, J.J. (1989) Cl~nlcal Biochematly of Domestrc AnzmaLr. 4th Edition. 

Acadern~c Press, USA. 

Kehar, N.D. and Murty, V.N. (1951) Physiological studies on the blood of 

domestic animals. 11. Male buffaloes. Indian J. vet. Sci. 21, 13-16. 

Moustafa, LH, Solirnan, M.K. and Nasr, H. (1964) Some pecularities of buffalo 

blood. Vet. Med. J. 9,263-269. 

Patel, B.M., Vaidya, M.B., Patel, P.M. and Patel, C.A. (1969) Blood picture of 

the Surti buffalo. Indlan vet. J 46, 860-865.

Haematological and biochemical pro$lles of buffaloes 

Patel, B.M., Vaidya, M.B., Thakore, V.R and Shukla, P.C. (1971) Seasonal 

variation in certain biochemical and haematological constituents in 

blood of Surti buffaloes. Indian J. Anim. Sci 41,537-541. 

Putushotham, N.P. and Mahendar, M. (1963) A note on the comparative study 

of the blood picture in domestic animals. Indian vet. J. 40,553-558. 

Raghavan, RS. and Gaffar, AA. (1960) Observations on the blood 

sedhentation rate and packed cell volume of buffaloes. Indian vet. J. 

37,583-586. 

Raghavan, RS., Mahendar, M. and G&r, kk (1961) Specific gravity of 

blood and senun in relation to packed cell volume of buffaloes. Indian 

vet. J. 38,349-352. 

Rao, N.M. and Rao, RP. (1977) A note on the haematological picture of 

Mwrah breeding bulls. Indlan vet. J. 54,940-942. 

Sharma, D.P, Malik, P.D. and Sapra, K.L. (1973) Age-wise and species-wise 

haematological studies in farm animals. Indlan J. Anim. Sci. 43,289- 

295. 

Simon, K. J. and Jacob, .A. (196 1) Studies on the constituents of buffalo blood. 

Part I. Cellular elements and haemoglobin. Indian vet. .I. 38, 183-187. 

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World Health Organisation (WHO) Mcthodr Recommended for Essential 

Clinical Chern&t.y and Heamatological Tests for Intermediate 

Hospital Laboratories (1 986) WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.

"DOMOSEDAN" AS A SEDATIVE ANALGESIC IN 

INDIGENOUS BtWALO 

D.D.N. De Silva 

Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary 

Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 

SRI LANKA 

Abstract: Detomidine HCl @ornosedan, Farmos, Finland) is an Imidazole 

dexivative which acts upon a-2 adrenoreceptors. Its sedativelanalgesic effect in 

horses is well documented. In Sri Lanka, the limited availability of an effective 

sedativelanalgesic drug for buffaloes for such purposes as immobilization, 

preoperative medication, analgesia and restraint of intractable animals for 

handling and transportation prompted the present study to evaluate the 

effectiveness of Detomidine HCl as a sedative analgesic. 

Four dosages 0.1,0.2,0.4 and 0.8 d l00 kg of 1% detomidine HCl 

solution were tested in 32 male and female buffaloes (8 months to 8 years). 

Rectal temperature, pulse rate and respiratory rate were measured prior to and 

at 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 90 and 120 minutes after intramuscular 

-ation of the drug into tlie gluteal region. Qualitative observations such 

as ataxia, drowsiness, salivation, relaxation of the jaw, recumbency and 

response to painful stimuli were also made at the aforementioned time intervals 

after injection. The results indicated that the dosage of 0.1 d l00 kg caused 

only a mild sedation with limited practical use, whereas dosages of 0-2 and 0.4 

dl00 kg produced desirable sedative/analgesic effects for clinical examination, 

preoperative medication, minor surgical procedures and transportation. The 

highest dosage level of 0.8 dl00 kg produced complete immobilization 

characterised by recumbency, very deep sedation and marked analgesia. In 

general, detomidine caused bradycardia, reduced pulse pressure and salivation 

while with hlgher dosages it produced regurgitation. The degree of sedation and 

analgesia were dose dependent. 

Keywords: Buffalo, Detomidine hydrochloride, sedation, analgesia, 

immobilization.

"Domosedan" as a sedative analgesic 

INTRODUCTION 

Indigenous buffaloes are reared mainly for draft purposes in Sri 

Lanka. They are considered to be a cheaper alternative to tractors and 

other farming machinery. By nature, these animals are aggressive and 

often need to be restrained by physical methods or by chemical means. 

In some instances, the physical methods afrestraint cause serious injuries 

to the handlers therefore, chemical restraint is preferred. Morever in the 

use of the Lanka buffalo and their crosses for milk production, the need 

for taming and handling these "semi wild" animals poses a challenge. In 

order to produce superior crosses between Lankan and Indian breeds, 

numerous research programmes are under way and implementation of 

management procedures demand safe handling of the animals with an 

effective sedative/analgesrc drug. In Sri Lanka, the availability of an 

effective sedativelanalgesic drug is limited, therefore it was felt 

worthwhile to investigate the use of an alternative drug. The present 

study was undertaken to evaluate the sedative1 analgesic effects of the alfa 

2 agonist, Detomidine hydrochloride ("Domosedan", Fannos, Finland) on 

the Lanka buffalo. 


Thuty two buffaloes (1 8 males and 14 females) aged between 8 

months to 8 years were randomly divided into 4 groups. The estimated 

body weights of these animals ranged 6om 100 to 550 kg. Four dosage 

levels of Domosedan (10 mg/rnl) suggested by De Silva et al. (1990), 

namely O.lmV100kg (1 Opg/kg), 0.2mV100kg (20pg/kg), 0.4dl OOkg 

(4Opag) and 0.8mV1 OOkg (8Opgikg) were admitllstered intramuscularly 

into the gluteal region. Rectal temperature, respiratory rate, pulse rate 

and heart rati: were measured prior to and, at 1,5,10,15,20,30,45,60, 

90 and 120 min after administration of Domosedan. The qualitative 

observations such as ptosis, head lowering, relaxation of the jaw, penis 

and muscles of the flank, ataxia, recumbency, salivation, urination, 

defecation, lacrimation, regurgitation, expiratory grunt, reaction to pin 

pricks at the base of the horn, interdigital space, coronet and flank,


reaction to handling of teats and vagina in females and the penis and the 

scrotum in males were carried out at the aforementioned time intervals 

after administration of the drug. 

RESULTS 

Rectal temperature: .No significant changes in the rectal temperature 

were observed with any of the dosages. 

Respiratory rate: There were no significant changes in respiratory rates 

with the dosages of 0.1, 0.2 and 0.4 m1/100 kg. However, the animals 

given .0.8 dl00 kg showed a sipficantly (PC0.05) increased 

respiratory rate above the pre-injection value from 15 to 90 rnin. and then 

returned to almost normal rates at 120 minutes. 

Heart rate andpulse rate: At all four dosage levels, heart rate and pulse 

rate were decreased significantly (P

"Domosedan" as a sedative analgesic 

75% of the males was possible. Voluntary ear flapping was present in all 

the animals throughout the procedure with thls dosage. 

0.4 mUIOO kg: Animals showed signs of sedation (ptosis, head lowering, 

respiratary grunt) in 5 to 10 minutes after the injection. There was 

relaxation of the jaw, muscles of the flank and marked ataxia aRer 10 

minutes. Half the animals became recumbent. There was profuse 

salivation and in 2 animals (25%) there was regurgitation of ruminal 

contents after recumbency. The recumbent animals were resting their 

muzzles on the ground fi-om 30 to 60 minutes and raised their heads 

intermittently but remained recumbent until 90 to 115 minutes after 

injection. They stood up when forced and remained standing but sedated 

until about 180 minutes. No reactions to pin pricks at the base of the 

horn, interdigital space, coronet and flank were shown and also 

examination of the vulva and udder in females and the penis and scrotum 

in males were not resented. Two pregnant females (2 - 3 months of 

gestation) included in this group did not show any adverse changes 

during and after the expenment. 

O.8m1/100kg: There was a marked sedation in 1 to 5 minutes. Ptosis, 

head lowering, marked ataxia and saLtvation was evident and recumbency 

s was observed in all the animal within 10 to 20 minutes. A marked 

relaxation of the muscles of the flank and lack of reaction to needle pricks 

was observed and their muzzles were rested on the ground or on the flank 

(milk fever position). There was a prominent expiratory grunt, 

regurgitation and the animals remained recumbent for about 180 minutes. 

DISCUSSION 

The results showed that a dosage of 0.1 d l00 kg had limited 

value for practical use. The time of onset of sedative effect with dosages 

of 0.2rnU100 kg and 0.4 d l00 kg was comparable with the findings 

reported by a previous worker for cattle following intramuscular injection 

(Vainio, 1985). The dosage of 0.2 d/100 kg is recommended for 

sedation for clinical examination, minor surgical interventions in standing


animals in conjunction with local analgesia and also for transportation. 

The dosage of 0.4 mVlOOkg was suitable for clinical examination and for 

major surgical interventions with local analgesia and for immobilization 

of animals. No adverse effects on pregnancy were evident with this 

dosage at least in the first trimester of pregnancy, which supports the 

findings of a previous worker (Alitalo, 1986). Further stuhes have to be 

done to draw a definitive conclusion on its safety in pregnant animals 

because, it has been shown that 40-60 pgkg (0.4 - 0.6mU100kg) caused 

contractions similar to that at parturition (Jedruch and Gajewski, 1986). 

The high dosage of 0.8 mVlOO kg was suitable for major surgical 

interventions and complete immobilization of animals. 

The fact that there was no significant change in rectal 

temperature with any of the dosages used suggests that the 

thennoregulatory mechanism of this species is not OrYaffected by detornidine. 

The respiratory rates were also not significantly altered with the first three 

dosagei probably because adequate ventilation was maintained. But, with 

0.8 m11100kg the tidal volume would have been low thus adequate 

ventilation had to be maintained by compensatory increase in the 

respiratory rate. However, without measuring the corresponding tidal 

volume this hypothesis cannot be proved. With all four dosages, the heart 

and the pulse rates were lowered together with the pulse pressure. Since 

themean arterial blood pressure was not measured in this study it is not 

possible to comment on the significance of hypotension. 

In general it can be concluded that the sedation and analgesia 

with Detomidine was dose dependent. For most clinical and practical 

purposes a dosage between 0.2 ml and 0.4 d l00 kg is su£licient. 

Although a dosage at 0.8 dl1 00 kg produced complete immobilization 

and pronounced muscle relaxation, it should be used cautiously as there 

is a risk of aspiration of regurgitated ruminal contents.

f!Domosedanf' as a sedative analgesic 

References 

Alitalo, I (1986) Chcal experience with Domosedan in horses and cattle. A 

Review. Acta vet. Scand. Suppl8211986, pp. 193-196 

Jedruch, J. and Gajewski, 2. (1 986) The effect of Detomidine hydrochloride 

(Domosedan) on uterine electrical activity of the uterus in cows. Acta 

vet. Scand. Supp1.8211986, pp. 189-192. 

De Silva, D.D.N., Dangolla, A. and De Sihra, L.N.A. (1990) Preliminary* 

studies on sedative and analgesic effects of Detomidine (Domosedan) 

in buffaloes. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Convention of Sri 

Lanka Veterinaty Association. August 1990. 

Vainio, 0. (1985) Detomidine, a new sedative and analgesic drug for veterinary 

use; Pharmacological and Clinical Studies in Laboi-iatoty Animals, 

Horses and C:attle. Academic dissertation. Department of 

Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, 

Helsinki, Finland.

NTNCTIONAL EFFICIENCY OF BUF'FALO 

NEUTROPHlLS 

LD. Silva 

Department of Veterinary Clinical Studies, 



SRI LA NKA 

Abstract: The functional efficiency of neutrophils of the buffalo was studied 

by meakuring their phagocytic and postphagocytic bactericidal activities. The 

observations were derived from simultaneous in vifro comparative evaluations 

using blood and milk neutrophils, and three common mastitis causing bacteria, 

namely, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae and Eschesichia coli 

in pure and mixed cultures. 

The percent phagocytosis (PP) was optimum at 45 minutes and was 

highest for Staph. aureus (86%) followed by Strep. agalactzae (77%) and E. 

coli (74%), in pure cultures. The total phagocytic efficiency for pure or mixed 

bacterial cultures was similar, although with mixed cultures, a majority of 

neutrophils (40%) phagocytued both species of bacteria while others 

preferentially phagocytized one species. With mixed cultures of E. coli and 

Staph. aureus a signrficant preference was seen for Staph. aureus 

(approximately 40% PP) while with a mixed culture of E. coli and Strep. 

agalactiae, a sigdcant preference was seen for Strep. agalactiae 

(approximately 32% PP). Thus, the affinity of phagocytising E. coli was much 

less in the presence of Staph. aureus or Strep. agalactiae. The postphagocytic 

bactericidal activity (PPBA) of blood neutrophils was optimum at 60 minutes. 

The degree of resistance to PPBA was similar with all three bacteria, but was 

relatively lower with E. coli. 

Experimental induction of aseptic subclinical mastitis resulted in a high 

cell count of 5.6x106Iml of milk after 18 hours. About 90% of those cells were 

neutrophils which were as efficient as blood neutrophils with the highest PP of 

83% for Staph. aureus and similar PP for Srrep. agalacriae and E. coli (65%). 

However, the phagocytic process was relatively slower for Sfrep. agalactiae.

Functional efficiency of buffa neutrophih 

Keywords: Phagocytosis, bactericidal activity, buffalo, neutrophds, bacterial 

mastitis. 

INTRODUCTION 

Mastitis is a major disease causing economic losses in the dairy 

industry. Although buffaloes are relatively resistant to mastitis than 

cattle, udder infections can cause serious problems in large buffalo herds 

due to poor hygiene (Wanasinghe, 1985; Chamberlain, 1993; Uppal et 

al., 1994). Most subclinically affected buffalo quarters do not yield 

bacteria on culture, while streptococci and staphylococci were the major 

bacteria isolated from the rest (Silva, et al., 1995). 

The efficiency of the defence mechanisms of the mammary gland, 

namely, the conformational changes in the streak canal, immunoglobulins 

(Ig), phagocytes and their products (lactoperoxidase/ 

thiocyanatehydrogen peroxide complex, lysozyrnes, lactofemn) are 

critical to the cow's ability to survive mastitis (Schalm, et al., 1971; Jain, 

1976; Paape, et al., 1976; Paape, et al., 1979; Niemialtowski, et al., 

1988). Neutrophils are the most prominent cells in buffalo milk (Silva and 

Silva, 1994). The invading bacteria will be opsonized by Ig in milk and 

phagocyhsed by these neutrophils (Watson, 1976; Niemialtowski, et al., 

1988). The phagocytic efficiency of cattle neutrophils vary for different 

pathogens, and their efficiency is relatively lower, when in the milk (Jain, 

1976; Russell, et al., 1977; Silva and Jain, 1988). Bacteria can resist 

phagocytosis and subsequent microbicidal mechanisms (Henricks, et al., 

1986). Impaired leukocyhc microbicidal mechanisms will favour the 

bacteria resulting in an infection or progression of an existing infecbon 

(Nagahata, et al., 1988; Kerhli, et al., 1989; Kerhli and Schuster, 1994) 

The objectives of the present study were to evaluate and compare 

the phagocybc efficiency of blood and milk neutrophils of the buffalo for 

pure and mixed cultures of Escherichia coli, Staph. aureus and Strep. 

agalactiae, and to assess the neutrophil microbicidal activity.


I.D. Silva 

For each experiment, about 25 ml of blood was collected from 

each Lanka buffalo by jugular venepuncture into EDTA vacutainers (1 0 

rnl capacity). The number and the age ufbdEdoes used are mentioned for 

each experiment. Blood was also collected into two 10 rnl vacutainers 

without anticoagulant to obtain fresh serum. Total and differential 

leukocyte counts were within the normal range ufthese parameters for the 

buffalo (Shukla, et al., 1981). 

Isolation of neutrophils porn blood: In all experiments the neutrophil 

isolation procedure was similar to that for cattle blood (Silva and Jain, 

1988). The isolated cell suspension consisted of 80 to 90% neutrophils 

and the viability varied from 94 to 100% (Jasper, et al., 1966). A 

working suspension consisted of 5 x lo3 viable neutrophilslpl in sterile 

0.8% NaCl in 0.0132Mphosphate buffer, pH 7.2 (PBS) with 2% bovine 

serum albumin (BSA). 

Preparation of bacterial cultures: Separate suspensions of E. coli 

(ATCC 25922), Staph. aureus (ATCC 29213) and Strep. agalactiae 

(bovine isolates) ccmsisted of approximately 1 x lo6 organismslpl in PBS 

(Silva and Jain, 1988). The three bacteria were opsonized separately by 

incubating at 37% for 30 minutes with serum of the particular buffalo for 

each assay. In all assays the neutrophi1:bacteria ratio was approximately 

1 :50 for optimum phagocytosis. 

Experiment I: To evaluate the phagocybc efficiency of blood neutrophils, 

blood was collected fiom 25 buffalms between 2- 10 years of age. 

Phagocytosis assay: Four hundred microliters of the neutrophil 

suspension and opsonized bacteria were incubated at 37OC for 15 and 30 

minutes. Assays were done separately for each bacteria. The tubes were 

gently shaken every 2-3 minutes and were centrifuged at 60 x g for 5 

minutes at roam temperature to concentrate neutrophils. The smears were 

made &om the pellet for examination. The bacteria was substituted with 

PBS in the negative control.

Functional efiiciency of buflalo neutrophih 

Staining procedures: Thin, air-dried smears of leukocytes interacted 

separately with each bacteria were fixed in buffered methanol for 60 

seconds followed by 2% methyl green (MG) for 1 minute and 

counterstained with Leishman stain (Silva and Jain, 1988). 

Microscopic evaluation. Stained smears were examined microscopically 

under an oil immersion objective (x 1,250). The nuclei of leukocytes 

stained light green and the bacteria acquired different degrees of blue. The 

percentage of phagocy&cally active neutrophils (cells with ingested 

bacteria) was determtned by counting 500 neutrophils. The neutrophils 

in the negative control tube (without bacteria) hadmo ingested particles. 

Statistical analysis: This was done using the student's T-test at 0.05 

level. 

Experiment 2: To evaluate the phag-c dciency of milk neutrophils, 

six lactating Lankan buffaloes between 4 and 6 years of age were used. 

Milk and blood samples were cdlected from these buffaloes after inducing 

aseptic inflammation of the udder. 

Milksamples: Aseptic mastitis was induced by infining 50 ml of sterile 

distilled water, under aseptic conditions, through the teat canal after 

milking (Jain, et al., 1967). Milk was collected, aseptically 18 hours 

postifision and transported in ice to the laboratory. These samples gave 

CMT values between 2 and 3 and consisted an average of 5,600 cellslpl. 

h.diarrim vjrmh-n$dafrmn M#k : Milk was Eltered €hrou& 4layers 

of gauze to remove flakes, if any, and centrifbged at 300 RCF for 10 

minutes. The fht layer and the supernatant were discarded and the pellet 

was resuspended in sterile 0.8% NaCl in PBS and recentrifbged. The 

washed pellet was resuspended in 2 ml ofPBS with 2% BSA and kept at 

4OC until used. This suspension consisted an average of 65,000 cellslpl 

and 90% were neutrophils with an average viability of 94%. A working 

suspension of 5 x lo6 viable milk neutrophilslpl in sterile PBS with 2% 

BSA was used in the assay.

I.D. Silva 

Phagocytosis msay: The assay was performed as described for 

Experiment 1, using the isolated milk neutrophils. 

Statistical analysis: This was done using the student's T-test at 0.05 

level. 

Experiment 3: To evaluate the phagocflc activity of blood neutrophlls 

for pure and mixed bacterial cultures, twelve buffaloes between 3 to 10 

years of age were used. 

Phagocytosis assay: Four hundred rnicrolitres of opsonized E. coli, 

Staph. aureus and Strep. agalactiae were aliquoted separately into 3 

glass tubes. The 3 tubes constituted the pure bacterial cultures. Then 

200d each of opsonized E. coli and Staph. aureus, and 200 microlitres 

each of opsonized E. coli and Strep. agalactiae were aliquoted 

separately into 2 glass tubes. These two tubes constituted the mixed 

bacterial cultures. 

The five suspensions of microorganisms were incubated 

separately with 400 pl of the neutrophil suspension prepared from one 

buffalo. The phagocytosis assay was as described in Experiment 1. 

Microscopic evaluation: Neutrophils incubated with pure cultures were 

counted as described in Experiment 1. Neutrophils incubated with mixed 

bacterial cultures were categorized into 3 groups - cells that had ingested 

only rods (E. coli), cells that had lngested only cocci (Staph. aureus or 

Strep. agalactiae), and cells that had ingested both rods and cocci (E. 

coli and Staph. aureus or E. coli and Strep. agalactiae). The neutrophls 

in the negative control tube (without bacteria) did not show ingested 

particles. 

Statistical analyses: The means and standard errors of the means (SEM) 

were calculated for the PP of neutrophils in pure cultures. To analyze the 

phagocyhc activity in mixed cultures of E. coli + Staph. aureus and E. 

coli + Strep. agalactiae, the 3 groups of cells were subjected to the


analysis of variance and the least significant difference was used to 

compare the means. 

Experiment 4: To observe the efficiency of postphagocybc bactericidal 

activity (PPBA), 9 buffaloes between 6-12 years were used. A working 

suspension consisted of lo4 viable neutrophlls/pl. Four hundred 

microlitres of opsonized E. coli, Staph. aureus and Strep. agalactiae 

were aliquoted separately into three glass tubes. 

Preparation of Emin Bsolution: A 5% solution of Eosin B (C.I. 45400, 

Certistain BDH Chemicals Ltd., UK) in distilled water was used as a 

supra vital dye to differentiate the viable and nonviable bacteria 

intracellularly . 

Phagocytmis away: In a single experiment run, the three suspensions of 

microorganisms were incubated with 200 microlitres each of Eosin B and 

the neutrophil suspension prepared from one buffalo. The assay was 

carried out as described in Experiment 1. 

Staining and microscopic evaluation: Thln air-dried smears were 

prepared after 30, 45 and 60 of incubation at 37OC. In the unstained 

smears, the intracetlular dead bacteria stained pink with eosin and the live 

bacteria remained colourless but the intracellular organelles of the 

neutrophils could not be differentiated. Therefme the smears were stained 

with 2% MG, for 45 sec to 1 min, and were examined under the oil 

immersion objective (x 100) of a phase contrast microscope. The 

neutrophil nucleus and the cytoplasm stained green and pink, 

respectively. The intracellular dead bacteria stained green whereas, the 

intracellular live bacteria remained colourless. Those bacteria whlch were 

alive at the time of smear making remained colourless even after the 

smears were fixed and stained with MG. Most of the bacteria outside the 

neutrophils were colourless while a few stained green. 

The PP was determined by counting a minimum of 200 

neutrophils. Out of the neutrophils which had performed phagocytosis, 

the percentages of the following three categories were determined; (a)

LD. Sihra 

neutrophils which failed to kill any of the ingested bacteria, (b) 

neutrophtls which had lalled all the ingested bacteria, and (c) neutrophils 

which killed some but failed to 16U all the ingested bacteria (with both live 

and dead intracellular bacteria). The neutrophils in the negative control 

(without bacteria) did not show ingested particles. 

Statistical analysis: The means and the SEM were calculated for all the 

parameters measured and the two sample T-test 'at 5% significance level 

was used for analysis. 

RESULTS 

The percent phagoqtosis PP), or the number of neutrophils 

which perfarmed active phagocytosis, for the three bacteria are presented 

in Table 1. Data obtained for PP of buffalo blood and milk neutrophils 

for the three bacteria, studied simultaneously are in Table 2. The PP with 

pure and mixed cultures of E. coli with Staph. aureus or Strep. 

agalactiae and the least significant differences used to compare the PP 

means in mixed cultures are shown in Table 3. Neutrophils exposed to 

mixed cultures did not always phagocpze both species of bacteria. The 

values obtained for PP and PPBA are given in Table 4. 

Table 1. Mean (k 1 SD) of percent phagocytosis of buffalo blood 

neutrophils for mastitis causing bacteria 

Bacteria Time Percent phagocytosis 

StaphyIococcus 15 86.09 (i 7.09) 

aureus 30 87.69 (* 7.31) 

Eschenchia 

coli 

Streptococcus 15 77.38 (* 17.75) 

agalactiae 30 80.65 (* 17.91)

Functional efpciency of buffalo neutrophils 

Table 2. Mean SD) of percent phagocytosis of buffalo blood and milk 

neutrophils for the three bacteria. 

Bacteria Neutrophils Tnoubation % Phagooytosis 

-Time 

StaphyIococcus Milk 15 81.6 + 10.2 

aureus Blood 15 77.2 2 12.2 

Milk 30 84.2 2 10.2 

Blood 30 82.7'2 11.0 

Escherichia Milk 15 69.4 + 11.2 

coli Blood 15 56.0 + 12.9 

Milk 30 74.8 511.1 

Blood 30 65.5b 5 14.4 

Streptococcus Milk 15 65.2' 09.8 

agalactiae Blood , 15 55.6' + 13.9 

Milk 30 76.0 + 10.6 

Blood 30 65.2' + 08.4 

a,b,c - mean values with same letter show a significant dBerence in the 

percent phagocytosis. 

Table 3. Percent phagocytosis of buffalo neutrophils for Escherichia 

coli, Staphyllococcus aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae in 

pure and mixed cultures. 

o r g d Phagocytosis S.E.M 

Mean 

Pure dtures 

E. colt 76.2 1.9 

Staph. aureus 90.8 0.9 

Strep. agalacriae 85.4 2.0 

Muced culture dff. coli and Shaph. aureud 

Tdal 87.1 

E. coli d y 8.0b 

Shaph. aurues d y 38.6' 

Both Bacteria 40.5' 

Mixed culture af ff. coli aud Strep. agalactiad 

Tdal 82.4 

E. coli d y l0.P 

Strep. agalactiae caly 31.5' 

Bothbadaia . . 40.1' 

a -d - Means with common letters were not sigaiticantly different:

I.D. Silva 

Table 4. Means (* SEM) of percent phagocytosis of buffalo neutrophils 

for the 3 bacteria and the means (+ SEM) of percent 

neutrophils which lulled all or some of the ingested bacteria, 

and those which failed to kill ingested bacteria. 

Bacteria Time n % %N %N %Nwith 

(mi4 phag* with all Mled with all live & M1ed 

cytosis badaia live badgia 

bacleria 

StaphyIococcus 30 9 82A8' 33.F.R7 60.3"'.' 5.9 

aureus (1.5) (1.8) (2.2) (1.1) 

Escherichia coli 30 9 7FD4 33.2LK 63.1QR - 3.6" 

(1.5) (1.7) (1.6) (0.7) 

(1.0) (2.9) (2.9) (1.5) 

A-U 

Cornparism of means within the same orgaoisn; means with the same letter 

were sidcatly different (C0.05). 

'" Comparison of means belween two orpismq means with the samenumber 

were sigplficantly different (C0.05). N = neutrophils 

DISCUSSION 

The results indicated that the phagoqbc activity of buffalo 

neutrophils was Merent for mastitis causing bacteria and that individual 

variations exist among the buffaloes (Table 1). Simultaneous 

comparative evaluation ofthe functional activity revealed that the PP was 

highest for Staph. aureus (86.1%). The PP for Staph. aureus wa


statistically slmilar to that of Strep. agalactiae (77.4%) but was 

significantly higher than that for E. coli (73.5%). In comparison, the PP 

ofcattle neutrophls for the same bacterial strains was hgh for E. coli and 

Strep. agalactiae (81.3% and 77%, respectively) and intermediate for 

Staph. aureus (63.6%) (Silva and Jain, 1988) Accordingly, the 

phagocFc activity of buffalo neutrophils was 22.5% higher for Staph. 

aureus , 7.8% lower for E. coli and similar for Strep. agalactiae. This 

finding explains the resistance of buffaloes to mastitis caused by Staph. 

aureus (Wanasinghe, 1985). 

Lymphokines secreted by the primed lymphocytes in the cattle 

mammary mucosae attract blood leukocytes (90-95% of total milk cells), 

irrespective of the cause of the inflammation (Schalm, et al., 1971; Jain, 

1976; Sears, 1984). Similarly, an average of 5.6x106 cells/ml of buffalo 

milk was observed in subclinical mastitis and 90% of these cells were 

neutrophils. The 94-100% viability of these milk cells were consistent 

with that reported in cattle (Duhn, et al., 1988). During acute subclinical 

mastitis, the phagocyhc activity of neutrophils which appear in milk were 

as efficient as blood neutrophils, (Table 2) 'and the PP was highest for 

Staph. aureus (82.7%) and similar for E. coli (65.5%) and Strep. 

agalactiae (65.2%). An irregularity seen with Strep. agalactiae was that 

the PP reached the level of blood neutrophils only after 30 minutes of 

incubation. Incidentally, streptococcal species were the major mastitis 

causing bacteria isdated in clinically normal buffaloes in Sri Lanka (Silva 

et al., 1995). However, sta~hylococci, streptococci and E. coli cause 

mastitis in buffaloes (Chander and Baxi, 1975; Fenizia, et al., 1988; 

Kapur, et al., 1988). 

The phagocytosis of mdk neutrophls was 17% higher for Staph. 

aureus further explatmng the resistance observed in buffaloes to 

staphylococcal masttbs (Wanasinghe, 1985) In contrast, cattle mlk 

neutrophils have reduced phagocflc acttvlty for Staph. aureus and 

Klebsiella specles than blood neutrophls and this had been ascnbed to 

ingesbon of fat globules, reduced glycogen content, and surface coahng 

of casein whlch makes the cells less mobile and less actwe (Jan and 

Lasmanis, 1978, Duhn et al., 1988) However, the neutrophils in the

I.D. Silva 

present study did not show ingested fat globules. This is attributed to the 

acute nature of the inflammation induced in these buffaloes. The 

extravasation of blood neutrophils begins soon after the initiation of an 

inflammatory process and are devoid of fat globules, and these inilk 

neutrophils resemble their bld counterpart (Jain, 1976; Jain and 

Lasmanis, 1978). The findings reveal the potential of reducing bacterial 

mastitis by improving the phag-c activity of milk neutrophils. This 

may be achieved by enhancing the opsonin cotlcentration in milk perhaps 

by vaccination. 

The phagocyhc activity of neutrophils was not different when 

incubated with either pure or mixed bacterial cultures. However, when 

exposed to mixed bacterial cultures the neutrophils did not always 

phagocytize both species of bacteria. A poor preference was shown for 

E. coli, and this anity for E. coli was much less in the presence of 

Staph. aureus than Strep. agalactiae. Previous studies on cattle 

neutrophils also demonstrated a low preference for phagocytizing E. coli 

in the presence of Strep. agalactiae, but not Staph. aureus (Silva, et al., 

1988). Microorganisms or their metabolic products can inhibit the 

phagocybc activity (Nonoyama, et al., 1979; Gemrnell, et al., 1982; 

Ryu, et al., 1984). The age of the neutrophils may also play a role in the 

efficiency of phagocytosis. The number of bacteria available for, 

phagocytosis was not a factor because the optimum ratio of 

neutrophl1:bacteria ratio used in this study. 

PPBA was not seen in all phagocytically active neutrophils. 

Most neutrophils killed aU the ingested bacteria whereas a few killed only 

some of the ingested bacteria. A relatively higher PPBA was observed 

fa E. colz at 60 minutes. The PPBA elevated with prolonged incubation 

periods, which was also described for cattle cells (Mackie, et al., 1982a). 

This activity was comparable between 30 and 60 minutes. In contrast, 

the speed of PPBA was relatively slower for Staph. aureus, which was 

seen by the elevation of PPBA when the incubation was prolonged from 

45 to 60 minutes (36.5% and 39.2% respectively).

Functional eficiency of buffalo neatrophils 

The method described herein, uses eosin to visualize the killed 

intracelldar bacteria, which is simple and requires either an ordinary or 

a phase contrast microscope for observation. During the process of 

phagocytosis the medium bathing the bacterium is passively taken in and 

the bacteria wdl be killed by the intracellular microbicidal products (Jain, 

1976). The present &dings revealed that the bacteria which survived 

were able to exclude eosin, which was taken into the neutrophil along 

with the bacteria, and remained colourless even after fixing and staining 

with 2% MG. Previous studies on cattle neutrophils using radioassay 

technique and electronmicroscopy showed that an accurate estimation of 

the kilhng efficiency could be obtained only by direct observation of 

neutrophils (Mackie, et al., 1982a; Mackie et al., 1982b). 


This study was funded in part by the Swedish Agency for 

Research Cooperation with Developing Countries (SAREC) through 

NARESA and the University ofperadeniya The author thanks K. A.M. J. 

Silva, K.R J.K. Amararatne and Drs. RO. Thattil and S. Kariyawasam for 

their assistance. 

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phagocytosis and chemiluminescence by blood and mammary gland 

neutrophils from multiparous and nulliparous cows. Am. J. vet. Res. 

49,172-177. 

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1-D. Silva 

Gemmell, C.G., Peterson, P.K., Schtneling, D.J. and Quie, P.G. (1982) Effect 

of staphylococcal alpha toxin on phagocytosis of staphylococci by 

human polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Infect. Immun. 38,975-980. 

Henricks, P.A.J., Verhoef, J. and Nijkamp, F.P. (1986) Modulation of 

phagocytic cell function. Vet. Res. Comm. 10,165-188. 

Jain, N.C. (1976) NeutropM leukocytes and idammation of the bovine 

mammary gland. Theriogenolog~ 6,153- 173. 

Jam, N.C. and Lasmanis, J. (1978) Phagocytosis of serum-resistant and serumsensitive 

coliform bacteria (Klebsiella) by bovine neutrophils from 

blood and mastitic milk. Am. J. vet. Res. 39, 425-427. 

Jain, N.C., Jasper, D.E. and Carroll, E.J. (1967) Bactericidal activlty for 

Aerobacter aerogenes of bovine serum and cell-free normal and 

mastitic milks. Am. J. vet. Res. 28, 397-404. 

Jasper, D.E., Jab, N.C. and Brad, L.H. (1966) Clinical and laboratory 

observations on bovine mastitis due to mycoplasma. J. Am. Vet. Med. 

Assoc. 148,1017-1019. 

Kapur, M.P., Sharma, k and Bhardwaj, R.M. (1988) Bacteriology of clinical 

mastitis in buffaloes. Proc. Second World Buflalo Congress IV, 44- 

47. 

Kerhli, M.E. Jr., Nonecke, B.J. and Roth, J.k (1989) Alterations in bovine 

peripheral blood neutrophil function during the periparturient period. 

Am. J. vet. Res. 50,207-210. 

Kerhli, ME. Jr. and Schuster, D.E. (1994) Factors affecting milk somatic cells 

and their role in health of the bovine mammary gland. J. Daiv Sci. 

77,6 19-627. 

Mackie, D.P., Pollock, D.A. and Logan, E.F. (1 982a) In vitro bactericidal assay 

of bovine polymorphonuclear leukocytes gainst a group B 

streptococcus. Res. Vet. Sci. 33,240-242. 

Mackie, D.P., Pearson, G.R, Curran, W.L., Pollock, D.A. and Lodan, E.F. 

(1982b) Electron microscopic visualization of the in vitro 

phagocytosis of group B streptococci by bovine polymorphonuclear 

leukocytes. Res. Vet. Sci. 33,333-337. 

Nagahata, H., Makino, S., Takeda, S., Takahashi, H. and Noda, H. (1988) 

Assessment of neutrophil function in the dairy cow during the 

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Dairy Sci. 71,780-787.


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(1979) Inhibitory effect of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on the 

phagocytic and killing activity of rabbit polymorphonuclear 

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Paape, M.J., Pearson, R.E., Wergin, W.P. and Guidry, A.J. (1976) 

Enhancement of chemotactic response of polymorphonuclear 

leukocytes into the mammary gland and isolation from milk. J. Daiiy 

Sci. 60,53-62. 

Paape, M.J., Wergin, W.P., Guidry, kJ. and Pearson, R.E. (1979) Leukocytes - 

Second line of defense against invading mastitis pathogens. J. Dairy 

Sci. 62,135-153. 

Russell, M.W., Brooker, B.E. and Reiter, B. (1977) Electron microscopic, 

observations of the interaction of casein micelles and milk fat 

globuleswith bovine polymorphonuclear leukocytes during the 

phagocytosis of staphylococci in milk. J. Comp. Path. 87,43-46. 

Ryu, H., Kaeberle, M.L., Roth, J.A. and Griffith R.W. (1984) Effect of Type 

A Pasteurella multocida fractions on bovine polymorphonuclear 

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Masiitis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Large Animal Practice 

6,391-398. 

Schalm, 0. W., Carroll, E. J, and Jain, N.C. (1 97 1) Bovine Mastitis. Lea and 

Febiger, Philadelphia, U.S.A 

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and chemical status of blood of local cattle and buffaloes of 

Panchmahals district of Gujrat State. Indian J. Anim. Res. 15, 103- 

106. 

Silva, I.D., Silva, K.F. S.T., Ambagala, AP.N. and Cooray, R. (1 995) Markers 

of inflammation in buffalo milk. Proceedings of the Symposium on 

the role of buffalo in rural development in As ia. This Proceedings. 

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buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) milk. Buffalo J. 2, 133-137. 

Silva, I.D. and Jain, N.C. (1988) Phagocyk and nitroblue tetrazoliurn reductive 

properties of bovine neutrophils for mammary pathogens. J. Daiiy 

Sci 71,1625-1631. 

Silva, I.D., Jain, N.C., Farver, T.B. and Zinkl, J.G. (1 988) Phagocytic and 

postphagocytic activities of bovine neutrophils for pure and mixed 

bacterial cultures. J. Dairy Sci. 71,25 13-25 19.

LD. Silva 

Uppal, S.K., Singh, K.B., Roy, K.S., Nauriyal, D.C. and Bansal, B.K. (1994) 

Natural defence mechanisms against mastitis: a comparative 

histomorphology of buffalo and cow teat canal. Buffh.10 J. 2,125- 13 1. 

Wanaslughe, D.D. (1985) Mastitis among buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Proc. of the 

First World Buflalo Congress (Abstract) IV, 133 1- 1333. 

Watson, D.L. (1976) The effect of cytophilic IgG, on phagocytosis by ovine 

polymorphonuclear leukooytes. Immunology 31,15 9- 16 1.

STUDIES ON Explanatum (Gigantocotyle) txplanahrm 

LNFECTION: PREVALENCE IN CATTLE AND 

BUFFALOES IN SRI LANKA AND PATHOLOGY PRT 

NATURAL INFECTION 

I.S. Abeygunawardenal, D. J. Weilgama2, N.U. Horadagoda3 

and H.M.H.L. Jayapadmal 

'Department of Veterinary Preclinical Studies, 


2 Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, 

Department of Veterinary Paraclinical Studies, 



SRILANKA 

Abstract: ExpIanatum (Gigantocoryle) explanatum is one of the common 

trematode parasites in the liver of cattle and buffaloes and reported cases show 

a chronic debility and unthriftiness. Examinations were conducted to determine 

the prevalence and pathophysiology of the trematode infection. A survey of 

slaughter house material in Colombo and Kandy was camed out over a one year 

period commencing in April 1993. Post mortem material from several 

government farms and other field stations were also collected. Seventy percent 

of the carcasses examined were of cattle and the rest were of buffaloes. Livers 

and bile ducts of the cattle and buffaloes were examined for the presence of 

parasites. Out of 2297 carcasses of buffaloes examined, 784 (34.2%) were 

affected by the parasite, compared to 13 of 6097 carcasses of cattle (0.21%). The 

analysis of origin examined of animals or the carcasses revealed that the 

infection was found in all the agro-climatic zones. However, the prevalence rate, 

was sl~ghtly higher (26.9%) in the dry zone compared to the wet zone (19.2%) 

and intermediate zone (23.2%). Animals over two years of age had a high rate 

of prevalence (85.7%) whilst only a few animals in the younger group were 

affected. Meted livers were dissected and parasites were collected for further 

laboratory studies. Only one species of parasite, Explanatum explanatum was 

identitied The affected livers were firm in consistency. The capsule was thick 

and opaque compared to that of unaffected livers. Further, some polyp-like 

protuberances on the epithelial surface of bile ducts were observed. The adult 

parasites were attached to these protuberances. The microscopy of hematoxylin 

and eosin stained sections revealed a mononuclear cell infiltration around portal

Studies on Explanatum explanatum infection 

triad with increased amounts of glandular tissue in the bile ducts. The 

pre&ary results of this study suggest that Explanaturn explanaturn is a 

widespread liver parasite, primarily affecting buffaloes in Sri Lanka. Further 

studies should be done to determine the clinical aspect of the disease, to develop 

a serodiagnostic test and to assess economic losses due to the infection. 

Keywords: Explanatum explanatum, buffalo, liver, prevalence 

INTRODUCTION 

Trematode parasites of domestic ruminants have a world-wide 

distribution and in some countries are considered as a major constraint 

to ruminant productivity (Varma, 1957, Darge, 1984). Parasites of 

Paramphistomatidae family have been found in rumen, reticulum, liver 

and bile ducts of many ruminant species and E. gigantocotyle is one of 

the common paramphistome parasites found in the liver and bile duct of 

ruminants, mainly cattle and buffaloes (Nasmark, 1937). This parasite 

has a world-wide distribution and has been recorded in the liver of 

buffaloes and cattle in Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan, Burma, Indo-China, 

Malaysia and the Philippines (Crusz, 1952; Kulasiri and Seneviratne, 

1956,Zamri-saad et al., 1988 and Khan and Anjum, 1994). 

Explanaturn (Gigantocotyle) explanaturn requires the snails as 

its intermediate host, spendtng the major part of the life cycle in it, from 

which mature cercariae are discharged. They encyst on herbage and 

susceptible animal acquire the infection by grazing on them. Within the 

host animal, metacercariae are released and migrate into the bile duct 

where they develop into adults. Mature parasites lay eggs which pass 

through faeces into the external environment (Kunwar, 1958). The 

parasite does not appear to cause an acute infection but causes general 

debility whlch would affect productive and reproductive functions of the 

host animal causing substantial economic losses (Stoimeneu et al., 1976). 

The infection is usually detected at routine postmortem examinations and 

at abattoirs where the infected livers are condemned, resulting in a drect 

loss to the meat industry.

LS. Abeygunawardena et al. 

The paras~te was first reported in Sri Lanka by Crusz (1952) 

durrng an extensive survey. Subsequently, Kulasin and Seneviratne 

(1956) conducted an abattolr study to examine effects of parasitism in 

buffaloes. Apart from these early reports, there has been no attempts 

made to determine the prevalence and pathophystology of the Infection 

This study 'was therefore, initiated to elucidate the 

pathophysiology of the disease with the ultimate goal of developing a 

diagnostic test to &tect the infection in live animals. A krther objective 

of the present study was to determine the current rate of infection in cattle 

and buffaloes in Sri Lanka. 

Survey 


A survey of cattle and buffalo carcasses was conducted in 

government farms, field station and local farms. Carcasses piesented for 

meat inspection at the Colombo and Kandy abattoirs were examined at 

weekly intervals over a one year period commencing in April 1 993. Both 

cattle and buffalo carcasses were examined for the evidence of liver b d 

bile duct parasites. Parasites from infected carcasses were randomly 

cdlected into bottles containing well water for laboratory identification. 

They were examined under a dissecting microscope for species 

identification as described by Kulasiri and Seneviratne (1956) and 

Eduardo (1985). Further, the orign of the infected animals, the 

macroscopic changes of affected livers and bile ducts were recorded and 

the approximate ages of the affected animals were estimated by using 

dentition formula Tissue samples &om the affected organs were collected 

into 10% formal-saline for histological examination.

Studies on Explanatum explanatum infection 

~aboratoh Studies 

Preparation of tissue samples for microscopzc examination: Tissues 

fixed in 10% fmd-saline were prepared for histological sectioning. The 

standard laboratory procedures were used and the tissue sections were 

stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The statned sections were exarmned 

under a light microscope to determine the tissue reactions to the parasite 

RESULTS 

The parasites were identified as E. ('gantocotyle) explanatum 

according to their morphological characteristics and the location in the 

liver of the host as described by Kulasiri and Seneviratne (1 957). 

Incidence rate : During the 12 month study period (April 1993 to April 

1994) a total of 2297 buffalo carcasses and 6097 of cattle carcasses were 

examined. Of the 784 carcasses (34.2%) of buffaloes and 13 carcasses 

(0.21%) of cattle were found to be affected by the parasite (Table 1). 

Table 1. Incidence of the infestation based on the abattoir survey. 

Species No. livers No. Livers % infected 

examined affected 

Cattle 6097 13 0.21 

Buffaloes 2297 784 34.2 

Distribution of infected carcasses : The rates of incidence in three 

major agroecological zones are given in Table 2. The highest ~ncidence 

rate (26.9%) was recorded &om the carcasses of animals brought from the 

dry zone, followed by the intermediate zone (23.2%) and wet zone 

(1 9.2%). The incidence rate was greater in animals above 2 years age 

than in the younger animals.

I.S. Abeygunawardena et al. 

Table 2. Lncidence of the infestations in hfferent ago-climatic zones 

based on the abattoir survey. 

Agro-climatic Zones % infected 

Dry zone 26.9 

Wet zone 

Internlediate zone 23.2 

Macroscopic appearance: The gross appearance of the infected livers 

were unremarkable except for slight firmness in the consistency. On 

sect~oning, the large bile ducts in all lobes were dilated, the walls were 

thickened and the lumen contained numerous adult parasites. The cystic 

duct was firm, tortuous and markedly dilated (Figure 1 ). On incision of 

the bile duct, the wall was found to be several times thicker than the 

unaffected bile duct and the lumen was packed with adult parasites that 

were closely attached to the mucosal surface by the posterior sucker 

CFigure 2). Dslodgmg the parasites, exposed the underlying mucosa that 

was studded by numerous protuberances which had a haemorrhagc 

surface. The height of these protuberances varied from 3 to 5 rnm and 

represented the bile duct mucosa that is taken into the posterior sucker of 

adult parasites while being attached to the wall. The contents of the bile 

ducts were mucoid and bile stained while the gall bladder appeared 

unremarkable and was devoid of adult parasites. 

Histopathology: In the infected livers the most conspicuous histologtcal 

changes were mntined to the bile ducts. Microscopic examination 

revealed that the thickening of the bile duct was due to the combination 

of several factors which included a proliferation of the connective tissue 

in the lamina propria, a marked hyperplasia of the epithelium and a 

diffuse infiltration of mononuclear cells.

Studies on Explanaturn explur~urum infection 

Figure 1. The tortuous and dilated cystic duct of the affected liver. 

-" I"*VW 

Figure 2. The bile duct of the affected liver containing numerous adult 

parasites.


The presence of polyp-like structures in the bile duct epithelium 

is another characteristic feature which represented the epithelium that 

was sucked into the concavity of the posterior sucker of the parasite 

(Figure 3). The surface of these protuberances like the rest of the bile 

duct epithelium was necrotic and covered with mucus while the 

underlying tissue showed a proliferation of connective tissue and a 

mononuclear cell infiltration with occasional polymorphonuclear 

leucocytes and eosinophils together with patchy haemorrhages (Figure 4 

and 5). There was a marked hyperplasia of the epithelium and the cells 

were arranged into chords on the surface while in the more deeper layers 

it formed into glandular structures (Figure 6). The epithelium was 

dominated by goblet cells. The tissue immediately below the surface 

epithelium, particularly in the protuberances revealed the presence of a 

fibroblast proliferation together with new capillary formation, indicative 

of a repair process (Figure 7). In the lamina propria the most strilung 

change was the marked proliferation of the connective tissue and the 

presence of hypertrophied medial arteries. Further there were numerous 

mo~ionuclear cells which were arranged in layers parallel to the epithelial 

surface and present inundately below the epithelium and adjacent to the 

liver parenchyma. Occasionally, they were found in clumps or layers 

between the parallel layers of connective tissue. Despite the considerable 

pathological changes in the bile duct due to E. explanattrni infection, the 

liver parenchymal tissue was relatikely unaffected except for a mild to 

moderate mononuclear cell infiltration of the portal area (Figure 8). 

Further in a few liver sections, the thickening of the bile duct due to 

proliferation of connective tissue was also evident in the portal triad. 

Conversely, the hypertrophy of the arteries observed in the lamina propria 

was not present in the arteries of the portal triad. There was no 

microscopic evidence of the presence of parasites or its residual structures 

In the liver nor was there evidence for bile duct hyperplasia or hepatocyte 

regeneration wtuch are characteristic features of the liver to injury (Kelly, 

1993).

Studies on Explanaturn explanatlrrn infec~ion 

Figure 3. A transverse section of the bile duct showing a polyp-shaped 

projection of the mucosa (c) being drawn into and filling the 

concavity in the posterior sucker of the parasite (d) H and E 

x40. 

Figure 4. The polyp-shaped protuberance (arrow) on the mucosa of the 

bile duct in which the surface is necrotic and covered with 

mucus while the underlying tissue consists of hyperplastic 

mucus secreting glandular structures, mononuclear cell . 

infiltration and a proliferation of connective tissue elements. 

H and E x40. 

480

1.S. Abeygunawardena et al. 

Figure 5. The surface of the bile duct epithelium showing necrosis (a) 

whlle in the underlying tissue there is a marked mononuclear 

cell infiltration. H and E xl00. 

Figure 6. Section of the bile duct mucosa depicting a marked hyperplasia 

of the epithelium which have formed into projection that 

extend to the lumen and glandular structures in the deeper 

layers. There is medial hypertrophy of arteries (arrow head) 

of the lamina propria. H and E x40.

Studies on Explanaturn explanaturn infection 

Figure 7. The fibroblast proliferation (arrow) and new capillary 

formation (arrow head) in the tissue underlyng the necrotic 

surface of the bile duct mucosa. H and E x200. 

Figure 8. The portal tract of an infected liver showing a mild 

mononuclear cell infiltration. H and E x200.

DISCUSSION 

LS. Abeygunawardena et al. 

Presence of E. (gigantocotyle) explanaturn In buffaloes and 

cattle in Sri Lanka,co&rms the report of Cruz (1 952) and Kulasiri and 

Seneviratne (1956). The estimate of the prevalence of the infection 

derived from the study indcated that buffaloes are affected more than 

cattle Although, a direct comparison cannot be made on the prevalence 

rate, it is significantly higher in the dry zone. This may presumably be 

due to the higher concentration of intermediate host, snail in the dry zone 

compared to the other two zones. Further, the animals in the dry zone are 

managed extensively in communal grazing areas such as scrub land 

mound village reservoirs during dry season, grasslands around stagnant 

water pools, paddy fi~lds after the harvest and also in fallow paddy lands. 

These grazing areas provide ideal environmental cond~ons for 

propagation of the parasite and snails. In intermedate and wet zones 

cattle and buffaloes are managed more intensively and the chances of 

grazing on snail and miracidiainfested pasture is less than that in the dry 

zone. 

The pathological effects of G. expIanatum in particular, In 

buffaloes has not been fully reported by previous investigators. The 

characteristic macroscopic lesions were the dilated bile ducts which were 

full of mature parasites and haemorrhagic protuberances to which the 

adult parasites were anchored. Microscopic examination of affected 

tissues showed marked hyperplasia of the epithelium wth focal areas of 

mucoid metaplasia. This appears to be due to the tissue response to 

minirnise the effect ofirritation caused by parasites adhere to the mucosal 

surface Despite the presence of a large number of parasites in the bile 

duct there appeared to be no obstruction to the flow of bile, presumably 

because ofthe dilatation of the bile duct. In contrast to fasaoliasis, there 

appears to be very little damage to the hepatic parenchyma as revealed by 

both the macroscopic and rnicroscapic appearance in the tissues although 

the paraslte enters the llver through the peritoneum. 

In the present study, parasites were located only in the bile ducts 

while Kulasiri and Seneviratne (1 956) reported the presence of parasites

Studies on Explanaturn explanaturn infeclion 

in the liver substance and around veins .in a few instances, in addition to 

that in bile ducts. These authors correctly pointed out that the presence 

of the parasite with the liver parenchyma reflected an incidental findtng 

as evident by the lack of a tissue response and attributed it to a post 

mortem migration. Conversely, the presence of dead parasite amidst a 

round cell infiltration may not necessarily represent G. explanturn as 

similar lesions have been encountered in abattoir studes of cattle liver 

hsease (Wettimuny and Athureliya, 1976) aqd may ven well represent 

aberrant migration of parasites such as oesophagostotnu~n species that 

have been arrested within the liver parenchyma. 

The macroscopic and microscopic findtngs indicate that the most 

remarkable lesions were apparent obstruction of bile ducts .by the mature 

parasites, dilatation of the ducts and necrosis of the bile duct epithelium, 

thickening of the epithelium of the bile duct because of connective tissue 

proliferation and inflammatory cell infiltration. Liver parenchyma 

appears to .be unaffected. The obstruction to bile flow may be 

compensated by compensatory dilatation of the duct system. The 

pathological changes make the affected liver unsuitable for consumption 

which cause a direct economic loss to the meat. industry. The effect of 

these lesions on the physiologcal hctions such as digestion and hepatic 

functions need to be investigated. For this type of a study, a test for 

detection of animals with the parasite is of vital importance. 

The results of this study indicate that the prevalence rate 1s 

higher in the buffalo population and small percentage of cattle are 

afEected by thls parasite. The infestation with the parasite results in the 

condemnation of Livers of buffaloes and cattle at routine meat inspection, 

which result in a direct loss to meat industxy. However, the macroscopic 

and microscopic findings do not lend much support to answer the 

question of whether the infes-on causes any derailment of digestive and 

hepatic function. Nevertheless, this question needs to be addressed in 

future studies and the development of a diagnostic test to detect 

~nfestation in live animals is a prerequisite for such studles



The authors thank Dr. I.V.P. Dharmawardena, Colombo abattoir 

for cooperation in this study, Mr. M.A. Navaratna, Department of 

Veterinary Preclinical Studies for his excellent technical assistance in 

h~stologcal sectioning and Dr. H. Abeygunawardena for guidance and 

critical evaluation of the script. 

The study was supported by SARECNARESA research grant - 

BFI80 and partly by the Peradeniya university research grant 

RG/7/91 N t. 

References 

Creplin, F.C.H. (1847) Besohreibung zweier neuen Amphistomen-Arten aus 

dem Zebu-Ochsen. Arch. Naturgesch, Beulin J. 13, (Vol. l), 30-35 

(W.L. 1782) 

Crusz, H. (1952) The Nature, incidence and geographical distribution of 

Amphistomic intestations in neat cattle, buffaloes and goats in Ceylon. 

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) 25,59-73. 

Dargie, J.E. (1986). The impact on production and mechanisms of pathogenesis 

of trematode infections in cattle and sheep: In: Parasitology - quo 

vadit? Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of 

Parasitologv. M. J. Howell (Editor), Australian Academy of Science, 

Canberra. 

Eduardo, S. L. (1985), The taxonomy of the family paramphistomatidae 

Fischoeder, 1901, with special reference to the morphology of species 

occuring in ruminants. IV Revision of the genus Gigantocople 

Nasmark, 1937 and elevation of the subgenus Explanaturn Fukui 1929 

to full generic status. Syst. Parasite, 6,3-26. 

Kelly, W.R. (1993) The liver and biliary system. In: Pathology of Domestic 

Animals. 4th Edition. (Eds) Jubb, K.V.F., Kennedy, P.C. and Palmer, 

N. Academic Press, London. pp 3 19-409. 

Khan, A. and Anjum, A.D. (1994) Liver paramphistomiasis in a buffalo. 

Btflalo J. 2,185-188.

Studies on Explanaturn explanaturn infection 

Kulasiri, C. and Seneviratne, RD. (1956) Gigantocotyle explanaturn Creplin 

(Trematoda: paramphistomidae) infection of the liver of the buffalo in 

Ceylon. J. cornp. Path. 66, 83-87. 

Kunwar, S.S. (1958). A Redescription and life-history of Gigantocotyle 

explanaturn (Creplin,1847) Nasmark, 1937 (Trematoda: 

Paramphstornidae). Indian J. Parari~ol. 44,2 10-224. 

Nasmark, K.E. (1937) "A revision of the trematode family Paramphistomidae", 

2001. Bidrag. Uppsala, 16,301-566. (W.L. 23836). 

Soulsby, E.J.L. (1962). Helminth, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domestic 

Animals. 9 Ed. 

Stoimenov, K. Graev, A. and Simov, A. (1976) Anthelmintic treatment of 

Paramphispmatid mfection. Veterinama Sbirka. 74,4 1-43. 

Varma, A.K. (1957) On a collection of Paramphistomes fiom domesticated 

animals in Bihar. Indian J. vet. Sci. 27, part 1. 

Wettimuny, S. G.de S. and Athureliya, D.S. (1975) An abattoir study of liver 

diseases of cattle. Ceylon vet. J. 23,53-56. 

Zamri-saad, M., Saharee, A.A. and Abdullah, M.N. (1988) Disease conditions 

in farm and smallholder buffaloes of Serdang, Malaysia. Pertanika 11, 

5 1-55.

SESSION V - Health and Diseases 


Q: Abdul Rahaman - What is the incidence of schistomiasis among 

buffaloes and cattle in Sri Lanka? The reason for asking this question is 

because the country is so green and lush. I am sure there is lot of water 

available for snails to thrive. 

A: D.J. Weilgama - In Sri Lanka we do not see very many clinical cases 

except perhaps in the Kandy area where we have had some cases in 

cattle as well as in buffaloes. In the dry zone because of seasonality in the 

rdd, there are certain periods when live snails are not seen at all. They 

are all dead. Then they come up with the rains. It may be that the 

infection picks up at that time but the important thing is that the 

infection stays on for years and years. 

Q: D.J. Weilgama - How important is hydatidosis in man in Indla? 

A: Abdul Rahaman - In a survey we conducted 10 years ago there was 

a 17% incidence of hydatidosis in patients admitted to a Bangalore 

sanatorium. We have a very high incidence of Echinococcus granulosus 

in dogs, compared to all 6ther types of cestodes. Hydatidosis in cattle, 

buffaloes and sheep is also hlgh. The combination of cysticercosis and 

hyhdosis are considered as very important zoonotic problems in India. 

Q: I.D. Silva -What is the impact of Babesiosis on the dairy industry? 

A: Abdul Rahaman - Babesiosis is not a major problem in India as 

compared to Thderiasis. At present bovine babesiosis is detected in time 

and appropriate treatment is instituted. Theileriasis is a major threat to 

our livestock and the control of the disease is primarily through the 

vaccination. 

Q: N. Horadagoda - What is the incidence of Dictyocaulus viviparous 

infection in India? 

A: Abdul Rahaman - Lung worm infection is confined to the cooler 

regions of Indiaespecially in the northern parts of the country. However, 

even in these areas it is considered to be less important than 

gastrointestinal parasitic infections in both cattle and buffaloes. 

Comment: N.H. Shah - In general, buffaloes are as susceptible to 

parasitic infections as cattle but we have observed that buffaloes are more 

susceptible to liver fluke infection than cattle. On the other hand,

Session V - Health and diseases : 

buffaloes appear to be more resistant to some ectoparasltic infections 

such as warble fly infestation. 

Q: N.H. Shah - Have you any experience on the effect of parasitism on 

reproduction in buffaloes? 

A: Abdul Rahaman - In our studies, over 80 per cent of animals with 

parasitic infections have infertility problems: Therefore as a routine we 

administer anthelrmntics together with the speciiic treatment for 

infertility. The response to this hnd of treatment has been good. 

Therefore we believe there is a relationship beween infertility and 

parasitic infestation. 

Comment: DK Slngh - We conducted a natlonwde survey on 

parasitism and concluded that the incidence of paras~t~c ~nfectlons was 

drectly related to ranfall. For example in Kerala, paraslt~sm was h~ghest 

a fortnight after the rans whle in other parts of the country too s~rmlar 

patterns were observed. We also conducted a tnal on a very large farm 

wth 400 to 500 atumals to study the effect of parasthsm on reproduct~on 

In thls expenment one group of animals were wormed while the other 

remaned as controls When the lactahon records of the two groups were 

compared we noted that in the group that received the worm treatment 

the rmlk yield had increased up to 800 ml per day and ~t continued to 

reman high over a penod of 33 months 

Comment: D K Singh - Removal of parasltiasis (parasltlc infect~on 

wthout overt cl~nlcal signs) has several advantages F~rstly, ~t increases 

the mlk yleld up to 800 ml per day Secondly, there 1s also an increased 

weight gain In the animals, we~ght gan m calves can be as much as 50 

g per day. Thirdly, there was a lenghtemng of the lactation period by 10 

days and further there was a 65 day reduction In the calving to 

conception penod The aforementioned information has been publtshed 

In the Buffalo Journal 

Q: D H.A Subas~nghe - What is the importance of cocc~d~osis ~n buffalo 

calves? 

A: Abdul Rahaman - Coccidiosis as you are aware affects young 

animals and mdty is high in calves of buffaloes and cattle. Usually the 

significance of coccihosis is not hlly appreciated as compared to 

ascanasis, trichostrongylasis and moniasiasis but there are several 

reports from my country whch emphasises the tmportance of coccidlosis 

as a serious cl~nical disease in calves.

Discussion 

Comment: D.K. Singh - It would be interesting to know how anaemia 

proceeds following infection with blood protozoa in cattle and buffaloes. 

It will have bearing on future studies. That should be the next step that 

you should follow. 

Q: P. Amerasinghe - Dtd you see any parasites in the faeces of these 

animals? 

A: N.U. Horadagoda - Yes, some of these animals dld have parasitic 

eggs but they were within limits of what one would find in apparently 

normal animals. 

Q: N.U. Horadagoda - Dd you have any fatalities when ttylng to 

develop a dosage for buffaloes? Secondly, are there any contraindications 

for the usage of the drug in practice. 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - Fortunately we did not have to any fatalities as we 

worked well within the safe range of the drug as described by the 

manufacturers. However, with the high dosage one animal started 

regurgtating and there was a possibility for the aspiration of rurninal 

contents. We managed to avoid this by elevating the head with bails of 

straw. 

The answer to the second question is that the drug induces myornetrial 

contractions in pregnancy hence it is contraindicated in pregnant animals. 

However, we used ths drug on early pregnant animals but did not have 

any problem, as they went through the complete pregnancy and calved 

down normally. In this respect the drug behaves similar to Xylazine 

which can cause abortion. 

Q: A. Horadagoda - What is the cost of the drug? 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - The price is comparable to Xylazine. The price of 

a 20ml vial is around Rs. 1000.00( -20 USD). 

Comment: T.G. Wijewardana - I used the dosage recommended by you 

to collect tonsillar washings but the animals continued to struggle. . 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - Was the animal excited before the injection was 

given? Jfthat was the case then the drug will not work because either the 

animal was already in an excited state or the validity period of the drug 

may have expired. 

A: T.G. Wijewardana - Not to my knowledge.

Session V - Health. and diseases 

Q: M.C.L. De Alwis - Would you recommend a larger 'dosage? 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - I would not recommend a dosage in excess of 0.4 

to 0.6 m11100kg. 

Q: MC.L. De Alwis - I presume this is the first time that this drug has 

been used on buffaloes. What were the other comparable drugs that were 

available up to this time for this kind of purpose? 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - Xylazine is a useful alternative but it is not 

available in the market. Even if it is available with agents, they will only 

entertain large orders. 

Q: M.C.L. De Alwis - Apart from the fiee availability are there any 

other advantages of this product over other comparable preparations? 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - I am not able to answer that question because 

there have been unprdctable results with Xylazine as mentioned by Dr. 

T.G. Wijewardena. 

Q: D.K. Singh - What was the unpredictable result with Xylazine? 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - Xylazine does not appear to sedate aggressive 

buffaloes even after repeated administrations. 

Q: D.K. Singh - What is the safety margin of Xylazine? 

A: D.D.N. De Silva - For mild sedation we use 0.25d/50kg, for 

moderate sedation 0.5mV50kg, 1.0mU50kg for deep sedation and 

2.0mV50kg to induce anaesthesia. It is dose dependent. 

Q: D.K. Singh - So you feel Xylazine is not safe. 

A: D.D.N.De Silva - I did not say that. You have to be cautious. You 

have to have resuscitative measures at hand. 

Comment: D.K. Singh - As regards to your problem of non-availability 

of Xylazine I can help because Xylazine is one of our products and I can 

send you a few free samples. 

A: D.D.N. de Silva - Thank you. 

Q: D.K. Singh - Dr. I.D. Silva, what is the post phagoqbc time that 

you are tahng of?

Discussion 

A: I.D. Silva - We checked it for 15,30 and 45 minutes. It was the same 

although the percentage increased, the trend was the she. 

Q: D.K. Singh - Not mere killing but internalization you said there was 

a difference in the three types. Staphyococcus aureus is internalized but 

not killed as fast as E. coli . Is that right? 

A: I.D. Silva - Yes. 

Comment: D.K. Singh - I think you are unfair by yourself when you 

say the work was academic. Your work is exciting and very nicely 

presented. 

A: I.D. Silva- Thank you. 

Q: D.K. Singh - I would like to know firstly, whether you could increase 

the rate of phagocytosis if you add opsonin and secondly, if you 

immunize an animal intramuscularly by the agents that are involved in 

mastitis, most common ones, whether you will increase the rate of 

phagocytosis in mastitis and enhance early recovery. 

A: I.D. Silva - Yes, because I opsonised the bacteria using the serum of 

the same animal, while of course it was a clinically healthy and 

apparently normal animal. So if you did use serum from an imrnunised 

animal it.would have more opsonin. 

Q: D.K. Singh - What I am trylng to find is whether there is a potential 

of immunizing if not hlly at least partially against the most common 

organisms causing mastitis? 

A: I.D. Silva - Yes there is. 

Comment: M.C.L. De Alwis - Yes, that is a very interesting 

observation ofDr. Singh. A practical approach to the problem.

SESSION VI - CONCLUSIONS AND 


The final (fifth) day of the Symposium was devoted to a series of 

objective-onented large-group and small-group discussions. Initially, the 

discussions were directed, based on the knowledge gained so far under 

the SARECINARESA Buffalo Research Programme in Sri Lanka and 

experiences in other Asian countries, towards determining: 

(a) which technolo~es can be applied at the small-farm level, 

(b) how these can be built into practical packages, and 

(c) the mechanisms for their transfer to farmers. 

Subsequently, the participants assembled in four separate 

discussion groups: production systems; nutrition and feeding; breeding 

and reproduction; and health and diseases. Each group was requested to 

identifjr fbrther constraints to improving specific small-farm systems, and 

to recommend areas requiring further research leading to technologes 

which can be transferred to farmers. 

Finally, the conclusions and recommendations from each group 

were presented to all participants, discussed and modified as required to 

obtain consensus. These are presented below. 

1. Production Systems and Uses 

1. I. Conclusions 

1.1.1 Heat and humidity, and to a lesser extent work load, were 

identified as the main stress factors in working buffaloes. The 

temperaturehumidity index was an important criterion in 

assessing climatic stress. The latter can be ameliorated by 

intermittent sprinkling of water. 

1.1.2. Warm and dry conditions were favourable for the production of 

Ruhunu curd. However, there is a need to improve the hygienic 

conditions during processing. 

1.1.3. The success of on-farm trials, where farmer participation was 

obtained for adaptive ti als and generation of appropriate 

technology packages, have been demonstrated. The fanning 

systems approach to the transfer of such technologes proved 

superior to the traditional approach.

Session VI 

1.2. Recommendations 

1.2.1. There is a need to focus on the constraints and limitations in 

introducing technologies at the small-farm level, to identi% 

appropriate methods and to'understand the reasons why farmers 

hesitate to adopt certain technologes. Therefore research 

approaches should be re-oriented so as to bring about active 

fmer participation in development of appropriate technologies. 

1.2.2. Socio-economic evaluation of production systems should be 

undertaken, including consumer preference, markets and 

alternative production systems. 

1.2.3. The possibilities for integration of livestock and forestry should 

receive attention. 

1.2:4. In the light of structural changes and adjustments occurring in 

the socio-economic milieu, there is a need to look at the service 

delivery systems in the livestock sub-sector. 

1.2.5. The impact of macro issues like world trends, .pricing structure 

and policies at international and national level, taxation and duty 

levies on the livestock industxy need to be emphasized. 

2. Nutrition and Feeding 

2.1. Conclusions 

2.1.1. The avadabihty of a large volume of biomass in the ecosystem in 

Sri Lanka and the possibilities of utilizing this biomass in 

ruminant production systems was recognized. However, 

adequate information on the feed resource bases in the different 

farming systems in Sri Lanka is a prerequisite for increasing the 

utilization of the available biomass. 

2.1.2. A considerable amount of research information is now available 

on procedures to utilize cereal straw as a ruminant feed for 

productive purposes. However, much of this is based on-station 

studies. The failure by scientists to develop appropriate 

technologies through conduct of on-farm adaptive research with 

active farmer participation was identified as the reason for 

apathy of farmers in adopting recommended procedures.

Conclusions and Recommendations 

2.1.3. The possibilities that exist to increase the dry matter intake, 

digestibility, nutrient utilization and performance of animals fed 

rice straw and poor quality roughage supplemented with urea, 

leguminous fodder and non-conventional energy sources has 

been clearly demonstrated. 

2.1.4. There is inadequate infiation on the existing feeding practices 

for year-round feeding in the different farrmng systems, and on 

the ability of these feeding systems to meet the nutnent 

-requirements to sustain as well as increase production. 

2.1.5. Information has been generated on procedures for utilization of 

locally available non-conventional feed resources. 


2.2.1. Methodologies need to be developed to assess the feed resources 

bases in the different farming systems in Sri Lanka. 

2.2.2. Research on optimum utilization of potential feed resources 

should be continued, taking into consideration the limitations of 

utilization. 

2.2.3. Stucfies on the existing feeding practices in the different farming 

systems and their adequacy to meet the nutrient requirements for 

production should be initiated. 

2.2.4. Appropriate nutritional packages should be developed for 

different production objectives (milk, meat, draught) and 

physiological states (growing, pregnant and lactating animals) 

under intensive and semi-intensive systems for year-round 

feedmg. 

2.2.5. There is aneed to focus attention on the development of food and 

feeding systems and on the economics of feeding systems. 

3. Breeding and Re'production 

3.1. Conclusions 

3.1 .l. The data presented provided several approaches that can be 

applied in herd health and fertility improvement programmes to 

495

Session VI 

maintain reproductive performance and to implement preventive 

measures. 

3.1.2. Indigenous buffaloes of Sri Lanka, when compared with exotic 

breeds, have lower birth weights and growth rates, but have their 

fist calfat an earlier age. Among the three exotic breeds studied 

(Sum, Murrah and Nili-Ravi), the Nili Ravi had the hghest 

growth rate, shortest calving to first service interval and highest 

milk yleld. There were no significant differences between the 

other two breeds. 

3.1.3. Different suckling and weaning regimes had marked influences 

on the fertility of indigenous buffaloes and survival of their 

calves. Weaning at day 45 improved fertility sigtllficantly but 

also resulted in high calfmortality. Weaning at 60 or 90-120 

days dd not improve fertility. Restricted suckling once or twice 

a day improved fertility significantly and did not increase calf 

mortality, although initial growth rate of calves was lower with 

once a day suckling. Restricted suchng 1s being practiced by 

farmers in certain regons of Sri Lanka and can be easily 

incorporated into existing farming systems in other areas. 

3.1.4. Treatment of buffalo cows exhibiting prolonged post-partum 

anoestrus with Gn-RH gave poor results, while treatment with 

progesterone-releasing implants followed by PMSG gave 

sat~sfactory fertility; the latter can be cost-effective in dary 

buffaloes. Animals to be used for such treatments must be 

chosen with care and, considering the spread of ovulation 

observed, natural mating is preferable to fixed-time artificial 

insemination. 

3.1.5. In Pakistan, there is a demand for herd fertility improvement 

programmes &om the larger commercial farmers. Low 

reproductive efficiency such as an increase in calving interval 

fiom 365 days to 635 days decreased the annual milk yield per 

animal by 2 kg per day. 


3.2.1. Since buffalo farmers will need to adopt more intensive 

management systems in the future, for which dual-purpose 

(milk and meat) animals will be required, a vigorous breed 

improvement programme should be undertaken in the villages.

Conclusions and Recommendations 

There should be an active process of selection of bulls for 

breedmg purposes. The two parameters wh~ch should be used 

in selection are milk production and reproductive performance. 

For the latter, the calving interval should receive priority, as h s 

will be a determinant of lifetime productivity. 

In the promotion of artificial insemination (AI), the initial focus 

should be with herds which are currently producing milk under 

intensive or semi-intensive conditions, such as in the pen-urban 

areas. In the extensively managed herds in rural areas, 

alternative methods of breed improvement based on natural 

service should initially be continued until management 

condttions become favourable for a transition to breeding by AT. 

As the breeding programme progresses, studies should be 

undertaken on the comparative milk yield, draught performance 

and reproductive efficiency of female buffaloes of different 

genotypes, including pure breeds and crosses. 

Based on the studies reported here, the technologes which can 

be used under village small-holder fanning conditions in Sri 

Lanka to improve the reproductive performance of buffaloes 

include: (a) improved nutrition during the pre-pubertal period in 

heifers and the pre- and post-partum period in cows, (b) 

adoption of restricted suckhng, (c) improvement of heat 

detection and timing of natural service or AI, and (d) the 

judicious use of h6rmones in selected cases. 

Health and Diseases 

Conclusions 

4.1 .l. Most diseases in cattle also occur in buffaloes but there are 

differences in the severity and manifestation as illustrated by the 

data presented. Attempts have been made to explain these 

differences, to understand the disease process and to develop 

techniques for their early detection in buffaloes. 

4.1.2. Detomidine HC1 (Domosedan) was found to be an effective 

sedativelanalgesic drug that can be used safely in buffaloes in 

preoperative medication, minor surgical procedures, 

transportation and in restraint of intractable animals for clinical 

examination.

Session VI 

4.1.3. Studies on the epidemiology of haernmahagic septicaemia (HS), 

indicated that Pasteurella multocida in latent carriers were 

located exclusively in the tonsillar crypts and that steroid- 

induced immunosuppression was not successful in converting 

latent camers to active carriers. Vaccination with oil adjuvant 

vaccine protected the animals against HS up to 12 months, but 

there was no correlation between the response to direct challenge 

and the antibody titres measured by the indrect 

haemagglutination test, the passive mouse protection test or the 

ELISA. 

4.1.4. The haematological parameters in the Lanka Buffalo were 

comparable to that of river type buffaloes, and were 

characterized by a low icterus index, an increased erythrocyte 

sedmentation rate and a predominance of lymphocytes over 

neutrophils. The values of several serum biochemical 

constituents were similar to that of cattle, except for AST, ALP 

and ALT which were higher in the buffalo. In contrast to other 

domesticated ruminants, the buffalo has a hgh serum ALT 

concentration. 

4.1.5. The neutrophils of the buffalo which appear in milk during the 

early stages of acute mastitis were as efficient as blood 

neutrophils in phagocytosing bacteria, with the highest percent 

phagocytosis for Staphylococcur aureus and similar percentages 

for Streptococcus agalactiae and E. coli. Experimentally 

induced acute, subclinical mastitis in the buffalo caused an 

elevation of the somatic cell count, electrical conductivity, 

chloride ion percentage and adenosine 5'-triphosphate of milk 

whlle there was no sigdcant alteration in the acidity percentage 

and pH. 

4.1.6. Rotavirus infection is recognized as an important cause of 

buffato calf diarrhoea and studies reported herein indicated that 

polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) is a useful technique 

to dstinguish isolates and outbreaks of the disease and that it is 

also an alternative technique to detect atypical rotaviruses. 

4.1.7. An abattoir survey revealed that approximately one third of 

buffalo livers were infected with the trematode parasite, 

Explanaturn explanatum. Animals from all agrc~ecologcal 

umes were mfected and the incidence was low in animals below 

two years. Another study which examined the incidence of 

Schistosoma nasale noted a higher infection rate in buffaloes

Conclusions and Recomtnendations 

. when compared to cattle; a circtlmoval precipitin test (COPT) 

was developed to detect S. nasale infections in both cattle and 

oes. 

4.6.8. ,-Studies on the semprevalence: dleptospirosis in 1.2 districts of 

Sn. Lanka indicated an over& incidence of 42 %. -The most 

cumman serovars ofLeptmpra encountered were weerasingha, 

pomona and hardjo 


4.2.1. Current knowledge on disease prevention and control should be 

incorporated into cost-effective health care packages that are 

applicable to Merent age groups of animals (calves, heifers and 

adults). 

4.2.2. The effect of gastrointestinal parasites (other than T. vitulorum) 

on the productivity of adult buffaloes should be determined and 

the impact of external parasites investigated. 

4.2.3. A serum bank should be established with a view to sere 

surveillance of important diseases caused by bacteria 

(B~ucellosis, Leptospirosis) and viruses (Foot-and-Mouth 

Disease and Rinderpest). 

4.2.4. Surveys should be conducted to determine the incidence of 

subclinical mastitis in buffaloes and to assess its impact on milk 

production. A cow-side test that could be used by farmers to 

detect subclinical mastitis needs to be developed. 

4.2.5. A multidisciplinary approach should be adopted to investigate 

the causes of high mortality in buffalo calves. 

5. General Recommendations 

5.1. The active participation of private sector enterprises and 

organizations should be obtained in research and development 

activities relating to the buffalo. 

5.2. Linkages between farmers, extension workers and researchers 

should be strengthened and a continuous dialogue between these

Session C/I :. 

groups should be promoted in the generation, testing and 

transfer of technologies. 

5.3. Opportunities for exchange and dissemination of infarmation 

should be promoted through linkages between institutions and 

libraries of the South and South East Asian countries.

NA- 143 - $6 J 

IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF BUFFALO COWS 

TO TOXOCARA VITULORUM - ANTIGENIC 

ANALYSIS* 

P.H. Amarasinghe' 

Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, 


SRl LANKA 

Parasitological, haematological and imrnunologcal responses of 

pregnant and non-pregnant indigenous buffaloes (N = 12) to natural and 

expenmental infections with Toxocara vitulorum were studied. Antigens 

respons~ble for eliciting an antibody response during natural infections 

were investigated. Immunogenicity of these antigens was studied in a 

mouse model. 

A strong gel diffusion precipitin response (GPR) to infective egg 

extract was seen in the naturally infected buffalo cows. In these animals 

the GPR and Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay titres rose prior to 

parturition and fell at the time of parturition. Also, the nature (intensity 

and number of bands) of the reactions in individual animals showed a 

direct relationship to the GPR btres. In contrast, the precipitin reactions 

of the Murrah buffaloes were faint while the neat cattle were negative. 

These anti-T. vitulorum antibdes were predominantly IgG, class of 

~mrnunoglobulins. 

A few eggs were seen in the faeces of three parturient animals. 

Haematologd values showed a wide range among buffaloes, and there 

were no sigmficant differences in the haematological values between the 

naturally and the experimentally infected buffaloes. 

Antigens fiom excretory-secretory products of infective larvae, 

infectlve egg and adult wonn extracts and perientenc fluid of adult T. 

vitulomm were analysed. Oral-secretory products were highly antigenic 

* This abstract is based on the thesis submitted to the University of 

Peradeniya for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 

501

Abstracts of Theses 

as seen in the circum-oral precipitin reactions. Ofthe extracts prepared, 

infective egg extracts gave the strongest precipitin reactions indicating a 

recurrent exposure to this antigen in nature. In comparison the reactions 

with adult antigen extracts were weak. Different antigen preparations 

shared antigenic components, but at least two stage specific components 

were present in the infective egg extracts. The antigenic sites in the adult 

parasite were located in the cuticle, sensory region of the muscle layer and 

ovary, as revealed by irnrnunofluorescence studies. 

Although individual levels of protection varied between antigens, 

parenteral immunization wth adult antigens and oral immunization wth 

infective eggs were able to confer a significant (p = < 0-001) degree of 

immunity in the mouse model. Perienteric fluid conferred 100% 

protection to a challenge dose of infective larvae. The protectwe nature of 

the perienteric fluid of the adult parasite needs further investigation as it 

could prove to be an important antigen in the immunization of the natural 

host.

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS AND REPRODUCTIVE 

PERFORMANCE OF INDIGENOUS BUFFALOES IN 

SRI LANKA* 

L.N.A. de Silva 

Faculrty of Lhterinary Medicine and Animal Science, 

Un~versry ofPernrlenlya, Peradenlya 

SRI LANKA 

A field survey was conducted on the indigenous buffalo of Sri 

Lanka, to determ~ne the systems of the~r managenlent. patterns of 

ubhsabon and reproductive performance and the rnterrelationshrp among 

these factors. The sample compnsed 1 1.863 buffdoes (little more than 

I % ofthe national population) kept on' 528 holdings distnbuted In 16 of 

the 24 dlstncts of' the country Buffalo farhers were vis~ted, a 

queshotmare admlrustrated and stock numbers were phys~cally venfied 

Rectal examinahon was done on 1.300 breedable fenlales in the sample 

in order to determine their'reproducbve status. 

Almost all of the buffalo farmers were primarily engaged in 

paddy cultivation in small holdings, and supporting an average of 7.5 

people. Their resources in teniis of laid. capital and stock were limited. 

Buffaloes were managed extensively (fiee grazing only) or semi 

extensively (tethered with or without free grazing). The main source of 

feed consisted of low quality herbage obtained fiom grazing; no 

supplenielitary concentrate feed was provided. The overall average herd 

size was 22.5 (range 5.3 - 53.6). On average, a herd was composed of 

17.1% of 0 - 1 year olds, 13.0% of 1 - 2 year old, 9.1% of adult heifers, 

32.9% of cows, 14.9% of castrated males and 13.1% of entire males. 

The tilain use of buffaloes was in tillage. On average, 92% of the 

farmers used their animals In land preparation 

(ploughing/puddlin~evelling) in paddy cultivation and 82% used them 

in threshing the harvest. The mean age at Initial use was 3-1 years and 

82.9% farmers used both males and females. Number of buffalo days 


Peradeniya for the degree of Master of Philosophy. 

503

A bs tracfs oJ Theses 

requ~ted to plough one acre of land vaned &om 4.0 to 7.8 days Puddltng 

generally requlred hwce as many buffalo days as plouglung The mean 

duratlon ofwork was 52-3 dayslyear Millung of buffaloes was restricted 

to some ctstncts The overall mean lactahon yield was 1-5 litrestday and 

lactahon length vaned from 5 to 6 months The overall means for 

reproducbve performance were age at first calvlng 45-7 months, annual 

calwng rate 57.8% and calving Interval 18-9 months Ferhlity was found 

to be comparahvely higher in groups of buffaloes subjected to rmllung 

and hrmted suckhng (calf separated dunng part of the day), and in those 

not used for work 

Haemmhagc septicaemia gastro-intestinal, parasitism were 

reported to be the major disease problems. Proportion of farmers using 

vaccination to control infectious disease was 64.9%. Annual mortality 

rates among age groups 0 - 1 year, 1 - 2 years and adults were 25.4,21-5 

and 8.0% respectively.

STUDIES ON THE COMPOSITION OF INDIGENOUS 

BUFFALO MILEL IN SRI LANKA* 

A. Horadagoda 


University of ~eraheni~a, Peradeniya 

SRI LANKA 

his 'study was undertaken. to establish norms for chemical 

characteristics and physical properbes of indigenous Ganka) buffalo 

milk. A total of 566 samples of milk collected &om buffaloes managed 

under both field conditions and at the university experimental farm were 

analysed using standard techniques in dairy chemistry. 

The overall values (mean + S.E.M., gll) for major constituents of 

indigenous buffalo mdk, irrespective of the stage of lactation, the lactation 

number and age were: fat 74.5 * 0.62; total proteins 51 -6 h 0.1 5; casein 

44-0 + 0.1 9; lactose 43.0 * 0.02; ash 7-2 * 0.02; solids-non-fat (SNF) 

96-2 0.46 and total sohds 174.0 + 0.57. The average values (mean + 

S.E.M, mgA) of the minor constituents studied under the same conditions 

were: sodium 456 * 99.6; potassium 12 13 k 3 56; total phosphorus 1 500 

* 400; inorganic phosphate 1000 * 200; calcium 1555 * 350 and 

magnesium 325 * 96. The mean vitamin A content was 1.20 * 0-1 IU/rnl. 

The results of the physical properties revealed that the specific gravity of 

indigenous buffalo milk was 1-033 h 0-003 while the surface tension, 

electrical conductivity and viscosity were 46.52 * 3.4 dynestcm, 37.05 x 

lo4 * 5.00 mhos and 1.9633 * 0.243 centipoises, respectively at 27°C. 

The average pH of milk at 27°C was 6.42 while the fat globular size 

varied between 5 and 10 pd at this temperature. The titrable acidity and 

ethanol stability were 0.202 and 50 per cent, respectively. All 

constituents of milk except for lactose and ash varied with the stage of 

lactation, lactation number and age. The average milk yield of indigenous 

bdlido cows was 3-58 litres per day-when estimated by measuring water 

turn-over in their calves. 


Peradeniya for the degree of Master of Philosopl~y. 

505.


The composition of colostrum was markedly different from that 

of milk. The average values (gA) for parameters examined were: fat 63; 

total proteins 150; casein 80; lactose 30; ash 11.0; SNF 200; total solids 

260 and vitamin A 3-30 IUIml. At 27"C, the viscosity and surface tension 

ofcolostrum was 4.067 * 0.461 centipoises and 29-35 * 1.92 dyneslcm, 

respectively. 

The result revealed that the fat percentage of the Lanka buffalo 

milk was similar to that of the Murrah buffalo while the protein content 

was high, and comparable to swamp buffaloes of the Philippines and 

China. The elevated protein concentration in the Lanka buffalo indlcate 

that the alcohol test is not a suitable platform test for assessing the quality 

of milk &om this breed.

IMMUNOPATHOLOGICAL STUDIES OF TOXOCARA 

MTULORUM LN BUFFALO CALVES AND RODENTS* 

M.A. Masoodi 

Facirlty of Veterinary Medicine and Anrmal Sclence, 

Unzverslty of Feradenlya, Perdeniya 

SRI L~NKA 

Studres on the mgratory behavlour of larvae of Toxocara 

vltulorum in mice demonstrated extensive somatic migration into the 

liver, lungs, kidney, brain and other visceral organs despite restrictions 

of larval development at the second (infectwe) stage. 

Immunizat~on of mice with two stnall doses of Toxocnra 

vitulorurn or Toxocnrn canis induced a strong resistance to a challenge 

with a large infection of Toxocara vitulorum. The manifestation of 

immunity in mice differed with the type of immunization. Mice with 

homologous immunization were able to inhibit the establishment of the 

larvae in the liver whlle mice with the heterologous immunization &d not 

have a significant affect on the establishment of the larvae in the liver. 

Monitoring of Toxocara vitulorum eggs in the faeces of buffalo 

calves fiom birth revealed that eggs of the parasites appeared around 19 - 

21 days and that it was preceded by eggs of Strongyloides species which 

appeared in the faeces between day 9 and 16. The patent period of 

Toxocara vitulorum infection lasted up to 2.5 - 3 months with marked 

variation in the peak egg count. Colostral antibodies passively 

transmitted to calves *om the dam do not appear to have any effect in 

protecting infections acquired by calves either pre-, pen- or postnatally. 

Reinfection of buffalo calves with large doses of infective eggs of 

Toxocara vitulorum after they had cleansed themselves of a natural 

infection acquired fiom birth, did not result in a patent infection. Instead, 

it induced strong precipitin reaction in the calves. 


Peradeniya for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 

507.'

Abstracts ofTheses 

Buffalo calf serum collected at different stages of natural and 

experimental infections when &actionated by gel filtration yielded three 

main peaks. The first peak consisted largely of IgM and u2- 

macroglobuhn while the second peak contained IgG's. The third peak 

consisted mostly of non-antibody proteins. Further Eractionation of the 

second gel filtration peak (IgG's) by ion exchange chromatography 

produced two peaks representing the two subclasses, IgG, and IgG,. 

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ( ELISA) demonstrated 

antibodies both tn the IgM and IgG fractions with a higher IgG, activity 

as opposed to IgG,. Gel dlfision and in vitro larval preacceptance were 

also confined to the IgG, and not to the IgG,.

CLINICAL AND ENDOCRINOLOGICAL STUDIES ON 

POSTPARTUM 0 VA.N ACTIVITY IN LANKA 

BUFFALOES (BUBALUS BUBALIS) 

V.. Mohan 


University of Peradeniya, Peradenlya 

SRI LANKA 

Although Lanka buffaloes raised under village conditions in Sri 

Lanka generally have poor fertility, short calving intervals and h~gh 

fertility have been reported in certain locations. Four experiments were 

conducted to determine reasons for the differences in ferblity in different 

locations; endocrinological changes'during the postpartum (PP) period; 

and effects of suckling on resumption of ovarian activity and other 

ferhlity indices. 

Sixteen 'buffalo cows from a "low fertility" area and a "high 

fertility" area (n=8 each) were brought to the SAREC/NARESA farm and 

maintained over a period of 3 years under uniform management. Ovarian 

activity was monitored by oestrus observation, rectal palpation and 

measurement of ' plasma progesterone. Calvings were diskibu ted 

throughout the year and there were no differences between the groups 

(p>0-05) in calving interval. time taken for uterine involution, duration 

of postpartum anoestrus, or the number of services required for 

conception. In 14 buffalo cows sequential blood samples were collected 

on days 7, 14, 21 and 28 PP at 15 min intervals'for 8 hours, two 

injections of 12.5 pg GnRH given ilv two hours apart, and sampling 

continued for a further 4 hours. Plasma LH was measured by a 

heterologous (bovine) RIA and assay validity was checked with a specific 

bioimmu~~oassay (in vitro secretion of testosterone by mouse Leydig 

cells). LH remained below the detection limit of the assay with no pulses 

up to day 28 PP, and no LH response was detectable following the low 

doses of GnRH. 


Peradeniya for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 

509


Eighteen pluriparous buffalo cows were allotted to three suckling 

regimes: AS - continuous (ad libitum); RS - restricted (two penods of 20 

minutes per day); and ZS - zero ( calves weaned within 15 days). Blood 

was collected on days 30,45 and 90 PP at 20 min intervals for 8 hours, 

followed by two doses of GnRH and sampling as previously. Rectal 

examination and measurement of plasma progesterone were done weekly. 

Mean LH before GnRH treatment was below the detection limit on days 

15 and 30 PP, around 0.5 ng/ml on day 45 and around 0.6 nglrnl on day 

60 PP. There was no difference (pM.05) in the mean LH values between 

the groups, but the response to GnRH was lower @

IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSE OF BUFFALO COWS 

AND CALVES TO TOXOCARA VTTULORUM* 

R.P.V. J. Rajapakse 

Faculty of Vetennary Medicine and Animal Science, 

Universzty of Peradeniya, Peradeniya 

SRI LANKA 

Maternal transfer of Toxocara vitulorum antibodtes fiom 

naturally tnfected buffalo cows to their calves was studied in 12 buffalo 

cow-calfpairs. The antibody response to T. vitulorum was determined 

by means "of the en'zyrne linked immunosorbent assay (ELIS A) and gel 

precipitin test (GPT). Excretory and secretory antigen fiom infective 

larvae (TVL2ES) was used as antigens Specificity of antigen was 

evaluated by lymphocyte transformation test as well as 

imrnunofluorescent test. 

The effect of maternal intibodies on T. vitulorum infection in the 

calves was elucidated. Infection was monitored by McMaster technique. 

The calves which suckled colostrum had high ELISA titres and showed 

low eggs per gram (epg) in their faeces at and during the patency 

compared with calves which suckled low titred colostrum. Thus a highly 

sigtuficant inverse correlation between colostral and calf serum antibqdy 

titres and peak epg of the calves was evident (p


usmg four weekly doses (0.36 mgldose). Immunisation by the oral route 

with infective eggs ustng four doses of five hundred eggs adrmnistered 

weekly conferred a stgruficant degree of immumty to an oral challenge 

w~th T. vrtulorum infective eggs. However, the level of protectton 

conferred by these anbgens varied. In parhcular TVL2ES conferred 

almost 100% ~rnrnunlty aganst a challenge infection on day five 

Ftnally, using rn vitro arcurn-larval precrplhn tests tt was shown 

that only infecttve larvae of T. vitulorum and T. vrhrlorum larvae isolated 

from rmlk showed oral and body precip~tates. It was firther codrmed by 

imrnunduorescent st2umng technique that both infective larvae and milk 

1 arvae of T. vrhrlorum showed fluorescence in therr onfices as well as 

cuhcle but not T. cnnrs or Strongyloides larvae Therefore ~t 1s suggested 

that In vitro ctrcum-larval preclpitin test is a good technique for the 

diagnosis of T. vltulorum.

IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF MICE, RABBITS 

AND BUFFALO CALVES TO TOXOCARA 

(NEOASCARIS) V7TULORUM INFECTION* 

B.T. Sarnarasinghe 


University of Peradeniya, Peradeniyn 

SRI LANKA 

Lmmunological response of mice, rabbits and buffalo calves to 

Toxocara vitulorum infection was studied by enzyme-linked 

immunosorbent assay (ELISA), gel-diffusion precipitins (GPT), 

irnmunoelectrophoresis and in vitro larval precipitins (IVP) tests. Several 

antigens of T. vitulorum including embryonated egg antigen, whole worm 

antigen, and perienteric flu~d (PF) &om the adult T. vitulorurn were used 

In a few instances, embryonated egg antigen of T. canzs (TCE) was used 

to study any cross-reactivity. The immunoglobulin classes in the sera of 

buffalo calves at different stages of natural and experimental infections 

were also charactenzed by gel filtration and ion exchange 

chromatography followed by immunoelectrophoresis. In rabbits, attempts 

were made to study the serum immunoglobulin classes by ELISA using 

commercial horse-radish peroxidase (HRP) conjugated IgG F(ab7) 2 (H 

and L) and IgM (chain specific). 

The in vitro action of sera fiom rabbits and buffalo calves 

infected with T. vitulorum on the infective-stages of T. vitulorum larvae 

was examined to ascertain the specificity of the reaction. These studies 

were further supported by immunofluorescent tests. The trend in the 

antibody response of buffalo calves measured by ELISA was correlated 

with that of faecal T. vitulorum egg counts. 

Serum antibodies to T. vizulorum were detected in buffalo calves 

by ELISA fi-om about 24 hours after birth. The antibody titres increased 

with the rise in egg counts but continued to increase even after egg counts 

had fallen to zero levels. On reinfection, the ELISA response remained 


Peradeniya for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.


unchanged. Experimental infection of rabbits with T. vitulorum yielded 

an initial IgM type response which was short lived followed by a 

persistent IgG type response. The GPT and TVP reactions were used to 

ascertain the trend and nature of the antibody response in rabbits and 

buffalo calves. The antibodies to T. vitulorum infection in rabbits reacted 

with TVE and TCE in GPT test in the presence of 0.85 percent NaCl in 

the gel, whereas the buffalo antibodies to T. vitulorum precipitated well 

with the same antigens in the presence of 8 percent NaCI. 

The m vitro precipitin test using sera from T. vitulorum infected 

rabbits and buffaloes revealed the presence of precipitates at the natural 

orifices and body of infective T. vitulorum larvae but not in T. canis 

larvae. This indicates the species specificity of the test. The ind~rect 

~mmunofluorescent studies on the larvae suggests that circumlarval 

precipitates are formed by a reaction of serum antibodies presumably 

with the excretions and secrebons from the larvae The fluorescent 

reaction was very marked around the oesophagus and the lips, but the 

cuticle showed comparatively less fluorescence. 

Colostrum from buffalo cows reared under free graang 

conditions throughout their gestation period revealed precipitins to TVE 

antigens, which was identical with that elicited in buffalo calves by an 

experimental infection. These buffalo calves whlch were naturally 

~nfected with T. vitulorum at birth had cleansed themselves of the patent 

infection at the time of experimental infection. In vitro precipitins 

however, were not observed in the sera of the calves before the 

experimental infection.

STUDIES ON ROTAVIRUS INFECTION OF BUFFALO 

CALVES IN SRI LANKA* 

N.P. Sunil Chandra 

Department of Veterinary Paraclinical Studies, 



SIuLtQNkY 

Faecal samples collected from I50 buffalo calves 1 to 150 days old 

were examined by the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) 

test for group A, rotavirus antigen. 27.3 per cent of these calves were 

having dtarrhoea at the time of sampling. The rest were non- Qarrhoeic, 

but ~ncontact with them. Antigen was detected in 36.6 percent of 

diarrhoeic animals, and in 1 1.9 percent non-diarrhoeic animals. There 

was a significant association between the presence of antigen in faeces 

and darrhoea in these animals (P

Absfracts of Theses 

Using post infection sera obtained fiom mothers, cattle and buffalo, 

a close antigemc relationship was observed between this isolate and U.K. 

bovine rotavirus whereas the buffalo and human subgroup 11 rotamms 

strains were distinct. The test used to distinguish these strains was the 

bloclung ELISA test. Antirotaviral antibodies in the sera of buffalo 

calves rose to very high levels fiorn negabve levels on the 1 st days of their 

life, subsequent to colostrum suckling as tested by the blocking ELISA 

test. These maternally derived antibodies declined to negativity by the 

33rd to 56th day. Five b&o calves which were diarrhoeic and in which 

anbgen was detected, were excreting virus in spite of having circulating 

antibodies. Virus was not detectable for more than seven days, in a 

natural rotavlrus infection studed. In 63.4 per cent of the diarrhoeic 

animals rotavirus was not detected, indicating that other enteropathogens 

too, other than rotavirus, were associated in these diarrhoeas.

List of Participants . I 

University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 

Abeygunawardena, H. 

Ambagala, A.P.N. 

Amerasinghe, P. 

Bogahawatte, C. 

Dangolla, A. 

de Silva, D.D.N. 

de Silva, L.N.A. 

Gunawardena, I.S. 

Horadagoda, A 

Horadagoda, N.U. 

Ibrahim, M.N.M. 

Jayatilake, M. W.A.P. 

Kuruwita, V.Y. 

Mahalingam, S. 

Munasinghe, D.M.S. 

Perera, A.N.F. 

Perera, B.M. A.O. 

Perera, E.R.K. 

Premaratne, S. 

Rajaguru, A.S.B. 

Rajqakse, R.P.V. J. 

Rajaratne, A. A. J. 

Ranasinghe, J. G. S. 

SiIva, I.D. 

Silva, K.F.S.T. 

Sivararn, P. 

Sivakanesan, R 

Weilgamq.D, J: .- .i .. 

Department of Animal Pruduction and Health, Sri Lanka 

Abeysekara, A.W.A.S. . 

Bandara, D.H.M.U.S. 

Chandrasiri, A.D.N. 

de Alwis, M.C.L. 

Dharmawardena, J. 

Ekanayake, E.M.C. 

Jayasinghe, S.R 

Jeyaruban, M.G.

Kendaragama, K.M.T. 

Kodituwakku, A. 0. 

Liyanagamage, AG. 

Perera, A 

Ranawana, S.S.E. 

Thalagoda, S. A. 

Thilakaratne, G.M.N. 

Vipulasiri, A.A 

Wijewantha, P. 

Wijewardana, B.D.R 

Wijewardana, T.G. 

SARWNARESA Project 

Siriwardene, J.& de S. 

Subasinghe, D.H.A. 

NARESA 

Soysa, P.E. 

Karunasinghe, A. W. J. 

Premakumara, S. 

SAREC - Sweden 

Duell, R. 

Settergren, I. 

Sher, Afial 

Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka 

Dayaratne, D.K. 

Dhanapala, S.B. 

Agrarian Research and Training Institute, Sri Lanika 

Jayatilake, T.N. 

Coconut Triangle Milk Prahrcers' Union 

Perera, W. 

University of Jayawardenapura, Sri Lunka 

Peiris, H. 

University of Kelaniya, Sri Lunka 

Kodikara, C.P.

University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka 

Pathirana, K.K. 

Foreign Participants 

Bunyavejchewin, P. - Thailand 

Chantalakhana, C. - Thailand 

Devendra, C. - Malaysia 

Momongan, V. - The Philippines 

Rahaman, Abdul - India 

Ranjhan, S.K. - India 

Singh, D.K. - India 

Shah, Nasir Hussain - Pakistan 

Thu, Nguyen Van - Vietnam 

Secretarial Staff 

Alexander, B. 

Dayananda, W.K.R. 

Herath, J. 

Karunaratne, A.M. 

Nizreen, R. 

~aka~ake,'~. 

Ruwanpathirana, R. 

Siriwardena, D.M. 

Weeratunga, J. 

Wijetunga, N.

Authors Index ;) 

Abayawansa, W.D. 297 

Abeygunawardena, H. 67,239,297,309,321,337 

. . ., 

, 

~be~~unawardena, LS. 473 -. ' - 

Abeynaike, P. 371 

Abeysekara, A.W.A.S. 281 

Amarasinghe, P.H. 501 

Ambagala, A.P.N. 403,439 

Appuhamy, W.N.D.G.S. 41 5 

Ariyaratne, U. 393 

Bogahawatta, C. 95 

Bunyavejchewin, P. 55,155 

Chantalakhana, C. 55,155 

Cooray, R. 403 

Cyrrl, H.W. 137 

Dangolla, A. 129 

Dassanayake, D.K.M.P. 11 1 

de Alwis, M.C.L. 371 

de Silva, L.N.A. 503 

de Silva, D.D.N. 45 1 

Devendra, C. 3 1 

Dharmawardana, J. 281 

Ekanayake, E.M.C. 281 

Gunaraj asingham, D. 309 

Gunaratne, G.D.J.K. 281 

Gunawardena, IS. 439 

Horadagoda, A. 505' 

Horadagoda, N.U. 371,439,473 

Jayapadma, H.M.H.L. 473 

Jayatilake, M.W.A.P. 67 

Jayaweera, A. 137 

Kodikara, C.P. 11 1 

Kuruwita, V.Y. 309, 321,337 

Mahalingam, S. 393 

Manathasan, P. 239 

Masood~, M. A. 507 

Mohan, V, 509 

Momongan, V. 1 

Munasinghe, D.M.S. 439

Pathirana, K.K. 11 1 

Peiris, H. 273 

Perera, A.N.F. 67,183,227,251 

Perera, E.R.K. 183,227,251,309 

Perera, A. 273 

PererqB.M.A.0. 67,297,309,321,337 

Premaratne, K.RV.P.M 415 

Premaratne, S. 2 1 9 

Rajaratne, A.A.J. 175,195,281 

RaJapakse, R.P.V. J. 5 1 1 

Ranaainghe, J.G.S. 239 

Ranawanq S.S.E. 67,175,195,281 

, Ranjhan, S.K. 261 

Samarasinghe, B.T. 5 13 

Shah, N. H. 289 

Silva, I.D. 129,403,457 

Silva, K.F.S.T. 129,403 

, Singh, D.K. 355 

Siriwardene, J.A de S. 19 

Sivakanesan, R. 239 

Sivaram, P. 219 

I Subasinghe, D.H.A. 67 

Thalagoda, S.A. 371 

/ Thu, N. V. 203 

Vipulasiri, A.A 371 

Weifgarna, D. J. 427,473 

Widanapathirana, S. 1 1 1 

Wijewardana, T.G. 371,415 

Wijewardana, B.D.R. 41 5

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